RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

1
 RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Mobile Computing
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Mobile Objects Communication Network Computation

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Designing a Communication System

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

that can handle Computation

R A V I S H A R M A in
( KaC Network
S-711) of Mobile Objects
Mobile Computing

2
Application Span of Mobile Computing
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

• Communication • Data
– WWW – Banking / Payment Wallets
• Audio, Video, Photo, Email • Card Authentication, Portal
– Cellular Login, Payments
R A V I S•H Audio,
A R MVideo,
A ( KSMS,
C S -MMS
711) – Database
M o Management
bile Computing
– Satellite • ERP, Inventory
– Vehicular

R• A Sensing
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) • Actuation/Control
Mobile Computing
– Weather forecast – UAV / UGV
– Land, River-bed monitoring – Guided missiles
– Coordinate Air Strikes
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

3
 Example: Smart Phone
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

•R ASmart
V I S Hphones
A R M A are
( K designed
C S - 7 1 1 ) for hands-in and
M on-the-fly
o b i l e C o usages
m p u t i and
ng
hence stand as a primary example for mobile computing.

• It can perform Audio, Video, Text and Image based interactions by

R Amultiple
V I S H Awireless
R M A ( standards:
K C S - 7 1 1 )Cellular, WiFi, Bluetooth
M o b i l e etc.
Computing

• As an example, It carries significant computing capability to support:

– Real-time navigation and tracking
R A –V IImage
SHA R M A (techniques
processing K C S - 7 1for
1 live
) interactions Mobile Computing
– Process management for performance optimization

• It also supports cross-protocol communication (heterogeneous

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Networking)
– WiFi calling
– HotSpot 4
 What is Mobile Computing?
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

• Mobile computing can be described as a computing environment
having objects capable of physical mobility.

• It envisions seamless provisioning of computation and

R A communication
V I S H A R M A ( Kcapability
C S - 7 1 1 through
) M of
a network o bmobile
i l e C oobjects.
mputing

• In addition to providing the above two capabilities anywhere and

R A anytime,
V I S H A RItMalso
A ( involves
K C S - 7 1dealing
1) with the limitations
M o b i l e of
C ounderlying
mputing
hardware, software and networking.
– For example:
• Resource management: Energy, Network, Database
R A V I S•H Security
ARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Interoperability among protocol standards

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 Four Paradigms / Principles
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

R• A Portability
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Devices/nodes in a mobile computing environment, should have sufficient
processing capability and physical portability to operate.

• Connectivity
R A V–I Given
S H A Rthe
M Acapability
( K C S -of7 1devices/nodes
1) to move,M networking
o b i l e C oinm ap u
mobile
ting
computing system should provision maximum availability with minimum
performance degradation.

• Interactivity
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– The devices/nodes within a mobile computing system should be capable of
communicating and collaborating towards data transactions

• Individuality
R A V–I AS Hmobile
A R M computing
A ( K C S - system
7 1 1 ) should be capableM of
o bproviding
ile Com p u t i to
services ng
individual devices/nodes and acquiring its contextual information while
adopting the technological heterogeneities in-between.
6
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Issues / Challenges
in
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

7
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Battery
Consumption

Quality of
Storage Limitations Communication
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Privacy
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

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 Issues/Challenges
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Resource
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– A finite amount of battery power accompanies the requirements of
computation and communication on the fly
– Technologically, hardware and software advancements for both computation
and power optimization are ongoing
R A V– I Data:
S H AStorage
R M A management
( K C S - 7 1 1(Distribution,
) Replication,
M o bSecurity)
ile Computing
• Communication
– Mobile communication is prone to:
• Interference from other radios
R A V I S• HPerformance
A R M A ( variability
K C S - 7 due
1 1 )to bandwidth limitations
M ocausing
b i l e latency
Computing
• Topological and Signal Propagation anomalies
• Security
– Privacy preserving protocols are required for target application.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Mobile devices are more susceptible to physical damage or loss than static
systems.
9
 Issues/Challenges
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Interoperability
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Heterogeneity in hardware and software standards among devices and
regions of operations
• Accessibility
– Limiting size of mobile devices interfaces e.g. touchscreen, keypads makes it
R A V I difficult
S H A R for
M A the
( K user
C S - 7to1 1interact.
) It results inMao trade-off
b i l e C obetween
m p u t i nthe
g
capability to be mobile and performance.
• Hazards
– Cellular radiation v/s health
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Cell phones v/s medical instruments
– Distraction while Driving
• Accidents†
– 2019: 23K
RAVI SH A– R2020:
M A16K( KCS-711) Mobile Computing

