Software Engineering :-module 3

Q) Explain about various design concepts considered during

design?
During the design phase of software development, various design
concepts and principles are considered to ensure that the
software system meets its requirements, is maintainable,
scalable, and performs well. Some of the key design concepts
include:

1. **Abstraction**:
- Abstraction involves focusing on essential characteristics while
ignoring irrelevant details. It helps manage complexity by hiding
unnecessary implementation details and emphasizing the relevant
aspects of the system.

2. **Modularity**:
- Modularity is the principle of dividing a system into smaller,
independent, and reusable modules or components. Each module
encapsulates a specific functionality or behavior, making the
system easier to understand, maintain, and modify.

3. **Encapsulation**:
- Encapsulation is the process of bundling data and methods
that operate on the data into a single unit called a class. It hides
the internal state of an object and restricts access to the object's
data, promoting information hiding and reducing dependencies
between components.

4. **Inheritance**:
 - Inheritance allows a class to inherit properties and behaviors
from another class, known as its superclass or parent class. It
enables code reuse, promotes extensibility, and supports the
creation of hierarchical relationships between classes.

5. **Polymorphism**:
- Polymorphism allows objects of different types to be treated
uniformly through a common interface. It enables dynamic
method dispatch, where the appropriate method implementation
is determined at runtime based on the object's actual type,
facilitating code reuse and flexibility.

6. **Composition**:
- Composition involves creating complex objects by combining
simpler objects or components. It allows for the creation of
modular and flexible designs, where objects can be composed
and decomposed dynamically to achieve different functionalities.

7. **Decomposition**:
- Decomposition is the process of breaking down a complex
system into smaller, more manageable parts or modules. It helps
simplify the design, improve understandability, and promote code
reuse and maintainability.

8. **Coupling and Cohesion**:

- Coupling refers to the degree of interdependence between
modules or components within a system. Low coupling indicates
loose connections and promotes modularity, while high coupling
can lead to dependencies and reduce maintainability.
 - Cohesion refers to the degree to which elements within a
module or component are related to each other. High cohesion
indicates that elements within a module are closely related and
work together to achieve a common purpose, while low cohesion
may indicate that the module is doing too much or has unrelated
responsibilities.

9. **Design Patterns**:
- Design patterns are reusable solutions to common design
problems encountered in software development. They provide
proven solutions and best practices for organizing and structuring
code to address specific design challenges effectively.

10. **SOLID Principles**:

- SOLID is an acronym for a set of five design principles that
aim to create robust, maintainable, and scalable object-oriented
designs. These principles include:
- Single Responsibility Principle (SRP)
- Open/Closed Principle (OCP)
- Liskov Substitution Principle (LSP)
- Interface Segregation Principle (ISP)
- Dependency Inversion Principle (DIP)

11. **Architectural Patterns**:

- Architectural patterns define high-level structures and patterns
for organizing the components of a software system. Examples
include Model-View-Controller (MVC), Layered Architecture,
Microservices, and Event-Driven Architecture.
By considering these design concepts and principles during the
design phase, software developers can create well-structured,
maintainable, and scalable software systems that meet the
requirements and objectives of the project. These concepts help
guide the design process, promote good design practices, and
ensure the quality and integrity of the resulting software product.

Q) what are the characteristics of a good design? Describe

different type of coupling and cohesion.
A good design is characterized by several key attributes that
contribute to the effectiveness, maintainability, and quality of the
software system. Some of the characteristics of a good design
include:

1. **Modularity**:
- The system is divided into cohesive and loosely coupled
modules or components, each responsible for a specific
functionality or aspect of the system.
- Modularity promotes code reuse, facilitates maintenance, and
supports incremental development and testing.

2. **Abstraction**:
- The design emphasizes essential characteristics while hiding
unnecessary implementation details, making the system easier to
understand, maintain, and modify.
- Abstraction helps manage complexity and fosters a clear
separation of concerns between different components of the
system.

3. **Encapsulation**:
 - Data and methods that operate on the data are encapsulated
within classes, hiding the internal state of objects and exposing
only the necessary interfaces to interact with them.
- Encapsulation promotes information hiding, reduces
dependencies, and enhances the maintainability and flexibility of
the system.

