AP: LESSON 7- TRANSFORMATION AND EXPANSION

The rise of towns and increase of commerce came the emergence of a powerful class of people known as
“middle class”. This group of people gained wealth through commerce. They made up the merchants, bankers
and artisans who do not rely on agriculture for a living.

Rise of Bourgeoisie:
The bourgeoisie got richer, they were able to influence the government. The money paved the bourgeoisie to
power. (They had more money than the aristocracy.) They set up their own administration also nobility but
higher than serfs. The new class of people were called “burghers”. (It is generally referred to as anyone living
in a town)
Bourgeoisie filled in the position of the nobility in the administrative positions. Powerful kingdoms promoted
the advancement of commerce, industry, armies, and navies to protect traders on land and on sea.

Mercantilism:
This theory called for the government of control the economy of a country so it can raise its power. The theory
emphasized the significance of gold and silver. Mercantilists believed that nation’s power and prestige lies on
the presence of bullions. This concept led to the idea of using gold and silver in trade and commerce.
A mercantilist country believed that it would be rich and strong if it exported more than imported. (To
maintain balance, each country tried to sell as much as it could to other countries to buy as little as it could in
return)
A mercantilist government also helped set up many new industries to make products at home that have been
bought from other countries in the past.

Colonies were very important to mercantilist nations for several reasons:

- They could supply raw materials and slaves.
- They were used by the mother country as markets in which to sell Its manufactured goods foreign
traders were kept out colonies were not allowed to produce anything the mother country exported.
- Some colonies for good ports or controlled vital waterways.
To increase their revenue of government rulers were urged to adopt policies such as:
- Boost production by clearing wasteland, exploited materials and forest resources, built roads and
bridges and finance new industries;
- Impose single currency
- Sell monopolies or the right operate without competition with certain industries and to overseas
trading companies.
- Impose tariffs on imported goods to protect local industries.
Rise of Strong Monarchy
Trade and commerce needed safer and better ways to move about. A feudal noble could decide alone
whether a highway that passed through his fief should be kept in good repair. He often charged heavy tolls for
use of a road or a river through his land. Kings gained power at the expense of the church and the nobles.
Kings collected taxes and received their support against the nobles in exchange for protecting merchants’
property.

Kings were building bigger, stronger units called nation.

 A nation has three important characteristics.

1. Its central government is strong enough to defend itself against enemies to keep order.
2. A nation’s people are set off from neighboring groups by language, religion, traditions, and ways of life.
3. The people are loyal to and proud of their group. This feeling is called nationalism or patriotism.

England began to build a strong, centralized government as early as 1100. When the king of England died in
1066, William, Duke of Normandy, claimed his right to be king. Frenchman, William had distant ties to English
kings. However, the throne was given to Harold, Earl if Wessex.
William the conqueror made the following changes:

 He changed the feudal system so that is supported his own strong government.
 He made all nobles his vassals, and he broke up the largest feudal holdings.
 He made all men of England bear arms for the king so that he did not rely on his nobles’ armies.
 He added to his sources of money by ordering a census of all the taxable wealth in his kingdom.

The Rule of Henry II

William and three kings who ruled after him were called Norman Kings. After them, England came under the
rule of Henry II, a great grandson of William.
The reign of Henry II was one of the greatest in English history. Henry was determined to unite all of the
England under his rule. He wanted all the people to look up to him and to their national government for justice
and protection.
Henry II used an old custom of sending judges on regular tours all over the country. Each judge followed a
circuit, or a route. This legal system is known as circuit court.
The jury system also grew under Henry II. The first juries were men who came before a royal judge to accuse
someone of breaking a law. (They did not decide if the person was guilty or not) The grand jury decides
whether evidence against the accused is enough to hold that person on trial. It heard a trial and decided on
the guilt of the accused. This is called petit or trial jury.