† Road Accidents in India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, Source: https://morth.nic.in/road-accident-in-india
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RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Wireless
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711)
Telephony
Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

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 Generations
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Generation advancement in Wireless Telephony refers to the
evolution of fundamental nature of the service

•R ARestricted/non-backward
V I S H A R M A ( K C S - 7 1 1 ) compatibility
M for
o b i transmission
le Computing

• Higher bit rates

• Novel Spectrum / New frequency bands
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Wider channel bandwidth
• Upgraded capacity for simultaneous data transfers
•R AAnytime
V I S H A R anywhere
M A ( K C S - provisioning
711) Mobile Computing

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 History of Wireless Telephony Standards
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
•R AFirst Generation (1G)
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Signaling: Analog
– Multiple Access: FDMA
– Introduced In: 1980s
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Bandwidth: 2.4 Kbps
– Communication type: Text, Voice
R A V–I Example:
SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
• Total Access Communication System (TACS)
• Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT)
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Current Status: Discontinued
13
 History of Wireless Telephony Standards
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
•R ASecond Generation (2G)
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Signaling: Digital
– Multiple Access: TDMA, CDMA
– Introduced In: 1990s
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Bandwidth: 64 Kbps
– Communication type: Text, Voice
R A V–I Example:
SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) , TDMA based
• Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System (DAMPS), CDMA based
• Interim Standard 95 (IS-95), CDMA based
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Current Status: Obsolete
14
 History of Wireless Telephony Standards
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
•R AThird Generation (3G)
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Signaling: Digital
– Multiple Access: CDMA
– Introduced In: 2000s
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Bandwidth: >2 Mbps
– Communication type: Text, Voice ,Video
R A V–I Example:
SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
• CDMA 2000 (IS-2000)

R A V–I Current
S H A R M Status:
A ( K C S Usage
-711) declining Mobile Computing

15
 History of Wireless Telephony Standards
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
•R AFourth Generation (4G)
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Signaling: Digital
– Multiple Access: OFDMA
– Introduced In: 2010s
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Bandwidth: >100 Mbps
– Communication type: Text, Voice ,Video
R A V–I Example:
SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Long Term Evolution (LTE) / LTE Advanced / TD-LTE
• Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e)
• WirelessMAN-Advanced (IEEE 802.16m )
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Current Status: Ongoing
16
 History of Wireless Telephony Standards
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
•R AFifth Generation (5G)
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Signaling: Digital
– Multiple Access: OFDMA
– Introduced In: 2019
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Bandwidth: 10 Gbps
– Communication type: Text, Voice ,Video
R A V–I Example:
SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• 5G NR (FR1 / FR2)
• Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB)
• Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC)
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC)
– Current Status: Upcoming 17
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Cellular
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Concept
Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

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 Cellular Concept
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RItA is
V Ia Ssystem-level
H A R M A ( Kidea
C S - which
711) calls for replacing
M oab isingle,
l e C ohigh
m p upower
ting
transmitter (large cell) with many low power transmitters (small cells),
each providing coverage to only a small portion of the service area.

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

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 Idea
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

A B C D E F G

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Radio Channels
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

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 Idea
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

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 Idea
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

B B
RAVI
G C
SHARMA (KCS-711)
G
Mobile Computing
C
A A
RAVI
F D
SHARMA (KCS-711)
FM o b i l e C D
omputing
E E

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

22
 Idea
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

B
G C B
A G C B
F D
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) A G C
Mobile Computing

E F D A
B E F D
G
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) C B E
Mobile Computing

A G C
F D A
E
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) F D
Mobile Computing

E 23
 Idea
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Each Base Station (BS) is allocated a subgroup of frequency
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
channels.

• Neighboring Base Stations are assigned different channels in order

to minimize interference among Base Stations and the mobile
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
users under associated to them.