4. **High Cohesion**:
- Modules or components within the system exhibit high
cohesion, meaning that elements within each module are closely
related and work together to achieve a common purpose.
- High cohesion promotes clarity, reusability, and maintainability
by ensuring that each module has a well-defined and focused
responsibility.

5. **Low Coupling**:
- Modules or components within the system exhibit low
coupling, meaning that they are loosely connected and have
minimal dependencies on each other.
- Low coupling reduces the impact of changes, promotes
flexibility and scalability, and facilitates independent development
and testing of modules.

6. **Flexibility and Extensibility**:

- The design is flexible and extensible, allowing the system to
accommodate changes and evolve over time without requiring
significant modifications to existing code.
- Flexible designs support the addition of new features, the
integration of third-party components, and the adaptation to
changing requirements and environments.
7. **Scalability**:
- The design is scalable, meaning that it can handle increasing
workload, user demand, and data volume without significant
degradation in performance or functionality.
- Scalable designs support horizontal and vertical scaling, load
balancing, and the efficient allocation of resources to meet
growing demands.

8. **Maintainability**:
- The design is easy to maintain, with clear and well-organized
code, consistent naming conventions, and comprehensive
documentation.
- Maintainable designs facilitate troubleshooting, debugging,
and code refactoring, helping developers identify and fix issues
quickly and effectively.

9. **Performance**:
- The design takes into account performance considerations,
such as efficient algorithms, data structures, and resource
utilization, to ensure optimal system performance under normal
and peak loads.
- Performance-aware designs minimize bottlenecks, latency,
and resource contention, providing a responsive and reliable user
experience.

Now, let's discuss different types of coupling and cohesion:

### Types of Coupling:

1. **Content Coupling**:
- Occurs when one module directly accesses or modifies the
internal contents (e.g., data structures, variables) of another
module.
- Considered the strongest and most undesirable form of
coupling, as it creates tight dependencies between modules.

2. **Common Coupling**:
- Occurs when multiple modules share a global data source,
such as a global variable or database.
- Changes to the shared data source affect multiple modules,
leading to potential conflicts and unintended side effects.

3. **Control Coupling**:
- Occurs when one module controls the behavior of another
module by passing control information, such as flags or status
codes.
- Control coupling introduces dependencies between modules
based on control flow, making the system less modular and
harder to understand.

4. **Stamp Coupling**:
- Occurs when modules share complex data structures or
parameters, passing them as a single data structure (e.g., a
record or struct).
- Changes to the shared data structure may require
modifications to multiple modules, increasing the risk of errors
and inconsistencies.

5. **Data Coupling**:
 - Occurs when modules communicate by passing data through
parameters or return values, without sharing global data or control
information.
- Considered the weakest and most desirable form of coupling,
as it promotes modularity, reusability, and maintainability.

### Types of Cohesion:

1. **Functional Cohesion**:
- Occurs when elements within a module are related by
performing a single, well-defined task or function.
- Modules with functional cohesion exhibit a clear and focused
purpose, making them easy to understand, test, and maintain.

2. **Sequential Cohesion**:
- Occurs when elements within a module are related by their
sequential order of execution, with output from one element
serving as input to the next.
- Sequential cohesion may indicate that a module is performing
multiple tasks or responsibilities, reducing its clarity and
reusability.

3. **Communicational Cohesion**:
- Occurs when elements within a module are related by the data
they share or communicate, without a specific sequential order.
- Modules with communicational cohesion focus on processing
a particular data set or performing a specific operation, regardless
of the order of execution.

4. **Procedural Cohesion**:
 - Occurs when elements within a module are related by their
procedural flow, with one element calling or invoking another to
perform a series of related tasks.
- Procedural cohesion may indicate that a module is performing
a series of interrelated tasks or operations, potentially reducing its
clarity and maintainability.

5. **Temporal Cohesion**:
- Occurs when elements within a module are related by their
temporal proximity or occurrence within a specific time frame.
- Temporal cohesion may indicate that a module is performing
tasks or operations that are logically related but executed at
different times or under different conditions.

Understanding and applying these principles of design can help

developers create software systems that are well-structured,
maintainable, and scalable, while minimizing dependencies and
promoting flexibility and extensibility.

Q) Explain user interface design. Describe how UID developed for

a data acquisition system with diagram.