The Magna Carta

1199, Henry’s son John- a cruel and unreasonable ruler became king. In 1215, his nobles rebelled against his
rule and forced him to sign the Magna Carta or Great Charter. (This document limited power of the king and
protected peoples’ rights)
The Magna Carta was a lasting document for several reasons:
1. The rights given to nobles were later extended to all classes.
2. Certain clauses were later used to limit the power of the monarch. The Great Council was made up of
high officials, nobles, and bishops. Later on, that clause was interpreted to mean that a representative
assembly had to approve all taxes.
3. The Magna Carta established the idea that the king has to respect the law.

Edward I
This group is called Model Parliament from the French word parler means “to talk” because later parliaments
were modeled on it. Parliament drew up statements of demands called bills. These bills became laws, called
acts or statutes, after the ruler signed them. Parliament became a lawmaking body/legislative body. Thus,
England has earned the name of “Mother of Parliaments”

France
In the late 900s, the name France meant only a small section around Paris. In 987, the French nobles elected
Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, as king. The Capetian family grew strong through wars and pacts with powerful
nobles. The family ruled until 1328.

Capetian Kings
The government was strengthened by the Capetian Kings. The first thing to do this was Louis VI (Louis the Fat)
who ruled 1108 to 1137. He gained full control over his royal lands, called Ile de France. His grandson, Philip II,
won Normandy, Anjou, and other English holdings in France from King John. Louis IX set up a system of royal
courts. He also outlawed private wars and trial by combat. He told the people to ask his officials for help if
nobles wronged them.
Louis XI, who reigned from 1226 to 1270, was a true knightly king of the Middle Ages. He led his knights in the
crusades. As a prisoner of the Muslims, he was brave and dignified. Peace and justice seemed to him far more
important than military conquests. The Church made him saint some years after his death.

The Hundred Years War

In 1328, the last Capetian king died without a direct male heir. Edward III of England has blood ties to the
Capets, through his mother. He claimed the throne of France, but the French refused to accept him. The
reason Edward decided to take an army to France in 1337 was because of this dynastic quarrel. In 1346,
Edward’s troops, with longbows and cannons, crushed the French territory at Crecy, then the next year took
Calais. In 1415, under King Henry V, English longbows helped defeat a large French army at Agincourt.
Joan of Arc Inspired Patriots
A simple country girl, Joan of Arc, had visions and believed that she heard the voices of saints calling on her to
rid France of English soldiers. In 1429, she went to Charles, the uncrowned king and asked for an army to save
the city of Orleans. She promised to defeat the English and save the throne for him. Charles and his court
doubted her. They gave her the soldiers she asked for.
In shining armor, mounted on a white horse, Joan appeared to the French soldiers as a heaven-sent leader.
For a short time, Joan of Arc led her soldiers to victory after victory. With the victory over the English, the
French throne was taken by Charles VII.
Joan was captured by enemy forces and turned over to English authorities. A church council tried her for
witchcraft and heresy, and convicted her. She was burned at stake in 1431. An English leader said “We are
lost! We have burned a saint!”. Joan’s fate created strong patriotic feeling among the French. She inspired a
lot of people. The English could not destroy what Joan stood for.

The Separation of Portugal and Spain:

A Germanic tribe, the Visigoths, had settled in the Iberian Peninsula during the German invasions of the
Roman Empire. Their kingdom lasted until early in 700 CE. In 711 CE, a group of Muslims known as Moors
crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. They took over most of the peninsula. A few Christians held out near the
Pyrenees Mountains. Their groups were so small, though, that the Moors did not try very hard to defeat them.
The Moors built a Muslim kingdom, the Caliphate of Cordova, that reached a high level of culture.
Alphonso I of Portugal defeated the Moors in his country in 1139. He declared Portugal an independent
kingdom in 1143. After the victory in Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, only Granada remained in Muslim hands.

In 1469, Ferdinand, the future king of Aragon, and Isabella, the later queen of Castile were married.
The Reconquista or reconquest was the military conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by Christian rulers, to drive
out the Moors. 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada and united Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella
believed that national unity required religious conformity.

