⃰ The Following Texts and Images are credited to the original authors, publishers

and the relevant pages on the internet. These contents are intended to use
only for in-classroom-education.⃰

Wise Wish METC

Aye Swe (WW METC) 1
Semiconductor
Devices, circuits

Control
systems
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Name some of
electrical components
used in onboard electrical circuits

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Some of electrical components
used in onboard electrical circuits

 Resistor
 Capacitor
 Inductor
 Relay
 Switch (mechanical)

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

  Resistor
Variable Resistor
Potentiometer
Rheostat

 Resistors simply oppose the

flow of electrons through
them (by dropping a voltage
directly proportional to the
current).
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Resistor

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

  Capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Condenser
Super Capacitor

 Capacitors oppose changes in voltage by drawing

or supplying current as they charge or discharge
to the new voltage level.
 The flow of electrons “through” a capacitor is
directly proportional to the rate of change of
voltage across the capacitor.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
  Inductor
Variable Inductor
Transformer
Motor coil
Generator coil
Solenoid coil
Relay coil

 Inductors oppose changes in current through them, by dropping a voltage directly proportional to
the rate of change of current.
 If current is decreasing, the polarity will reverse and “push with” the electron flow to oppose the
decrease.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 An inductor is an electrical component that is made up of a conducting
wire wound in the form of a coil, that resists the change in the electrical
current passing through it due to induced emf which opposes the
change in magnetic flux through the coil.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
⃰ NFC vs Qi Wireless charging Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Inductors

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Mutual inductors

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 18

  Relay
 Signal Relay  Relays are electrically (or optically in case of
 Main contactor Relay solid-state) operated switches that open and
 Aux. contactor Relay close the circuits by receiving electrical signals
from outside sources.
 Timer Relay
 Solid-state Relay

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 An electro-mechanical relay consists of a coil, which receives an electric signal
and converts it to a mechanical action and contacts that open and close the
electric circuit.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 The Three Actions of Electrical Relays

1. The relay permits a small amount of electrical current to control high

current loads.
When voltage is supplied to the coil, small current passes through the coil,
resulting in a larger amount of current passing through the contacts to control the
electrical load.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

2. The relay sends different types of electrical signals.
AC loads can also be electrically controlled (Switching) from DC power source.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

3. The relay drives multiple outputs with only one input .
One input signal to the coil can simultaneously control several independent
circuits (switched).

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Solid-state Relay

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 For Electro-mechanical Relay coil

Shaded pole on armature

Shaded pole on the AC coil
of AC contactor relay

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Various Types of Relay

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Solid State Relays

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Switch (mechanical)

 Circuit Breaker
 MCCB (Molded case CB)
 MCB (miniature CB)
 X Pole / X Throw

 Semiconductor Switch

 Bipolar Transistor (BJT)

 Junction Field Effect Transistor(JFET)
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor EFT (MOSFET)
 Thyristors
 IGBT
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Switch (mechanical)
 X Pole / X Throw

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Name some of
electronic components
used onboard electrical circuits

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Semiconductor

 Diode
 Transistor
 Thyristor
 Other semiconductor devices

⃰ Based on the IMO course

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Diode (Junction Diode)

 Signal diode
 Rectifier diode
 Power diode
 Zener diode
 Photo diode
 Laser diode
 Light emitting diode
 Diode temperature sensor

⃰ Based on the IMO course

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Transistor

 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

 phototransistor
 Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
 Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
 Insulated gate bipolar junction transistor (IGBT)

⃰ Based on the IMO course

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Thyristor

 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

 Light-activated Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (LASCR)
 DIAC (Diode AC switch)
 TRIAC (Triode AC switch)
 Gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO)
 Gate-turn-off switch (GTO)
 Programmable unijunction transistor (PUT)

⃰ Based on the IMO course

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Other semiconductor devices

 Light-dependent resistor
 Voltage-dependent resistor

⃰ Based on the IMO course

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Name Some Equipment (Systems)
onboard which are used in
The electrical and electronic control system.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Integrated Circuit
 Types of integrated circuit

Linear (Analog) Digital

 Multi-vibrator
 Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)  Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL)
 Voltage regulator  Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
 Low-drop-out regulator  Complementary metal oxide semiconductor
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Microcontroller unit (MCU)
System
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
 Inverter (Switching)
 Variable Frequency Drive
 Electric-propulsion Drive
⃰ Based on the IMO course
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
What is electrical and electronics in
simple words?