User Interface Design (UID) Explained

User interface (UI) design focuses on creating the graphical elements and

interactions that users employ to interact with a software system. It encompasses all

visual elements on the screen, including buttons, menus, text fields, and visual layouts,

along with the user's interaction methods like clicking, typing, or swiping.

The key principles of effective UI design include:

 ● Usability: The user interface should be easy to learn, use, and navigate,

minimizing user frustration and cognitive load.

● User-centered design: The design process should prioritize user needs and

expectations, ensuring the interface is intuitive and caters to their goals.

● Accessibility: The interface should be accessible to users with disabilities,

adhering to accessibility guidelines.

● Aesthetics: While functionality is crucial, a visually appealing and consistent

design enhances the user experience.

UID for a Data Acquisition System (Diagram):

Designing a user interface for a data acquisition system depends on the specific

functionalities and target users. However, here's a general breakdown with a diagram:

Components:

● Data Acquisition Panel:

○ Displays options to select data sources (sensors, devices) and configure

acquisition parameters (sampling rate, duration).

○ Might include visualizations of real-time data streams (e.g., graphs,

gauges).

● Data Display and Analysis Panel:

○ Shows acquired data in various formats, including tables, graphs, and

charts.

○ Allows users to filter, zoom, and manipulate data for analysis.

● Export and Control Panel:

○ Provides options to export data to different formats (CSV, Excel, etc.).

○ Might include controls to start, stop, or pause data acquisition.

 ● Settings Panel:

○ Allows users to configure system settings, such as language, units, and

user preferences.

Diagram:

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
| Data Acquisition | Data Display & | Export & Control |
| Panel | Analysis Panel | Panel |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
| - Select data source | - Display data | - Export data (CSV, |
| - Configure settings| (tables, graphs) | Excel) |
| - Real-time data (if| - Filter & analyze | - Start / Stop |
| available) | - Zoom & manipulate | acquisition |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|
v
Settings Panel
^
|
Main Menu/Navigation

Additional Considerations:

● Clarity and consistency: Use clear labeling, consistent iconography, and

intuitive layouts to guide users and reduce ambiguity.

● Feedback: Provide visual cues and messages to confirm user actions and

system responses.

● Customization: Offer customization options for user preferences, such as

changing themes or data display formats.

Remember, this is a simplified example, and the specific design should be tailored to

the specific needs and functionalities of your data acquisition system. User research

and testing are crucial throughout the design process to ensure the UI is intuitive and

meets user needs effectively.

Q) Describe UML for object oriented design in detail with diagram.
UML (Unified Modeling Language) for Object-Oriented Design

The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standardized, graphical modeling

language used to visualize and document the design and structure of software

systems. It provides a set of diagrams and symbols for representing different aspects of

an object-oriented (OO) system, facilitating communication between developers and

stakeholders.

Here are some key concepts in UML for OO design:

● Objects: Represent real-world entities with attributes (properties) and methods

(behaviors).

● Classes: Blueprints for creating objects, defining their attributes, methods, and

relationships with other classes.

● Relationships: Connections between classes, such as inheritance

(specialization), association (usage), and aggregation (composition).

UML Diagrams:

UML offers various diagrams to depict different aspects of an OO system:

1. Class Diagram:

● Focus: Shows classes, their attributes, methods, and relationships.

● Example: A class diagram for an online bookstore might include classes like

Book, Customer, and Order, with associations like Customer placing an Order for

a Book.

+----------------+ +------------+ +-----------+

| Book | | Customer | | Order |
+----------------+ +------------+ +-----------+
| - title | | - name | | - items |
| - author | | - address | | - customer |
| - price | | - email | | - total |
+----------------+ +------------+ +-----------+
| | (orders) |
v v ^
(written by) (places) | (contains)

2. Object Diagram:

● Focus: Represents specific instances (objects) of classes and their relationships

at a particular point in time.

● Example: An object diagram might show a specific Customer object (John Doe)

placing an Order for a particular Book (The Lord of the Rings).

3. Use Case Diagram:

● Focus: Captures functional requirements from the user's perspective, showing

actors (users, external systems) and their interactions with the system.

● Example: A use case diagram might show a Customer actor interacting with the

"Buy Book" use case, involving steps like browsing books, adding items to cart,

and placing an order.

