UNIT IV

UNIT-IV: Planned Hours: 7

S. No. Topic Learning Outcomes CO PO
1. Solve counting technique problems using permutations and CO1, CO3 PO1, PO2
combinations
2. Apply Pigeonhole Principle and Inclusion–Exclusion CO1, CO3 PO2, PO3
Principle

Lesson Schedule
UNIT - IV
Class No. Topic Covered
L36 Introduction, Basic Counting Principles
L37 Permutations
L38 Combinations
The Pigeonhole Principle and its applications, The Inclusion–Exclusion
L39 & L40
Principle
L41 Combinations with Repetitions
L42 Binomial and Multinomial Theorems
 Material
Techniques of Counting

Basic Counting Principles

Sum Rule Principle: Assume some event E can occur in m ways and a second event F can occur
in n ways, and suppose both events cannot occur simultaneously. Then E or F can occur in m + n
ways.

In general, if there are n events and no two events occurs in same time then the event can occur
in n1+n2..........n ways.

Example: If 8 male processor and 5 female processor teaching DMS then the student can choose
professor in 8+5=13 ways.

Product Rule Principle: Suppose there is an event E which can occur in m ways and,
independent of this event, there is a second event F which can occur in n ways. Then
combinations of E and F can occur in mn ways.

In general, if there are n events occurring independently then all events can occur in the order
indicated as n1 x n2 x n3.........n ways.

Example: In class, there are 4 boys and 10 girls if a boy and a girl have to be chosen for the
class monitor, the students can choose class monitor in 4 x 10 = 40 ways.

MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS:

Factorial Function: The product of the first n natural number is called factorial n. It is denoted
by n!, read "n Factorial."

The Factorial n can also be written as

1. n! = n (n-1) (n-2) (n-3)......1.

2. = 1 and 0! = 1.

Example1: Find the value of 5!

Solution:

5! = 5 x (5-1) (5-2) (5-3) (5-4)

= 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120
Binomial Coefficients: Binomial Coefficient is represented by nCr where r and n are positive
integer with r ≤ n is defined as follows:

Example: 8C2 = = = 28.

Permutation and Combinations:

PERMUTATION:

Any arrangement of a set of n objects in a given order is called Permutation of Object. Any
arrangement of any r ≤ n of these objects in a given order is called an r-permutation or a
permutation of n object taken r at a time.

It is denoted by P (n, r)

P (n, r) =

Theorem: Prove that the number of permutations of n things taken all at a time is n!.

Proof: We know that

Example: 4 x np3=n+1P3

Solution: 4 x

4 (n-2) = (n+1)
4n - 8 = n+1
3n = 9
n = 3.
PERMUTATION WITH RESTRICTIONS:

The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time in which p particular objects
do not occur is

The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time in which p particular objects
are present is

Example: How many 6-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 if
every number is to start with '30' with no digit repeated?

Solution: All the numbers begin with '30.'So, we have to choose 4-digits from the remaining 7-
digits.

∴ Total number of numbers that begins with '30' is

7P4 = =840.

PERMUTATIONS WITH REPEATED OBJECTS:

Theorem: Prove that the number of different permutations of n distinct objects taken at a time
when every object is allowed to repeat any number of times is given by nr.

Proof: Assume that with n objects we have to fill r place when repetition of the object is
allowed.

Therefore, the number of ways of filling the first place is = n

The number of ways of filling the second place = n
.............................
.............................
The number of ways of filling the rth place = n
Thus, the total number of ways of filling r places with n elements is
= n. n. n..............r times =nr.
CIRCULAR PERMUTATIONS:

A permutation which is done around a circle is called Circular Permutation.

Example: In how many ways can get these letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j arranged in a circle?

Solution: (10 - 1) = 9! = 362880

Theorem: Prove that the number of circular permutations of n different objects is (n-1)!

Proof: Let us consider that K be the number of permutations required.

For each such circular permutations of K, there are n corresponding linear permutations. As
shown earlier, we start from every object of n object in the circular permutations. Thus, for K
circular permutations, we have K...n linear permutations.
COMBINATION:

A Combination is a selection of some or all, objects from a set of given objects, where the order
of the objects does not matter. The number of combinations of n objects, taken r at a time
represented by nCr or C (n, r).

Proof: The number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time is given by

As there is no matter about the order of arrangement of the objects, therefore, to every
combination of r things, there are r! arrangements i.e.,

Example: A farmer purchased 3 cows, 2 pigs, and 4 hens from a man who has 6 cows, 5 pigs,
and 8 hens. Find the number m of choices that the farmer has.