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 What is today
“electrical and
 It is the study of how to control the flow of electrons
electronics engineering” and bring into applications for improving our
in simple words? everyday life.
 It is based on modern physics and electrical
engineering concerning with the behavior and
movement of electrons (and holes) in a
semiconductor, conductor, vacuum or gas.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 43
Electrical (Power) Electrical (Electronics)
Electrical(Control) Electrical(Control)

Analog system,
Generation, Transmission, Digital system,
Distribution of electric power Computers,
Transformers, Instrumentation,
Motors, Signal Processing,
Generators. Microelectronics,
Telecommunications
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 44
 Electrical (Power) Electrical (Electronics)
Electrical(Control) Electrical(Control)

Power Electronics

Mechanical + Electronics Mechatronics

Engineering
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 45
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 46
High Power Semiconductor Devices

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 47

 Electronics

Yesterday & Today

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Electronics in Early Times (1904-1947)
Vacuum tube (called valve in
British English) having active
electrodes, such as thermionic
cathodes, grids and a plate
(called anode in British
English).

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 49

An Electron Tube Circuit Board

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 50

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electron Tube Operational Amplifier used in Gun Control System during WWII

Applications of integrator,
Differentiator, Buffer in
Analog Computer Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Today
some of the operational
amplifier
 Today Solid-state Electronic circuit

Discrete Semiconductor
Components

Integrated circuit on a chip Integrated Systems on a PCB

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 54
 Solid-state Electronics (Semiconductor Electronics)

 The term "solid-state electronics" emerged after the first

working transistor was invented by
William Shockley, Walter Houser Brattain and John Bardeen
at Bell Labs in 1947.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 55

Standard Scales used in electronics (physics)

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 57
 The human brain’s memory capacity in the average adult can store
trillions ( of bytes of information.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 58

 In a Stanford Study, it was reported
that the cerebral cortex alone has 125
trillion synapses.

 In another study, it was reported that 1

synapse can store 4.7 bits of
information.

 That is, fairly 73.4 Terabytes.

⃰ Today the largest HD capacity you can buy is 20 Terabytes.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 59
 Speed of nerve impulse travel signal in our body

119m/s (muscles)

76.2m/s (touch)

0.61m/s (pain)

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 60

 Unlike a computer, the processing power of the human brain is very difficult to
calculate. However, psychologists have done some clever experiments to
determine how fast humans can think.

 Until now scientists could measure the maximum processing speed of the
human brain at 60 bits per second. (in the binary terms of bit).

 Today a normal scientific calculator speed is at 1 MHz. ( .

 The fastest commercially available CPU today speed is 6 GHz. ( .

 What about Qubits for quantum computer ?

 Quantum computers in Google’s lab are 100 million times quicker than the
fastest conventional ones.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

What should we cover for the extent of electronic knowledge
suggested by IMO model course.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

  COMPETENCE 2.1. 1.2.

 The operation of semiconductor devices: Uni-junction transistor, bipolar transistor, field effect transistors,
thyristors, SCRs, GTOs, DIACs and TRIACs, insulated gate
bipolar transistor (IGBT),
snubber circuits, commutation, data sheets,
 Device applications in electronic control: surveillance and recording systems, power supplies,
rectification, smoothing circuits. stabilization, switching,
amplification, pulse shaping, clipping and clamping.

 Integrated circuits: Operational amplifier,, instrumentation amplifier, 4-20mA circuit,

voltage regulators, multivibrators, IC applications and common
circuits, Data sheets.

 Electronic fault diagnosis on board ship: interpretation and use of electronic systems and subsystem
circuit diagram operation and maintenance manuals, electronic
test equipment, method of DMM display, use of CRO as a
testing and display instrument. analysis of measurement
and test result on components and circuits. methods of fault
detection.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Solid-state Electronic Devices⃰
Group I Group II
 Junction Diode  Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
 Zener Diode  Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
 (Various) Diodes  Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
(MOSFET)

Group III  Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

 Silicon Controlled - Rectifier (SCR)

 Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO)
 TRIAC (Triode AC switch)
 DIAC (Diode AC switch) & Programmable Unijunction
⃰ IMO Model Course
Transistor (PUT) Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 64
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 65
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 66
High Power Semiconductor Devices

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 67

IGCT (Integrated gate-commutated thyristor)

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 68

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 69
 The Electronic devices constructed with Semiconductor PN junctions

Diode

Unijunction Transistor

Thyristor (SCR)

70
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC)
Constructions of
Semiconductor
devices

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 71

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Atomic structure of

conductors, insulators

and semiconductors

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 73

 The basic constituents
Smallest Known building blocks of matter
of matter include
quarks, leptons, and
gauge bosons.
 Quarks are the building
blocks of protons and
neutrons, which make up
the nucleus of an atom.
 Leptons are particles that
do not interact with the
strong nuclear force and
include electrons and
neutrinos.
 Gauge bosons are
particles that mediate the
fundamental forces of
nature such as photons
for electromagnetism and
W and Z bosons for weak
nuclear force. Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Fundamental particles of

PHOTON

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 78

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 79
 Nucleus are around 100,000 times smaller than the atoms they’re housed in.