4. Sequence Diagram:

● Focus: Shows the sequence of messages exchanged between objects to

perform a specific task.

● Example: A sequence diagram might illustrate the sequence of messages when

a customer places an order, involving interactions between Customer, Order, and

Payment objects.
These are just a few examples, and UML offers a broader range of diagrams catering to

various aspects of software design and documentation.

Benefits of using UML:

● Improved communication: Provides a visual language for developers and

stakeholders to understand the system's design.

● Enhanced design quality: Helps identify and address potential issues early in

the development phase.

● Better documentation: Facilitates the creation of clear and concise

documentation for future reference and maintenance.

By learning and utilizing UML effectively, software developers can improve their design

process, foster collaboration, and build well-structured and maintainable software

systems.

Q)what do you mean by cohesion and coupling in context of

software design?
In software design, cohesion and coupling are two important
principles that describe the relationships and interactions between
modules or components within a software system.

### Cohesion:

Cohesion refers to the degree to which the elements within a

module or component are related to each other and work together
to achieve a common purpose. It measures the strength of the
internal relationships and interactions within a module. Higher
cohesion indicates that the elements within a module are closely
related and focused on a single, well-defined task or
responsibility, while lower cohesion suggests that the elements
within a module are less closely related and may be performing
multiple tasks or responsibilities.

### Types of Cohesion:

1. **Functional Cohesion**:
- Elements within a module are related by performing a single,
well-defined task or function.
- Example: A module that calculates the square root of a
number.

2. **Sequential Cohesion**:
- Elements within a module are related by their sequential order
of execution, with output from one element serving as input to the
next.
- Example: A module that reads data from a file, processes it,
and writes the results to another file.

3. **Communicational Cohesion**:
- Elements within a module are related by the data they share or
communicate, without a specific sequential order.
- Example: A module that performs operations on a shared data
structure.

4. **Procedural Cohesion**:
- Elements within a module are related by their procedural flow,
with one element calling or invoking another to perform a series of
related tasks.
 - Example: A module that initializes a database connection,
executes a query, and closes the connection.

5. **Temporal Cohesion**:
- Elements within a module are related by their temporal
proximity or occurrence within a specific time frame.
- Example: A module that performs cleanup operations at the
end of a session.

### Coupling:

Coupling refers to the degree of interdependence between

modules or components within a software system. It measures
the strength of the external relationships and connections
between modules. Lower coupling indicates that modules are
loosely connected and have minimal dependencies on each other,
while higher coupling suggests that modules are tightly
interconnected and have strong dependencies, making the
system less modular and harder to understand, maintain, and
modify.

### Types of Coupling:

1. **Content Coupling**:
- Occurs when one module directly accesses or modifies the
internal contents (e.g., data structures, variables) of another
module.
- Example: Passing pointers or references to internal data
structures.
2. **Common Coupling**:
- Occurs when multiple modules share a global data source,
such as a global variable or database.
- Example: Accessing a shared database connection from
multiple modules.

3. **Control Coupling**:
- Occurs when one module controls the behavior of another
module by passing control information, such as flags or status
codes.
- Example: Passing control flags to indicate the next operation
to perform.

4. **Stamp Coupling**:
- Occurs when modules share complex data structures or
parameters, passing them as a single data structure (e.g., a
record or struct).
- Example: Passing a structure with multiple fields as a
parameter.

5. **Data Coupling**:
- Occurs when modules communicate by passing data through
parameters or return values, without sharing global data or control
information.
- Example: Passing parameters between functions or methods.

By considering cohesion and coupling principles during software

design, developers can create well-structured, modular, and
maintainable software systems that are easier to understand,
extend, and maintain.
Q) Describe the use of UML for Object oriented Design?
Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standardized modeling
language used in software engineering to visualize, specify,
construct, and document the artifacts of a software system. In the
context of object-oriented design, UML serves as a powerful tool
for representing and communicating the structure, behavior, and
interactions of system components. Here are some key ways in
which UML is used for object-oriented design:

1. **Visualizing System Structure**:

- UML class diagrams are used to represent the static structure
of a system, showing the classes, attributes, methods, and
relationships between objects.
- Class diagrams provide a clear and concise visualization of
the system's architecture, helping stakeholders understand the
organization and interdependencies of system components.