The farmer can choose the cows in C (6, 3) ways, the pigs in C (5, 2) ways, and the hens in C (8,
4) ways. Thus the number m of choices follows:

The Pigeonhole Principle

If n pigeonholes are occupied by n+1 or more pigeons, then at least one pigeonhole is occupied
by greater than one pigeon. Generalized pigeonhole principle is: - If n pigeonholes are occupied
by kn+1 or more pigeons, where k is a positive integer, then at least one pigeonhole is occupied
by k+1 or more pigeons.
Example1: Find the minimum number of students in a class to be sure that three of them are
born in the same month.

Solution: Here n = 12 months are the Pigeonholes

And k + 1 = 3
K=2

So, minimum number of students are kn + 1 = 2.12 + 1 = 25

INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE:

Let A1,A2......Ar be the subset of Universal set U. Then the number m of the element which do
not appear in any subset A1,A2......Ar of U.

Example: Let U be the set of positive integer not exceeding 1000. Then |U|= 1000 Find |S|
where S is the set of such integer which is not divisible by 3, 5 or 7?

Solution: Let A be the subset of integer which is divisible by 3

Let B be the subset of integer which is divisible by 5
Let C be the subset of integer which is divisible by 7

Then S = Ac ∩ Bc∩ Cc since each element of S is not divisible by 3, 5, or 7.

By Integer division,

|A|= 1000/3 = 333

|B|= 1000/5 = 200
|C| = 1000/7 = 142
|A∩B|=1000/15=66
|B∩C|=1000/21=47
|C∩A|=1000/35=28
|A∩B∩C|=1000/105=9

Thus by Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

|S|=1000-(333+200+142)+(66+47+28)-9
|S|=1000-675+141-9=457

In English we use the word "combination" loosely, without thinking if the order of things is
important. In other words:
 "My fruit salad is a combination of apples, grapes and bananas" We don't care what order the
fruits are in, they could also be "bananas, grapes and apples" or "grapes, apples and bananas", its
the same fruit salad.

"The combination to the safe is 472". Now we do care about the order. "724" won't work, nor
will "247". It has to be exactly 4-7-2.

So, in Mathematics we use more precise language:

 When the order doesn't matter, it is a Combination.

 When the order does matter it is a Permutation.

So, we should really call this a "Permutation Lock"!

In other words:

A Permutation is an ordered Combination.

To help you to remember, think "Permutation ... Position"

 Permutations

There are basically two types of permutation:

 Repetition is Allowed: such as the lock above. It could be "333".

 No Repetition: for example the first three people in a running race. You can't be
first andsecond.

1. Permutations with Repetition

These are the easiest to calculate.

When a thing has n different types ... we have n choices each time!

For example: choosing 3 of those things, the permutations are:

n×n×n
(n multiplied 3 times)

More generally: choosing r of something that has n different types, the permutations are:

n × n × ... (r times)

(In other words, there are n possibilities for the first choice, THEN there are n possibilites for the
second choice, and so on, multplying each time.)

Which is easier to write down using an exponent of r:

n × n × ... (r times) = nr

Example: in the lock above, there are 10 numbers to choose from (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) and we
choose 3 of them:

10 × 10 × ... (3 times) = 103 = 1,000 permutations

So, the formula is simply:

nr

where n is the number of things to choose from,

and we choose r of them,
repetition is allowed,
 and order matters.

2. Permutations without Repetition

In this case, we have to reduce the number of available choices each time.

Example: what order could 16 pool balls be in?

After choosing, say, number "14" we can't choose it again.

So, our first choice has 16 possibilites, and our next choice has 15 possibilities, then 14, 13, 12,
11, ... etc. And the total permutations are:

16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × ... = 20,922,789,888,000

But maybe we don't want to choose them all, just 3 of them, and that is then:

16 × 15 × 14 = 3,360

In other words, there are 3,360 different ways that 3 pool balls could be arranged out of 16 balls.

Without repetition our choices get reduced each time.

But how do we write that mathematically? Answer: we use the " factorial function "

The factorial function (symbol: !) just means to multiply a series

of descending natural numbers. Examples:

4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5,040
1! = 1
 Note: it is generally agreed that 0! = 1. It may seem funny that multiplying
no numbers together gets us 1, but it helps simplify a lot of equations.