 If the nucleus were the size of a peanut, the atom would be about the size of a
baseball stadium (about 100 meter around).

 Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons.

 If an electron was the mass of a penny (one cent), a proton or a neutron

would have the mass of a large bowling ball! (diameter 1:11.5).

 A neutron has about the same diameter as a proton, or 1.7× meters.

 The size of a quark is not well-defined; however, it

is believed that quarks are point-like particles with
no size or structure.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Neutrinos are mind-bogglingly tiny.

 They are “hundreds of thousands of times lighter than the next lightest
particle, which is the electron,” and They can be found everywhere.

 Tens of trillions of neutrinos pass through your body every second,

originating mostly from the sun. But because of their small size and lack of
charge, they rarely interact with your tissues—or anything else.

 “In your entire lifetime, if one neutrino interacts with you, then you’re lucky,”
says experimental particle physicist Sowjanya Gollapinni of Los Alamos
National Laboratory.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 A photon is an elementary particle that is the quantum of the electromagnetic
field including electromagnetic radiation such as light.

 It is also considered as a type of boson. It has zero rest mass and always
moves at the speed of light in vacuum.

 The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency and inversely

proportional to its wavelength.

 The photon was first introduced by Albert Einstein in 1905.

 It is not possible to measure the size of a photon as it does not have a

physical size.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Illustration of the Bohr model of the
silicon atom.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 According to Heisenberg, it is impossible to determine simultaneously both the
position and velocity of an electron with any degree of accuracy or certainty.

 The result of this principle produces a concept of the atom with probability
clouds, which are mathematical descriptions of where electrons in an atom are
most likely to be located.

Bohr model of the Quantum model of the

hydrogen atom. hydrogen atom. Photograph inside a hydrogen atom
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 Three-dimensional quantum model of the sodium atom, showing the orbitals and
number of electrons in each orbital.
Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
About 99 percent of your body is made up of atoms of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen (with much smaller amounts of
the other elements that are essential for life).

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 The hydrogen atoms in us were produced in the big bang, and the carbon,
nitrogen and oxygen atoms were made in burning stars.

 The very heavy elements in us were made in exploding stars.

 While most of the cells in our body regenerate every seven to 15 years, many
of the particles that make up those cells have existed for thousands of millions
years.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
Assume that the body consists of carbon, and that an average human weighs 50kg.

There are about 6 x 𝟐𝟑 atoms in 12 grams of carbon.

Thus, in the average human body, there will be 50000 g/ 12 g = 4167 packets of

12 g of carbon each,

That is 25002 x 𝟐𝟑 atoms, or, expressed more conventionally, 2.5 x atoms.

Each of these has six electrons.

𝟐𝟖
That is the average human body contains about 1.5 x electrons in terms of
carbon atoms. :0

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 90
 Conductor
 These atoms readily give away one
electron to react with other elements.
 The ability to easily give away an
electron makes these elements excellent
conductors.

Lithium Sodium

Potassium Copper Silver Gold

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 91
Conductors

 A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current. Most metals

are good conductors.

 The best conductors are single-element materials, such as copper (Cu), silver
(Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which are characterized by atoms with only
one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom.

 These loosely bound valence electrons become free electrons. Therefore, in a

conductive material the free electrons are valence electrons.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 92

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 93
 Atoms are always trying to fill their outermost shell with electrons. This is known
as the octet rule.

 The octet rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons in order to
have a full outer shell of eight electrons.

 This is because having a full outer shell makes the atom more stable and less
reactive.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Atoms will covalently bond with other atoms in order to gain more stability.

Oxygen
Hydrogen Chlorine

Hydrogen chloride
Ammonia
Nitrogen

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Insulator
 These elements readily accept an electron to fill up the outer shell with a full 8
electrons.
 If these elements do accept an electron, a negative ion is formed from the neutral
atom. These elements which do not give up electrons are insulators.