Russian Nation:
A strong central government also grew in Russia. There was no parliament or Magna Carta in Russia to limit
the power of Russian rulers. The Russian nobles were weak and had no armies of their own. The beginning of a
Russian nation can be traced to two fierce but able rulers, both named Ivan. Ivan III, known as Ivan the Great.
The second was his grandson, Ivan IV, known as Ivan the terrible.

Ivan the Great ruled from 1462 to 1505, he was a grand duke of Moscow. He also had to face foreign enemies.
The Mongols had conquered much of Russia in the 1200s. Ivan stopped paying tribute to them, and sent an
army against him. Ivan the Great Attacked Polish-Lithuanian kingdom.
Under Ivan the terrible (1533-1584) the Russians pushed into eastern steppes or plain. They defeated the
nomadic tribes. In 1552, Russian soldiers took Kazan on the eastern steppes. It was one of the chief cities of
the Mongols.
The two Ivan’s moved Russia toward a united and a strong central government. They took the title tsar or czar
meaning Caesar. They called themselves the new Orthodox Christian emperors of the east. Under the rulers of
both Ivans Russian freed itself from the Mongol rule.

Renaissance
The beginning of Renaissance
In the latter part of the middle Ages, a movement called Renaissance rose. Renaissance is a French word which
means “rebirth”. It was called rebirth because it began with a revival of interest in the literature and art of the
ancient Greeks and Romans. It bridged the gap from the Middle Ages to the modern times.
In Renaissance the topical concepts were more secular or humanistic. Humanists were people who heled that
in order for a person to get the most out of life, one must place greater emphasis upon the natural and the
humans.
One of the famous patrons of the Renaissance was the wealthy Medici family of Florence.

Italy: The Birthplace of Renaissance

Italy was the cradle of the Renaissance. Italy had been the seat of the old Roman Empire. Relics of its glorious
past were evident in the temples, viaducts, aqueducts, baths, sculptures and pottery found in the peninsula.
Italy had many wealthy cities like Florence, Venice, Milan and Genoa which became centers of trade, enabling
the people to receive cultural ideas from the East and West. These cities vied with one another in patronizing
arts and letters. In Italy both rich and poor enjoyed equal opportunities in acquiring learning.

Humanism
A new movement called Humanism began in the 14th century. Humanism taught people to live a full life and
welcome new experiences. Humanist wanted people to have better lives in this world rather than in their next
life.

Early Humanists
Francisco Petrarch, a Florentine, was the earliest pioneer of the Renaissance and was called the Father of
Humanism. His father wanted him to study law but he was interested in classical antiquity. He mastered Latin
and produced a great number of works in Latin. (Sonnets in the Life and Death of Laura) Laura was the woman
he loved but failed to marry.
Giovanni Boccaccio who wrote both poetry and prose. In 1348, the Black Death struck Florence, where he
lived. Thousands died from this disease. He made this time the setting for the Decameron, a collection of his
novels subtitled Prince Galehaut.

Renaissance Education
A renaissance man was well-mannered, had a knowledge of literature, painting, and music, with a well-formed
body and good in sports. To reach the goals of Renaissance education, Italian schools taught less theology and
more literature, especially Latin and Greek. The humanist who taught Greek and Latin language gained great
respect.
Desiderius Erasmus of Holland became the leader of the movement. His book, In Praise of Folly, satirized the
behavior of all social classes, even the clergy. He also wrote the Latin translation of the New Testament. His
Handbooks of the Christian Soldier urged men not to accept the teachings of theologians but to go directly to
the Bible.
In Germany, the most famous humanist was Philip Melanchton. He taught Greek at the University of
Wurttemberg and also delighted in the study of law, theology and medicine.
In England, the most famous humanist was Thomas More. He was a man of great learning, a famous states-
man and a master of Latin and English prose. His chief literary fame rests on his book written in Latin titled
Utopia. It described his envisioned ideal state.
Niccolo Machiavelli, the man who believed that the end justifies the means and laid the ground of power
politics and new political science. His political ideas were contained in his book, The Prince, which was
published after his death.