2. **Modeling Object Relationships**:

- UML provides various types of relationships between objects,
such as association, aggregation, composition, inheritance, and
dependency.
- These relationships are represented using different types of
connectors in class diagrams, helping to model the connections
and interactions between objects in the system.

3. **Specifying Object Behavior**:

- UML sequence diagrams and collaboration diagrams are used
to model the dynamic behavior of a system, showing the
sequence of interactions between objects over time.
 - Sequence diagrams depict the flow of messages exchanged
between objects in chronological order, while collaboration
diagrams focus on the structural organization of objects and their
connections.

4. **Describing Object States**:

- UML statechart diagrams are used to model the states and
transitions of a single object or a system over time, showing how
objects respond to events and change their state.
- Statechart diagrams provide a visual representation of the
system's behavior under different conditions, helping to model
complex state transitions and decision logic.

5. **Visualizing Object Interactions**:

- UML activity diagrams are used to model the flow of activities
or processes within a system, showing the sequence of actions
and decision points.
- Activity diagrams provide a high-level overview of the system's
workflow, helping stakeholders understand the order of operations
and decision logic.

6. **Documenting Design Decisions**:

- UML diagrams serve as a form of documentation that captures
design decisions, requirements, and constraints in a visual format.
- UML diagrams provide a common language for
communication between developers, designers, testers, and other
stakeholders, facilitating collaboration and knowledge sharing.

7. **Analyzing Design Alternatives**:

 - UML diagrams can be used to explore and evaluate different
design alternatives, allowing designers to compare the pros and
cons of various approaches.
- By modeling different aspects of the system using UML
diagrams, designers can identify potential issues, inconsistencies,
and trade-offs early in the design process.

Overall, UML plays a crucial role in object-oriented design by

providing a standardized notation for visualizing, specifying, and
documenting the structure, behavior, and interactions of software
systems. By using UML diagrams, designers can communicate
design decisions effectively, analyze system requirements, and
create well-structured, maintainable, and scalable software
systems.

Q) write down the basic design principles that help in navigating

the design process
Navigating the design process effectively requires adherence to
several basic design principles that guide the creation of
well-structured, maintainable, and scalable software systems.
These principles help ensure that the design meets the
requirements, objectives, and constraints of the project while
promoting clarity, modularity, and flexibility. Some of the key
design principles include:

1. **Modularity**:
- Divide the system into smaller, independent modules or
components, each responsible for a specific functionality or
aspect of the system.
 - Promotes code reuse, facilitates maintenance, and supports
incremental development and testing.

2. **Abstraction**:
- Focus on essential characteristics while hiding unnecessary
implementation details.
- Emphasizes the relevant aspects of the system and manages
complexity by providing a simplified view of the system.

3. **Encapsulation**:
- Bundle data and methods that operate on the data into a
single unit called a class.
- Hides the internal state of an object and restricts access to the
object's data, promoting information hiding and reducing
dependencies between components.

4. **Separation of Concerns**:
- Divide the system into distinct areas of functionality, with each
concern addressed by a separate module or component.
- Enhances maintainability, scalability, and understandability by
isolating changes to specific areas of the system.

5. **Single Responsibility Principle (SRP)**:

- A class should have only one reason to change, meaning it
should have only one responsibility or concern.
- Ensures that classes are focused and cohesive, making them
easier to understand, test, and maintain.

6. **Open/Closed Principle (OCP)**:

 - Software entities should be open for extension but closed for
modification.
- Encourages the use of abstraction and polymorphism to
enable changes to the system's behavior without modifying
existing code.

7. **Liskov Substitution Principle (LSP)**:

- Objects of a superclass should be replaceable with objects of
a subclass without affecting the correctness of the program.
- Promotes behavioral compatibility and interoperability between
objects within a class hierarchy.

8. **Interface Segregation Principle (ISP)**:

- Clients should not be forced to depend on interfaces they do
not use.
- Encourages the creation of small, cohesive interfaces tailored
to specific client requirements, reducing coupling and promoting
flexibility.

9. **Dependency Inversion Principle (DIP)**:

- High-level modules should not depend on low-level modules.
Both should depend on abstractions.
- Promotes loose coupling between modules by decoupling the
high-level policy from the low-level implementation details.