• By systematically spacing base stations and their channel groups

R Athroughout
V I S H A R Mthe
A ( region,
K C S - 7 1the
1 ) available channels
M o bmay
i l e be
C o reused
m p u t i nasg
many times as necessary so long as the interference between co-
channel stations is kept below acceptable levels.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

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 Advantage
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711)

D
Mobile Computing

E F
C B E
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) G Mobile Computing C
D A G
A F D
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) B E
Mobile Computing F
C B
G
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Cell Packing:
1. Chang, Hai-Chau, and Lih-Chung Wang. "A simple proof of thue's theorem on circle packing." arXiv preprint arXiv:1009.4322 (2010).
2. Prvan, Marina & Ozegovic, Julije & Burazin Misura, Arijana. (2019). On Calculating the Packing Efficiency for Embedding Hexagonal and
Dodecagonal Sensors in a Circular Container. Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2019. 1-16. 10.1155/2019/9624751. 25
 Advantage
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Problem:
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– How to fulfil the increasing demand for service (i.e., as more
channels are needed within a region).

•R ASolution:
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Deploy more base stations with lesser transmitter power to
avoid added interference).

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

• Output:
– Additional radio capacity with no additional increase in radio
spectrum.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

26
Architecture of a Basic Cellular System
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Base Station
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Base Station

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

R A V I S H A R M A ( K C S - 7MSC
11) PSTN
M obile Computing

Mobile Switching Center

Public Switched Telephone Network 27
 Frequency Reuse
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RThe
A V Idesign
S H A Rprocess
M A ( Kof
C Sselecting
-711) and allocatingMchannel
o b i l e groups
C o m p for
u t iall
ng

of the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

28
 Frequency Reuse: Cellular Coverage
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint and is
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
determined by field measurements or propagation prediction
models
• Practically, the footprint of cellular coverage is amorphous
90°
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) M o b i l e C o m 60°
120° puting

150° 30°

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

180° 0°

210°
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) M o b i l e C o m p u t i n330°
g

240° 300°
29
270°
 Frequency Reuse: Circle or not?
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• A regular shape is required for systematic design of frequency
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
reuse plan, overlaid upon a map.

• It is intuitive to choose circle to represent the coverage area but…

•R ATo
V I cover
S H A Ran
M area,
A ( K Cadjacent
S - 7 1 1 ) circles cannot be
M overlaid
o b i l e C upon
o m p ua t map
ing
without:
– Leaving Gaps
– Creating overlapping regions
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

30
 Frequency Reuse: other shapes?
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• What can be that geometric shape that covers an area without gaps and
R Aoverlaps?
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• It must be symmetric in shape and size so that it can form a given area
homogeneously.

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

• As each cell represents the footprint of a radiating antenna, assuming the

R Aantenna
V I S H to
A Rbe
Mat
A the
( K center,
CS-7a 1 cell
1 ) must be able to serve
M o bthe
i l elocation
C o mfarthest
p u t i n to
g
its center.
• For a given distance between the centre of a polygon and its farthest perimeter
points, the hexagon has the largest area of the above three.
•R AHence,
V I S Ha A
hexagonal
R M A ( geometry
K C S - 7 1will
1 ) cover any given area
M with
o b i least
l e Ccell
o mcount.
puting
• Moreover, hexagon closely approximates a circular radiation pattern which would
occur for an omnidirectional base station antenna and free space propagation
31
 Frequency Reuse: Allocation
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) 𝑵

M Cells
obile Computing
𝑺 Channels (duplex)

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Distributing S channels among N cells such that

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
each cell has unique and disjoint channel groups
32
 Frequency Reuse: Allocation
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Cells Mobile Computing

1 𝑘 Channels
𝑺 Channels
2 𝑘 Channels
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

⋮
N-1 𝑘 Channels
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

N 𝑘 Channels

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

𝑺 = 𝒌𝑵 ,𝑘 < 𝑆 33
 Frequency Reuse: Allocation
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Cells

1 2-2.1 GHz

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

2-3 GHz
2 2.15-2.25 GHz

⋮
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
N-1 2.75-2.85 GHz

N 2.9-3 GHz
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

34
 Frequency Reuse: Reuse factor
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available
R Afrequencies
VI SHARM is Acalled
( K CaScluster.
- 7 1 1 )N is called the cluster
M o bsize.
i l e It Ccommonly
o m p u t i has
ng
the values 4,7,12.