Masterpieces of the Renaissance

Renaissance was full of emotion and feeling: vigorous, natural, and life like. Renaissance art, particularly
painting showed the highest degree of expression and perfection. St. Peter’s Church in the Vatican City, which
was built largely on the plans designed by Michelangelo, is the finest example of Renaissance art. The titans of
the Renaissance period were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael Santi.

The multi-faceted genius, Leonardo the Vinci was called the “Perfect Florentine” He was a painter, a sculptor,
an architect, a mathematician, an engineer, a scientist, an inventor, a philosopher, a musician, and an
authority on anatomy. His masterpieces were Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.

A versatile artist from Florence, Michelangelo was considered first and foremost a sculptor, he was also an
outstanding painter, architect, and poet. The statues of Moses and David are his monumental sculptures. He
planned the church of St. Peter in Rome, tomb of Lorenzo de Medici, the patron of the arts, in whose palace
he lived as an art apprentice for three years. He painted the paintings in Sistine Chapel, this job took him 4
years.
Raphael was a great Italian Renaissance painter. His delicate figures and sensitive coloring made him a favorite
artist. He was known as the youthful master. Raphael’s fame rests on his dreamy and sweet-faced Madonna of
which the Sistine Madonna painting for the Sistine monk is the most famous.

The works of the 3 most celebrated masters; Da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael helped us understand the
Italian Renaissance in art, its new ideas, thoughts, freedom and science.

Effects of the Renaissance

Renaissance had far-reaching effects:
Notable progress was achieved in literature, arts, and science. The invention of printing speeded up the spread
of knowledge. The movement developed a spirit of curiosity and made people question earlier beliefs
regarded as sacred. Many European rulers were influenced by the political philosophy of Machiavelli that
might makes right and they imposed their power and influence on their subjects. The interference of the
Church in the affairs of the state as well as the abuses of the clergy caused a revolution in religious thought;
Reformation.

The Reformation
The influence of the church during medieval times was far-reaching. Rulers pledge allegiance to the Pope,
whose authority they recognized as superior to theirs. But the influence and power of the church declined,
reasons for this:
Islam became a powerful rival of Christianity in Eastern Europe. Many people were converted to this new faith
and it threatened to obscure Christianity.
The Pope asserted his powers not only in ecclesiastical affairs but also in civic and political manners. In later
middle ages, weaknesses arose within the church. Some of the clergy led immoral lives: forgetting their
religious vows and duties, many grew worldly. (Some popes become involved in politics)
The growing wealth of the church led to corruption. Men bought positions in the church, practice known as
simony (so they can enjoy ease and luxury) The church also promoted the sale of indulgences.

Indulgence is a pardon of sins committed by a person. During the middle Ages, the church granted indulgence
for good deeds. But in 1400s, indulgences could be given to a person in exchange for money or gift in church.
The Great Schism in the Catholic Church took place when Urban IV, an Italian, was elected Pope and refused to
go to Avigon, France where the papal palace was transferred by one of his predecessors. (1305-1378) the
popes lived there, currently called Babylonian Captivity.

Another Pope, Clement VIII, was elected by the College of Cardinals, a majority of whom were French. Both
Urban VI and Clement VIII claimed to be the rightful Pope. In 1417, the council of Constance ended Schism.
Martin V was elected and recognized as Pope.
In 16th Century a religious revolution within the church called Reformation or the Protestant Revolt further
divided the Christian world. This revolution was sparked against certain evils in the church, like corrupt sale of
church offices, for instance simony and the scandalous and luxurious lives led by some clergy which were
contrary to Christian doctrines. The Renaissance also influenced it, which caused men to question their
general beliefs.