So, when we want to select all of the billiard balls the permutations are:

16! = 20,922,789,888,000

But when we want to select just 3 we don't want to multiply after 14. How do we do that? There
is a neat trick: we divide by 13!

16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 ...13 × 12 ... = 16 × 15 × 14

That was neat. The 13 × 12 × ... etc gets "cancelled out", leaving only 16 × 15 × 14.

The formula is written:

n!(n − r)!
where n is the number of things to choose from,
and we choose r of them,
no repetitions,
order matters.

Example Our "order of 3 out of 16 pool balls example" is:

16! 16! 20,922,789,888,000
= = = 3,360
(16-3)! 13! 6,227,020,800

(which is just the same as: 16 × 15 × 14 = 3,360)

Example: How many ways can first and second place be awarded to 10 people?
10! 10! 3,628,800
= = = 90
(10-2)! 8! 40,320

(which is just the same as: 10 × 9 = 90)

 Notation

Instead of writing the whole formula, people use different notations such as these:

Example: P(10,2) = 90

COMBINATIONS

There are also two types of combinations (remember the order does not matter now):

 Repetition is Allowed: such as coins in your pocket (5,5,5,10,10)

 No Repetition: such as lottery numbers (2,14,15,27,30,33)

1. Combinations with Repetition

Actually, these are the hardest to explain, so we will come back to this later.

2. Combinations without Repetition

This is how lotteries work. The numbers are drawn one at a time, and if we have the lucky
numbers (no matter what order) we win!

The easiest way to explain it is to:

 assume that the order does matter (ie permutations),

 then alter it so the order does not matter.

Going back to our pool ball example, let's say we just want to know which 3 pool balls are
chosen, not the order.

We already know that 3 out of 16 gave us 3,360 permutations.

But many of those are the same to us now, because we don't care what order!

For example, let us say balls 1, 2 and 3 are chosen. These are the possibilites:
 Order does matter Order doesn't matter

123
132
213
123
231
312
321

So, the permutations have 6 times as many possibilites.

In fact there is an easy way to work out how many ways "1 2 3" could be placed in order, and we
have already talked about it. The answer is:

3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6

(Another example: 4 things can be placed in 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 different ways, try it for

yourself!)

So we adjust our permutations formula to reduce it by how many ways the objects could be in
order (because we aren't interested in their order any more):

That formula is so important it is often just written in big parentheses like this:

where n is the number of things to choose from,

and we choose r of them,
no repetition,
order doesn't matter.

It is often called "n choose r" (such as "16 choose 3")

And is also known as the Binomial Coefficient .
Notation

As well as the "big parentheses", people also use these notations:

Just remember the formula:

n!r!(n − r)!
Example: Pool Balls (without order)

So, our pool ball example (now without order) is:

16!3!(16−3)! = 16!3! × 13!

= 20,922,789,888,0006 × 6,227,020,800

= 560

Or we could do it this way:

16×15×143×2×1 = 33606 = 560

It is interesting to also note how this formula is nice and symmetrical:

In other words choosing 3 balls out of 16, or choosing 13 balls out of 16 have the same number
of combinations.

16!3!(16−3)! = 16!13!(16−13)! = 16!3! × 13! = 560

Pascal's Triangle

We can also use Pascal's Triangle to find the values. Go down to row "n" (the top row is 0), and
then along "r" places and the value there is our answer. Here is an extract showing row 16:
 1 14 91 364 ...
1 15 105 455 1365 ...
1 16 120 560 1820 4368 ...

1. Combinations with Repetition

OK, now we can tackle this one ...

Let us say there are five flavors of icecream: banana, chocolate, lemon, strawberry and
vanilla.

We can have three scoops. How many variations will there be?

Let's use letters for the flavors: {b, c, l, s, v}. Example selections include

 {c, c, c} (3 scoops of chocolate)

 {b, l, v} (one each of banana, lemon and vanilla)
 {b, v, v} (one of banana, two of vanilla)

(And just to be clear: There are n=5 things to choose from, and we choose r=3 of them.
Order does not matter, and we can repeat!)

Now, I can't describe directly to you how to calculate this, but I can show you a special
techniquethat lets you work it out.

Think about the ice cream being in boxes, we could say "move past the first box,
then take 3 scoops, then move along 3 more boxes to the end" and we will have 3
scoops of chocolate!
So it is like we are ordering a robot to get our ice cream, but it doesn't change anything, we still
get what we want.