Florine Chlorine Bromine

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) Iodine
96
Insulators

 An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal
conditions. Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element
materials and have very high resistivities.

 Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there are very few
free electrons in an insulator.

 Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 97

 Insulator molecules

 A Plastic Molecule (Acrylonitrile

molecule) consisting of atoms: hydrogen
(white), grey (carbon) and Nitrogen Glass Molecule
(blue)

 Wood Molecule
oxygen atomCourse
Electronics (red)
AYE SWE (WW METC) 98
 Noble Gases
 These elements neither donate nor accept electrons. Nor do they readily participate
in chemical reactions.
 These elements do not easily combine with other elements.
 These elements are good electrical insulators and are gases at room temperature.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 99

 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Ar
Gas

 Argon does not react with the filament in a lightbulb even under high temperatures, so is used in
lighting.
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 100
 Sulfur hexafluoride,
(used in High Voltage Circuit Breaker)
 Semiconductor

 A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its

ability to conduct electrical current.

 Single-element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), astatine

(At), boron (B), polonium (Po), tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and germanium
(Ge).

 Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium

phosphide, gallium nitride, silicon carbide, and silicon germanium.

Next to silicon, the second most common semiconductive material is gallium arsenide, GaAs, better than
silicon for applications like amplifying the high frequency (1 GHz to 10 GHz) signals from TV satellites, LEDs
used in optical communication and control systems, etc.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 102

 * this two properties
Conduction and Insulating is same as
Switching On and Off

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 103

 Semiconductors
 Elements: C, Si, Ge, having 4 electrons in the valence shell form compounds by
sharing electrons with other elements without forming ions.
 This shared electron bonding is known as covalent bonding. Note that the center
atom has completed its valence shell by sharing electrons.
 Note that the figure is a 2D representation of bonding, which is actually 3D.
 Covalent bonding, in simple words, is the sharing of
electrons between atoms to attain the noble gas
configuration of the participating individual atoms.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 104

Crystal Lattice of Silicon in 2D
Crystal Lattice of Silicon in 3D

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Gallium Arsenide (Semiconductor)

Next to silicon, the second most common semiconductive material is gallium arsenide, GaAs, better than
silicon for applications like amplifying the high frequency (1 GHz to 10 GHz) signals from TV satellites, LEDs
used in optical communication and control systems, etc.

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)

 Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 107
Valence Electrons, Ionization
 Energy band diagram
for an unexcited atom in
a pure (intrinsic) silicon
crystal. There are no
electrons in the
conduction band.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 108

 An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat
(thermal) energy for some valence electrons (aka conduction electron) to jump
the gap from the valence band Electronics
into theCourseconduction
AYE SWE (WW METC) band. 109
 Electron-hole pairs in a silicon
crystal.

Free electrons are being generated

continuously while some recombine
with holes.
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 110
 Electron and Hole Current in intrinsic silicon crystal

Electron current

 When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, the thermally generated
free electrons in the conduction band, which are free to move randomly in the crystal
structure, are now easily attracted toward the positive end.
 Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by the movement of thermally
generated free electrons. Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 111
 A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator.

 Semiconductive materials do not conduct current well and are of limited value in
their intrinsic state. This is because of the limited number of free electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band.

 Intrinsic silicon (or germanium) must be modified by increasing the number of free
electrons or holes to increase its conductivity and make it useful in electronic
devices.

 This is done by adding impurities to the intrinsic material.

 Doping

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 112

113
 Semiconductor material pure to 1 part in 10 billion, may have specific
impurities added at approximately 1 part per 10 million to increase the
number of carriers.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 114

 N-Type Semiconductor

 Pentavalent impurity atoms are

added. These are atoms with five
valence electrons such as
arsenic (As), phosphorus (P),
bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb).

 Pentavalent impurity atom in a

silicon crystal structure. An
antimony (Sb) impurity atom is
shown in the center. The extra
electron from the Sb atom
becomes a free electron.

 Minority Carriers thermally generated Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 115
Semiconductor added with
pentavalent impurities, also
called donor impurities,
(such as phosphorous,
arsenic, antimony and
bismuth) is known as N-Type
semiconductor.

116
 P-Type Semiconductor

 Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal

structure. A boron (B) impurity atom is
shown in the center.

 trivalent impurity atoms are added. These

are atoms with three valence electrons
such as boron (B), indium (In), and
gallium (Ga).