Forerunners of Reformation
The early critics of the Church were John Wycliffe of England, John Huss of Bohemia, Girolamo Savonarola of
Italy, and Desiderius Erasmus of Holland.
John Wycliffe was an English priest who attacked some Catholic beliefs and practices. He argued that Christian
beliefs should be based on the bible alone. He gained many followers. (He was popularly called the “Morning
Star of the Reformation”)
John Huss was an ardent follower of Wycliffe and was a priest and a professor. He spoke against the
forgiveness of sins by confession, arguing that only repentance can wash away sins. In July 1415, he was
sentenced to burned for his belief, which he refused to recant. Huss’s death caused rebellion amongst
Bohemian/His followers, the rebellion was called Hussite Wars.

Marthin Luther
Martin Luther studied law, but instead of pursuing his career, he chose priesthood hoping to find peace and
comfort having been troubled about the question of salvation. He joined the Augustinian monks in 1505 and
was ordained two years later.
Pope Leo X sent his agent, John Tetzel, to preach indulgences in order to raise money to complete the repairs
of St. Peter’s Church in Rome, Luther rose in protest.
Luther preached against Tetzel’s mission and posted his arguments. The famous Ninety-five Theses on the
church door of the Wittenberg, which was the practice when a subject was to be debated.
- He argued that indulgences were not in the bible and that the Pope has no right to release the souls
from purgatory, and that no one could be saved only through faith.
These Ninety-five theses of 1517 may be considered the start of the Reformation. Pope Leo X, ordered Luther
to recant his theses within 60 days to avoid excommunication.

 Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, he denied the papal supremacy and held that
the church should be subordinated to the state.
 Babylonian Captivity of the Christian church, he refused to acknowledge the sacraments of marriage,
confirmation, ordinance, and extreme unction and only accepted 3 sacraments (baptism, communion
and confession)
 On the Liberty of Christian, explained his doctrine of justification by faith alone. He stated that
salvation could be achieved through faith alone.
The Spread of Protestantism
Charles V tried to heal the rift of the Pope and Luther. He called the diet of high church officials and
dignitaries.
The kings and princes who protested against the order of Charles V banning spread and teaching of Luther’s
reforms were called Protestants. All those who refused to recognize the Pope as the representative of God
became known as Protestants.
In 1530, the diet of Augsburg drafted the code named Augsburg Confession which became the creed of the
Protestant faith.

Calvinism
Ulrich Zwingli, a priest and admirer of Eramus, was teaching in the same city of Zurich during the same years
that Luther was launching the Protestant Reformation in Germany. Zwingli had no use for elaborate rituals. In
church, he abolished the Catholic mass, confessions and indulgences. He also allowed priests to marry.

John Calvin, a Frenchman was forced to leave his country because of his religious ideas. His book the Institute
of Christian Religion set forth his ideas.
Like Luther, Calvin rejected the idea that goodness would ensure salvation. However, their beliefs are
different. Luther taught people could work toward their own salvation through faith in God. Calvin said God
alone decides whether an individual would receive eternal life. He believed in predestination, the belief that
God choose who would be saved. French Calvinist, called Huguenots, were powerful in southern France. John
Knox took the new faith to Scotland, Presbyterianism. Followers also establish churches in England where it
became known as Puritanism.
Protestant sects developed their own beliefs based on reading and interpreting the Bible. The Anabaptists
who were later known as the Baptist, argued that infants could not be baptized as members of the church
because they are too young to understand Christian faith.

Anglican
Protestantism was also felt in England, but most of the English remained loyal to the Catholic Church. King
Henry VIII wrote a pamphlet in 1521 attacking Luther. The pope called him “Defender of Faith”, however
Henry quarreled with the pope.
Mary, Henry’s daughter with Catherine of Aragon, soon became queen in 1153. A loyal Catholic, she severely
persecuted English Protestants, because of this she earned the title “Bloody Mary. Mary died in 1558 and was
succeeded by Elizabeth.
Elizabeth I firmly establish England as a Protestant Nation. The Thirty-Nine Articles, which was prepared by a
group of bishops, became the creed of the Church of England. Many were satisfied with the Anglican church,
but some objected because it still used some catholic sacraments. They wanted the Church of England to be
pure in its Protestantism that they were called Puritans.
Counter Reformation
The catholic church became alarmed with the series of issues that rocked and divided it. The movement to
reform the catholic church and fight Protestants came to be known as Counter-Reformation.
Paul III, who was Pope 1534-1549, led the reform movement. He summoned many officials to a church council
at Trent to discuss reforms.