10. **Keep It Simple, Stupid (KISS)**:

- Favor simplicity over complexity by choosing straightforward
solutions and avoiding unnecessary complications.
- Helps reduce cognitive load, minimize bugs, and improve
maintainability.
By adhering to these basic design principles, software designers
can create designs that are modular, flexible, maintainable, and
scalable, thereby facilitating the development of high-quality
software systems that meet the needs of stakeholders and
end-users.

Q) what is DFD? Explain its functions and levels with the help of
diagram .
Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) Explained

A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation that depicts the flow of data

within a software system or information system. It visually shows the processes that

transform data, the data stores that hold the information, and the external entities that

interact with the system. DFDs are a fundamental tool in structured system analysis and

design, providing a clear understanding of how data moves throughout a system.

Functions of DFDs:

● Visualize data flow: DFDs provide a clear visual representation of data

movement within a system, making it easier to understand complex processes.

● Identify system components: DFDs help identify the essential components of a

system, including processes, data stores, and external entities.

● Document system requirements: By depicting data flows, DFDs contribute to

documenting the system's functional requirements.

● Facilitate communication: The visual nature of DFDs aids in communication

and collaboration among system stakeholders, including developers, analysts,

and users.
Levels of DFDs:

DFDs can be created at different levels of detail, providing a hierarchical view of the

system:

1. Context Diagram (Level 0):

○ Offers a high-level overview of the entire system, showing a single

process interacting with external entities.

○ Useful for understanding the system's boundaries and its primary function.

2. Level 1 DFD:

○ Delves deeper into the single process from the context diagram, breaking

it down into smaller, more manageable sub-processes.

○ Shows data flows between these sub-processes and external entities.

3. Level 2 DFD (and further levels):

○ Provide even more granular detail, further decomposing the

sub-processes from Level 1 DFDs into even smaller, more specific

processes.

○ Used to progressively refine the understanding of data flow within the

system.

DFD Symbols:

DFDs utilize a standardized set of symbols to represent different system components:

● Process: A rounded rectangle representing a specific transformation of data.

● Data Flow: An arrow depicting the movement of data between components.

 ● Data Store: A rectangular symbol representing a repository for storing data.

● External Entity: A square symbol representing entities outside the system that

interact with it (e.g., users, other systems).

Example with Diagram:

Imagine a library system. Here's a breakdown of DFD levels:

Context Diagram (Level 0):

+-----------------+ +--------------+
| Library System |-------->| Users |
+-----------------+ +--------------+
^ (borrows, returns)
|
(data about books, users)

Level 1 DFD:

+-----------------+ +--------------+
+-----------------+
| Library System |--------->| Borrow Book |--------->| Return Book |
+-----------------+ +--------------+
+-----------------+
^ | ^
| | |
(book ID, user ID) (book, user ID) (book ID)

This is a simplified example. DFDs can become more complex depending on the

system's functionality. However, they remain a valuable tool for visualizing and

understanding data flow within a system.

Q) design a DFD for banking system.

Data Flow Diagram for a Banking System
Here's a breakdown of a Data Flow Diagram (DFD) for a basic banking system,

illustrating the flow of data at context and level 1 levels:

Context Diagram (Level 0):

+-----------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+

| Banking System |-------->| Customers |-------->| Other Banks |
+-----------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+
^ (deposits, withdraws) ^ (inter-bank
transfers)
| |
(account information) (account information)

Explanation:

● The Banking System is the central process, interacting with two external

entities:

○ Customers: Deposit and withdraw money, potentially interact with other

features like checking balance or transferring funds.

○ Other Banks: Interact for inter-bank transactions like transfers.

● Data flows are represented by labeled arrows:

○ Customers deposit and withdraw money.

○ Account information is exchanged with both customers and other banks.

Level 1 DFD:

+-----------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+

+--------------+
| Banking System |--------->| Open Account |--------->| Deposit
|--------->| Withdraw |--------->| Other Banks |
+-----------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+
+--------------+
^ | ^
^ ^
| | |
| |
 (customer info) (account info) (amount, account)
(amount, account) (account info)
| | |
| v
v v v
v (funds)
+-----------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+
+--------------+
| Account Management|--------->| Check Balance |--------->| Transfer
|--------->| Close Account |
+-----------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+
+--------------+
^ | ^
^
| | |
|
(account ID) (account ID) (from, to, amount)
(account ID)

Explanation:

● The Banking System process is decomposed into five sub-processes:

○ Open Account: Creates a new account for a customer.