 Minority Carriers thermally generated

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 117

Semiconductor added with
trivalent impurities, also called
acceptor impurities, (such as
boron, aluminum, indium and
gallium) is known as P-type
semiconductor.

118
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 119
 Hole current in intrinsic silicon

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 120

Electronics course Aye Swe (Wisewish METC)
 pn junction
 The basic silicon
structure at the
instant of junction
formation showing
only the majority and
minority carriers.

 Free electrons in the

n region near the pn
junction begin to
diffuse across the
junction and fall into
holes near the Trivalent impurity atom Pentavalent impurity atom
junction in the p Dopant B, in, Ga Dopant As, P, Bi, Sb
region.
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 122
 For every electron that
diffuses across the
junction and combines
with a hole, a positive
charge is left in the n
region and a negative
charge is created in the p
region, forming a barrier
potential.
 This action continues until
the voltage of the barrier
repels further diffusion.
The blue arrows between
the positive and negative
charges in the depletion
region represent the
electric field. Formation of the depletion region. The width of the depletion region is exaggerated.
Keep in mind that the depletion region is formed very quickly and is very thin123
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC)
compared to the n region and p region.
 The depletion region is formed very quickly Barrier Potential
and is very thin compared to the n region
and p region.

 In the depletion region there are many

positive charges and many negative charges
on opposite sides of the pn junction. The
forces between the opposite charges form an
electric field, as described by Coulomb’s law.

 The potential difference of the electric field

across the depletion region is the amount of
voltage required to move electrons through
the electric field.
 The typical barrier potential is approximately
 This potential difference is called the barrier 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at
potential and is expressed in volts. 25° C.
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 124
 Diode in Forward-biased Mode

A forward-biased diode showing the flow of majority

carriers and the voltage due to the barrier potential across
the depletion region
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 125
 At equilibrium (no bias) Forward bias narrows the depletion region and produces a
voltage drop across the pn junction equal to the barrier
potential.

The electrons give up an amount of energy equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the depletion
region. This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn junction equal to the barrier potential (0.7 V).

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 126

 Diode in Reverse-biased Mode

The diode during the short

transition time immediately
after reverse-bias voltage is
applied.

The extremely small reverse

current in a reverse-biased diode is
due to the minority carriers from
thermally generated electron-hole
pairs.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 127

pn junction

 The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and

0.3 V for germanium at 25° C.
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 128
V-I Characteristics of a junction diode

FWD biased

RVS biased

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 129

Marking for
Cathode
Barrier Voltage
(Junction Voltage)

Barrier Voltage (Junction Voltage)

Silicon Junction = 0.7V
Germanium Junction = 0.3V

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 130

 The (junction) diode

As of 21st. Jan
To add barrier
Relay next week

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 131

Diode applications

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 132

 Half-wave rectifier with transformer coupled input voltage.

0 0

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 133

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 134
A center-tapped full-wave rectifier.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 135

 During positive half-cycles, D1 is
forward-biased and D2 is reverse-
biased.

current flow shown in

electron flow.

Basic operation of a
center-tapped
full-wave rectifier

During negative half-cycles, D2 is

forward-biased and D1 is reverse- current flow shown in
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 136
biased. electron flow.
 Bridge
Full-Wave
Rectifier

Vp(out) = Vp(sec) – 1.4 V

current flow shown in

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 137
electron flow.
 *

capacitor discharge rate

Output without capacitor

Filtered by capacitor

*A slow-blow type fuse is generally used because of the surge current that initially occurs when power is first turned on.
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 138
Complete power supply with transformer, rectifier, filter, and regulator
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 139
 A basic +5.0 V
regulated power supply

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 140

Diode limiters
(clippers)

 Diode circuits,
called limiters or Limiting of the positive alternation.
clippers, are
sometimes used
to clip off
portions of signal
voltages above
or below certain
levels.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 141

Limiting of the negative alternation
Limiters (modified)

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 142

 Diode
Clamper
(dc restorers)

Positive clamper

negative clamper

 The cathode is held near Vp(in) -/+ 0.7 V by the charge on the capacitor. The capacitor can only discharge through the
high resistance of RL. So, from the peak of one negative half-cycle to the next, the capacitor discharges very little. The
amount that is discharged, of course, depends Electronics
on the value ofSWE
Course AYE RL (WW METC) 143
 Voltage
multipliers Voltage tripler

 Voltage
multipliers are
used in high-
voltage, low-
current Voltage quadrupler.
applications
such as
cathode-ray
tubes (CRTs)
and particle
accelerators.