 The Council of Trent met from 1545-1563 formulating many doctrines and statements of beliefs of the
Roman Catholic Church.
 Among the reforms and doctrines, it formulated were:
(1) Put up a new Latin edition of the bible, the Vulgate, which become the standard bible of the church. (2) It
delegated the right to interpret the bible to the church alone. (3) It reaffirmed the Pope the head of the church
and the final interpreter of its doctrines.
The Council of Trent also reaffirmed the belief in the sacrifice of mass, the seven sacraments, the veneration of
saints, the merit of indulgences, and the belief in purgatory. Banning the selling of religious offices.

 New religious orders helped strengthened the Church, a former soldier turned priest and founded the
Society of Jesus, whose main goal was to win back Protestants to Catholicism. This man was Ignatius de
Loyola. The Jesuits, Loyola’s followers were called, swore obedience to the Pope.
 After the Catholic Reformation, Protestants made few new gains. These religious divisions between
Catholic and Protestants, contributed to bitter wars.

Ensure
 The renaissance that started in Italy was characterized by an interest in arts and learning, and the
desire to explore human experience. The Renaissance spread in different parts of Europe where artists
and writers experimented with new methods and ideas.
 The ideas of Martin Luther and John Calvin influenced the separation of the people from the Catholic
Church and formation of new Protestant churches.
 The Catholic reformation and the Protestant reformation brought changes in Europe.

AP LESSON 8: THE SPREAD OF EUROPEAN POWER

First stage of Colonization
Historians refer to the period of 1450-1750 the age of exploration. Through the voyages of exploration,
Europeans learned of the existence of two vast continents in the Western Hemisphere. The discovery of new
ocean routes and new lands led to a race for trading empires in Asia and the Americas. This increased trade
changed the economic life of Europe.
Factors that encourage Exploration

 Europe needed a new trade route to Asia. Old trade route, over land across Asia and the
Mediterranean, was dominated by Muslims and Italians. Trade brought money into the treasuries of
national monarchies. Monarchs could become richer and more powerful through Asian trade. Colonies
could produce raw materials not found in Europe.
 There was a demand for luxury goods cotton from India and sulk from China.
 There was also an increased demand for Asian spices like pepper and cloves. It was used for cooking,
preserving meat, aromatherapy, dyeing clothes, etc. (Spices were equivalent to gold)
 Religion, Christian Europe saw itself in competition with Muslim Middle East. The Church favored
exploration to spread Christianity. The Reformation brought competition between Catholics and
Protestants. Many wanted to leave Europe because of religious problems.
 Renaissance, a sense of adventure and individual accomplishment was encouraged. Humanists
encouraged anything that improved the understanding of the world.
 Technology and learning, new navigation developments, compass, astrolabe, quadrant, portolan
charts, lateen snail, and caravel made voyages possible.
To sum up, the motives behind the overseas expansion of Western Europe were “God, Glory and Gold.” Kings
and princes supplied the soldiers, and the rich merchant bankers supplied the funds for risky voyagers of
exploration.

Portuguese Exploration
The first European nation to sponsor voyages of exploration was the small seafaring country of Portugal.
Prince Henry the Navigator sent ships to explore the West African coast and look for a sea route to the East.
His interests in ship and sailing helped Portugal move ahead of wealthier European nations in the search for a
sea route to India. Prince Henry built naval stations at Sagres, Portugal.
Prince Henry collected information about stars, tides, winds, and current. Henry himself made no voyages, his
success in advancing knowledge of the sea caused English writers to call him “Prince Henry, the Navigator.”
Trading posts guarded by armed soldiers were built where rivers emptied into the sea.
A monopoly is complete control over the sale of goods or service. Plantation agriculture was an important
factor in the expansion of slave trade.

A route to India