• If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of

duplex channels (C) can be used as a measure ofMcapacity,
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711)
given by:
obile Computing
𝐶=𝑀𝑘𝑁=𝑀𝑆

• From a design viewpoint, the smallest possible value of N is desirable in

order to maximize capacity over a given coverage area. Because, If cluster
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
size N is reduced while the cell size is kept constant, more clusters are
required to cover a given area, and hence more capacity (a larger value of
C) is achieved.

•R AThe
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given by 1/N, since
each cell within a cluster is only assigned 1/N of the total available
channels in the system. 35
 Frequency Reuse: Reuse factor
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• The value for N is a function of how much interference a mobile or base
R Astation
V I S H Acan
R M Atolerate
( K C S - 7while
1 1 ) maintaining aM osufficient
bile Com p u t i nof
quality g
communications.

• A large cluster size indicates that the ratio between the cell radius and the
R Adistance
V I S H Abetween
R M A ( co-channel
K C S - 7 1 1 cells
) is small. Mobile Computing

• Conversely, a small cluster size indicates that co-channel cells are located
much closer together.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

• From a design viewpoint, the smallest possible value of N is desirable in

order to maximize capacity over a given coverage area.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

36
 Channel Assignment
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Fixed
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Each cell is allocated a fixed (predetermined) set of voice channels.
• Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in that
particular cell.
•R AIfV all
I the
SHAchannels
R M A in
( Kthat
C S -cell
7 1are
1 ) occupied, the call isMblocked
o b i l eand
C othe
m psubscriber
uting
does not receive service.

Borrowing Strategy: Variation of Fixed

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• A cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighbouring cell if all of its own
channels are already occupied.
• These borrowing procedures are supervised by mobile switching center (MSC)
R Asupervises
VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• MSC ensures that the borrowing of a channel does not disrupt or interfere with any
of the calls in progress in the donor cell 37
 Channel Assignment
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Dynamic
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel
from the MSC.
• Then, MSC allocates a channel to the requested cell following an algorithm that
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
takes into account:
– The likelihood of future blocking within the cell
– The frequency of use of the candidate channel
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– The reuse distance of the channel
– Other cost functions.

• Now, MSC allocates a given frequency which is not presently in use in the cell or
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of frequency
reuse to avoid co-channel interference.
38
 Channel Assignment
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Dynamic:
R A V I S H A Advantage
RMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• It reduces the likelihood of blocking, which increases the trunking capacity of the system,
because all the available channels in a market are accessible to all of the cells.

Dynamic: Requirement
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Dynamic channel assignment strategies require the MSC to collect real-time data on:
– Channel occupancy
– Traffic distribution, and
R A V– I Radio
S H Asignal
R M strength
A ( K Cindications
S - 7 1 1 )(RSSI) Mobile Computing
of all channels on a continuous basis.
• This increases the storage and computational load on the system but provides the
advantage of increased channel utilization and decreased probability of a blocked call.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Read :
http://www.wirelesscommunication.nl/reference/chaptr04/cellplan/dca.htm 39
 Handoff / Handover
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Base Station-1

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) M o b i l e Base

C oStation-2
mputing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the

R MSC
A V I automatically
S H A R M A transfers
( K C S - 7the
1 1call
) to a new channelM
belonging
o b i l e toC the
o mnew
p u tbase
ing
station. This transfer of communication and control is termed as
Handoff or Handover. 40
 Handoff / Handover
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Requirements:
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

• Identifying a new base station

• Relocating the voice and control signals to channels of new base
stations.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Expectation:
•R AHandoff requests are dealt in parallel with
VI SHARMA (KCS-711)
new call initiation
Mobile Computing
requests while allocating unused channels.
• Handoff must be performed successfully and as infrequently as
possible
•R AHandoff
V I S H Amust
R M Abe( Kimperceptible
CS-711) to the usersM o b i l e C o m p u t i n g

41
 Handoff / Handover
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Base Station (BS)
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Margin(Δ) = 𝑅𝑆𝑆𝐻𝑇 − 𝑅𝑆𝑆𝐶𝑇