We can write this down as (arrow means move, circle means scoop).

In fact the three examples above can be written like this:

{c, c, c} (3 scoops of chocolate):

{b, l, v} (one each of banana, lemon and vanilla):

{b, v, v} (one of banana, two of vanilla):

OK, so instead of worrying about different flavors, we have a simpler question: "how many
different ways can we arrange arrows and circles?"

Notice that there are always 3 circles (3 scoops of ice cream) and 4 arrows (we need to move 4
times to go from the 1st to 5th container).

So (being general here) there are r + (n−1) positions, and we want to choose r of them to have
circles.

This is like saying "we have r + (n−1) pool balls and want to choose r of them". In other words it
is now like the pool balls question, but with slightly changed numbers. And we can write it like
this:

where n is the number of things to choose from,

and we choose r of them
repetition allowed,
order doesn't matter.

Interestingly, we can look at the arrows instead of the circles, and say "we have r +
(n−1)positions and want to choose (n−1) of them to have arrows", and the answer is the same:

So, what about our example, what is the answer?

 (3+5−1)! 7! 5040
= = = 35
3!(5−1)! 3!×4! 6×24

There are 35 ways of having 3 scoops from five flavors of icecream.

Binomial theorem

Binomial theorem, statement that for any positive integer n, the nth power of the sum of two
numbers a and b may be expressed as the sum of n + 1 terms of the form

in the sequence of terms, the index r takes on the successive values 0, 1, 2,…, n. The
coefficients, called the binomial coefficients, are defined by the formula

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in which n! (called n factorial) is the product of the first n natural numbers 1, 2, 3,…, n (and
where 0! is defined as equal to 1). The coefficients may also be found in the array often
called Pascal’s triangle

by finding the rth entry of the nth row (counting begins with a zero in both directions). Each
entry in the interior of Pascal’s triangle is the sum of the two entries above it. Thus, the powers
of (a + b)n are 1, for n = 0; a + b, for n = 1; a2 + 2ab + b2, for n = 2; a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3, for n =
3; a4+ 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4, for n = 4, and so on.

Multinomial theorem
Multinomial theorem, in algebra, a generalization of the binomial theorem to more than two
variables. In statistics, the corresponding multinomial series appears in the multinomial
distribution, which is a generalization of the binomial distribution.
The multinomial theorem provides a formula for expanding an expression such as (x1 + x2 +⋯
+ xk)n for integer values of n. In particular, the expansion is given by

where n1 + n2 +⋯+ nk = n and n! is

the factorial notation for 1 × 2 × 3 ×⋯× n.
For example, the expansion of (x1 + x2 + x3)3 is x13 + 3x12x2 + 3x12x3 + 3x1x22 + 3x1x32 +
6x1x2x3 + x23 + 3x22x3 + 3x2x32 + x33.
 Solved Problems

Example1: Find the value of

Solution: = = 10 x 9=90

Example2: Show that at least two people must have their birthday in the same month if 13
people are assembled in a room.

Solution: We assigned each person the month of the year on which he was born. Since there are
12 months in a year.

So, according to the pigeonhole principle, there must be at least two people assigned to the same
month.

Example: How many permutations are there of the letters a, b, c, d, e, f?

Sol: We do NOT want to try to list all of these out. However, if we did, we would need to pick a
letter to write down first. There are 6 choices for that letter. For each choice of first letter, there
are 5 choices for the second letter (we cannot repeat the first letter; we are rearranging letters and
only have one of each), and for each of those, there are 4 choices for the third, 3 choices for the
fourth, 2 choices for the fifth and finally only 1 choice for the last letter. So there
are 6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1=7206⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1=720 permutations of the 6 letters.

Example: How many 4 letter “words” can you make from the letters athrough f, with no
repeated letters?
Sol: This is just like the problem of permuting 4 letters, only now we have more choices for
each letter. For the first letter, there are 6 choices. For each of those, there are 5 choices for the
second letter. Then there are 4 choices for the third letter, and 3 choices for the last letter. The
total number of words is 6⋅5⋅4⋅3=360. This is not 6! because we never multiplied by 2 and 1. We
could start with 6! and then cancel the 2 and 1, and thus write 6! / 2!.
Example: You decide to have a dinner party. Even though you are incredibly popular and
have 14 different friends, you only have enough chairs to invite 6 of them.
1. How many choices do you have for which 6 friends to invite?
2. What if you need to decide not only which friends to invite but also where to seat them
along your long table? How many choices do you have then?