○ Deposit: Allows customers to deposit money into their accounts.

○ Withdraw: Allows customers to withdraw money from their accounts.

○ Check Balance: Provides customers with their account balance

information.

○ Transfer: Facilitates transferring funds between accounts, potentially

including transfers to other banks.

● Data flows are depicted with details:

○ Open Account: Receives customer information and creates account

information.

○ Deposit: Receives deposit amount and account information, potentially

updates account information after the deposit.

 ○ Withdraw: Receives withdrawal amount and account information,

potentially updates account information after the withdrawal.

○ Check Balance: Receives account ID and sends account balance

information.

○ Transfer: Receives transfer details (from account, to account, amount),

interacts with other banks for inter-bank transfers, and potentially updates

account information.

○ Close Account: Receives account ID and closes the account.

Note: This is a simplified example, and a real-world banking system would involve

many more functionalities and data flows. However, it provides a basic understanding of

how DFDs can be used to visualize the flow of data within a banking system.

Q) what are the objectives of software design ? how do we

transform an informal design to a detailed design.

The objectives of software design are to create a detailed plan or

blueprint for building a software system that meets the
requirements, objectives, and constraints of the project. The main
objectives of software design include:

1. **Meet Requirements**:
- Ensure that the software design accurately reflects the
functional and non-functional requirements of the system as
specified by stakeholders.

2. **Scalability and Maintainability**:

- Design the software system in a way that allows for easy
scalability and maintenance, accommodating future changes and
enhancements.
3. **Flexibility and Extensibility**:
- Create a design that is flexible and extensible, allowing for the
addition of new features and functionalities without requiring
significant modifications to existing code.

4. **Modularity and Reusability**:

- Design the system in a modular fashion, with well-defined and
reusable components or modules that can be easily integrated
into other projects or systems.

5. **Performance and Efficiency**:

- Design the system to meet performance and efficiency
requirements, optimizing resource utilization and minimizing
response times.

6. **Reliability and Robustness**:

- Ensure that the software design is reliable and robust, capable
of handling errors, exceptions, and unexpected inputs gracefully
without crashing or compromising system integrity.

7. **Usability and User Experience**:

- Design the user interface and interaction flows to be intuitive,
user-friendly, and aligned with the needs and preferences of the
intended users.

8. **Security and Privacy**:

- Incorporate appropriate security measures and safeguards
into the design to protect sensitive data, prevent unauthorized
access, and mitigate security risks.
### Transforming Informal Design to Detailed Design:

Transforming an informal design into a detailed design involves

several steps and techniques to refine and elaborate on the initial
design concepts. Some of the key steps in this process include:

1. **Requirements Analysis**:
- Review and analyze the functional and non-functional
requirements of the system to ensure a thorough understanding
of the project objectives and constraints.

2. **Conceptual Design**:
- Develop a high-level conceptual design that outlines the
overall structure, components, and interactions of the system
based on the requirements analysis.

3. **Refinement and Elaboration**:

- Refine and elaborate on the conceptual design to add more
detail and specificity, breaking down the system into smaller
components or modules and defining their interfaces, behaviors,
and relationships.

4. **Structural Design**:
- Define the structure of the system by creating diagrams such
as class diagrams, component diagrams, and package diagrams
to illustrate the relationships between system components and
their dependencies.

5. **Behavioral Design**:
 - Specify the behavior of the system by creating diagrams such
as sequence diagrams, activity diagrams, and statechart
diagrams to illustrate the flow of control and data within the
system.

6. **Interface Design**:
- Design the user interface and interaction flows by creating
wireframes, mockups, and prototypes to visualize the layout,
navigation, and functionality of the system from the user's
perspective.

7. **Validation and Review**:

- Validate the detailed design against the requirements to
ensure that it accurately reflects the desired functionality,
performance, and user experience.
- Conduct reviews and inspections with stakeholders to gather
feedback and incorporate any necessary revisions or
improvements into the design.

By following these steps and techniques, software designers can

transform an informal design into a detailed design that provides a
clear and comprehensive plan for building a software system that
meets the needs and expectations of stakeholders.