 Voltage multipliers use clamping action to increase peak rectified voltages without the necessity of increasing the 144
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC)
transformer’s voltage rating.
Diode Testing

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 145

 P type N type

The junction shown here is reverse-biased

p n

The junction on Forward bias Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 146
Small Signal Diode and Rectifier Diode

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 147

 Zener diode
 A Zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed for operation in the
reverse-breakdown region.
 The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is set by carefully controlling the doping
level during manufacture.

 Used in power
supplies, voltmeters,
and other instruments.

 Zeners are
commercially
available with
breakdown voltages
from less than 1 V to
more than 250 V with
specified tolerances
from 1% to 20%.
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 148
 The Zener diode has a well-defined reverse-breakdown voltage, at which it starts
conducting current, and continues operating continuously in the reverse-bias
mode without getting damaged.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 149

  Zener diode regulators can provide a
reasonably constant dc level at the
output, but they are not particularly
efficient. For this reason, they are
limited to applications that require only
low current to the load.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 150

 Zener diode used as reference voltage component
In an automatic voltage regulator
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 151
 Basic Zener limiting
action with a sinusoidal
input voltage.

Zener Limiter

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 152

IS Barrier Relay  In an intrinsically-safe circuit, no
sparks or thermal effects occur in
operation, or even in the event of a
fault. Generally, intrinsic protection
means limiting the circuit
conditions to less than 30 V and
50 mA.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 153

 A fuse to limit the maximum
current through the shunt
(Zener) diodes

 A set of resistors to limit the

maximum current into the
hazardous area

 A set of shunt-connected
Zener diodes to limit the
maximum voltage appearing
on the circuit within the Over-voltage
hazardous area. Due to
an external fault

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 154

 +
+ - -
VZ
VZ
+ +
- Current flows
When Over the Zener voltage

-
Generally, intrinsic protection means limiting the
Electronics circuit
Course conditions
AYE SWE (WW METC) to less than 30 V and 50 mA.155
 All components are
sealed into a
compact package
with clearly marked
terminals at each end
of the barrier.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 156

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 157
 Barrier relay

Barrier relay
Barrier relay

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 158

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 159
 Diode Summary

 There is current through a diode only when it is forward-biased.

 Ideally, there is no current when there is no bias nor when there is reverse bias.
(Actually, there is a very small current in reverse bias due to the thermally
generated minority carriers, but this can usually be neglected.)

 Avalanche occurs in a reverse-biased diode if the bias voltage equals or

exceeds the breakdown voltage.

 A diode conducts current when forward-biased and blocks current when

reversed-biased.

 Reverse breakdown voltage for a diode is typically greater than 50 V.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 160

 Other Types of Special Diode

The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

The Photodiode

The Laser Diode

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 161

 Light
(photons)

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 162

The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
 When the device is forward-
biased, electrons cross the pn
junction from the n-type
material recombine with holes
in the p-type material.

 When recombination takes

place, the recombining
electrons release energy in
the form of photons.

 A large exposed surface area

on one layer of the
semiconductive material
permits the photons to be
emitted as visible light. Electroluminescence
in a forward biased LED.
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 163
LED

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 164

The Photodiode

 The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias, where is the reverse
light current.

 The photodiode has a small transparent window that allows light to strike the pn
junction.

Note. Current direction in electron flow direction

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 165
 The Laser Diode
 Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
 Laser light is monochromatic, which means that it consists of a single color and not a mixture of
colors.

 Laser light is also called

coherent light, a single
wavelength, as compared to
incoherent light, which consists
of a wide band of wavelengths.
 The laser diode normally emits
coherent light, whereas the LED
emits incoherent light.

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 166

 As electrons fall into holes to recombine, photons are released. A released photon can strike an atom,
causing another photon to be released.

 As the forward current is increased, more electrons enter the depletion region and cause more photons
to be emitted.

 Eventually some of the photons that are randomly drifting within the depletion region strike the reflected
surfaces perpendicularly.

 These reflected photons move along the depletion region,

striking atoms and releasing additional photons due to the
avalanche effect.

 This back-and-forth movement of photons increases as the

generation of photons “snowballs” until a very intense beam
of laser light is formed by the photons that pass through the
partially reflective end of the pn junction.
The Laser Diode
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 167
 Avalanche effect
 A sudden increase in the flow of an electrical current through a nonconducting or semiconducting
solid when a sufficiently strong electrical force is applied.

multiplications

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 168

Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 169
Electronics Course AYE SWE (WW METC) 170