1. You must simply choose 6 friends from a group of 14. This can be done in (14C6) ways.
We can find this number either by using Pascal's triangle or the closed formula: 14!/ (8!
⋅6!)=3003..
2. Here you must count all the ways you can permute 6 friends chosen from a group of 14.
So the answer is P(14,6), which can be calculated as 14! / 8!=2192190.

Notice that we can think of this counting problem as a question about counting functions:
how many injective functions are there from your set of 6 chairs to your set of 14 friends
(the functions are injective because you can't have a single chair go to two of your
friends).

How are these numbers related? Notice that P(14,6) is much larger than (14 C 6). This makes
sense. (14 C 6) picks 6 friends, but P(14,6) arranges the 6 friends as well as picks them. In fact,
we can say exactly how much larger P(14,6) is. In both counting problems we choose 6 out of 14
friends. For the first one, we stop there, at 3003 ways. But for the second counting problem, each
of those 3003 choices of 6 friends can be arranged in exactly 6! ways. So now we
have 3003⋅6! choices and that is exactly 2192190.

Alternatively, look at the first problem another way. We want to select 6 out of 14 friends, but
we do not care about the order they are selected in. To select 6 out of 14 friends, we might try
this:
14⋅13⋅12⋅11⋅10⋅9.
This is a reasonable guess, since we have 14 choices for the first guest, then 13 for the second,
and so on. But the guess is wrong (in fact, that product is exactly 2192190=P(14,6)). It
distinguishes between the different orders in which we could invite the guests. To correct for
this, we could divide by the number of different arrangements of the 6 guests (so that all of these
would count as just one outcome). There are precisely 6! ways to arrange 6 guests, so the correct
answer to the first question is
14⋅13⋅12⋅11⋅10⋅9 / 6!

Note that another way to write this is

14! / (8!⋅6!).

which is what we had originally.

Ex: Let S={1,2,3,4,5,6}
a. How many subsets are there total?
b. How many subsets have {2,3,5} as a subset?
c. How many subsets contain at least one odd number?
d. How many subsets contain exactly one even number?

Sol:
a. 26=64 subsets. We need to select yes/no for each of the six elements.
b. 23=8 subsets. We need to select yes/no for each of the remaining three elements.
c. 26−23=56 subsets. There are 8 subsets which do not contain any odd numbers (select
yes/no for each even number).
d. 3⋅23=24 subsets. First pick the even number. Then say yes or no to each of the odd
numbers.
Review Questions )
S. No. Question TLO Bloom’s
Level
1 Write the Binomial and multinomial theorems with TLO1 L2
examples.
2 Explain principle of Inclusion-Exclusion theorem. TLO2 L2
3 State and prove pigeon-hole principle? TLO2 L3
4 An advertising agency has 1000 clients. Suppose that T is TLO2 L3
the set of clients that use television advertising, R is the
set of clients that use radio advertising, and N is the set of
clients who use newspaper advertising. Suppose that |T|
=415, |R|=350, |N|=280, 100 clients use all types of
advertising, 175 use television and radio, 180 use radio
and newspaper, and 165 use television and newspaper.
Find the set of clients who neither of the three agencies.
5 A bit is either 0 or 1. A byte is a sequence of 8 bits. Find TLO1 L3
the number of bytes.Among these how many are
a) Starting with 11 and ending with 00
b) Starting with 11 but not ending with 00.
6 In A survey of 100 students, it was found that 30 studied TLO2 L3
Mathematics, 54 studied Statistics, 25 studied Operations
Research, 1 studied all the three subjects, 20 studied
Mathematics and Statistics, 3 studied Mathematics and
Operation Research and 15 studied Statistics and
Operation Research. Find how many students studied
none of these subjects and how many students studied
only Mathematics?
7 A total of 1232 students have taken a course in Spanish, TLO2 L3
879 have taken a course in French, and 114 have taken a
course in Russian. Further, 103 have taken courses in both
Spanish and Russian, 23 have taken courses in both
Spanish and French and 14 have taken courses in both
French and Russian. If 2092 students have taken atleast
one of Spanish, French and Russian, how many students
have taken a course in all three languages?
8 In how many ways can 10 mangos can be distributed TLO1 L3
among three children A, B, C, so that A gets at lest 2, B
gets at leat 3 and C get at least 1?