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) 𝑹𝑺𝑺𝑯𝑻 M o>b i l 𝑹𝑺𝑺

e Computing
𝑪𝑻

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RSS Threshold for

Handoff Initiation

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Minimum

M o busable
i l e RSS
C o for
mp acceptable
uting
Quality of communication

* 𝑅𝑆𝑆 (Received Signal Strength) 42

 Handoff / Handover
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Considerations:
•R ASystem
V I S designers
H A R M Amust ( Kspecify
C S - 7an1 optimum
1) RSS at which toMinitiate
o b i laehandoff.
Computing
• First, a particular signal strength is specified as the minimum usable RSS for acceptable
voice quality at the base station receiver.
• If Δ is too large, unnecessary handoffs which burden the MSC may occur
• If Δ is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete a handoff before a call is lost
R Adue
V I toSweak
H A Rsignal
M A conditions.
(KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

𝑹𝑺𝑺 𝑹𝑺𝑺

𝚫 𝚫
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
𝛿𝑇
𝛿𝑇
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
43
 Call drop due to Handoff
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
•R AAV Idropped
S H A R M call
A ( Kevent
C S - 7 1can
1 ) happen when:
Mobile Computing

1. There is an excessive delay by the MSC in assigning a handoff .

These delays occur due to:
R A V I 1.
S H AThe
RM A network
high ( K C S - 7traffic
1 1 ) caused by computational
M o b i loading
l e C oat
mthe
p uMSC
ting

2. Channel unavailability on any of the nearby base stations

2. The threshold Δ is set too small for the handoff time in the
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
system.

• Vehicle movement v/s Handoff

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

44
 Handoff in 1G Systems
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Locator
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Receiver RSS Measurement of users in
need of a handoff from the
BS neighboring cells.

The locator receiver is

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) M controlled
o b i l e Cbyothe
m pMSC
u t iand
n g is
used to monitor the signal
strength of users in
neighbouring cells which
appear to be in need of
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) M handoff
o b i l e and
C o reports
m p u t all
i n RSS
g
values to the MSC.
RSS measurement of calls in progress to
determine the relative location of each
mobile user with respect to the base station
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

In first generation analog cellular systems, signal strength measurements are made
45
by the base stations and supervised by the MSC.
 Handoff in 2G Systems
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

BS-2

BS-1

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

BS-3

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

In 2G systems, handoff decisions are
mobile assisted
46
 Handoff in 2G Systems: MAHO
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• R Every
A V I mobile
SHARM station
A ( Kmeasures
C S - 7 1 1the
) RSS from surrounding
M o b i lBSs
e Cand
o mcontinually
puting
reports the results of these measurements to the serving BS.

• A handoff is initiated when the RSS received from the base station of a

R neighbouring
A V I S H A R cell
M A begins
( K C Sto
- 7exceed
1 1 ) the power received
M o bfrom
i l e the
C o current
m p u t ibase
ng
station by a certain level or for a certain period of time.

• The MAHO method enables the call to be handed over between base stations at a
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
much faster rate than in first generation analog systems because:
• The handoff measurements are made by each mobile
• The MSC no longer constantly monitors signal strengths.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• MAHO is particularly suited for microcellular environments where handoffs are
more frequent. 47
 Handling Handoff
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

R A V I Prioritization
S H A R M A ( Kbetween
C S - 7 1 1Serving
) M oCall
Handoff v/s b i l eInitiation
Computing

Guard Channel
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
A fraction of all available channels in a cell is reserved exclusively
for handoff requests from on-going calls which may be handed off
into the cell.

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Queuing
Queuing of handoffs is possible due to the fact that there is a finite
value of Δ = 𝑅𝑆𝑆𝐻𝑇 − 𝑅𝑆𝑆𝐶𝑇 . The delay time and size of the
queue is determined from the traffic pattern of the particular
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
service area.

48
 Handling Handoff
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Guard Channel Queuing

It does not guarantee a zero probability

It has the disadvantage of reducing the
Rtotal
A V Icarried
S H A traffic,
R M A as ( Kfewer
C S - 7channels
11) of forced termination,
M o b i l esince
Com large
p u delays
ting
will cause the 𝑹𝑺𝑺 to drop below the
are allocated to originating calls.
𝑹𝑺𝑺𝑪𝑻 and lead to forced termination.

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

It decreases the probability of forced
It offers efficient spectrum utilization
termination of a call due to lack of
when dynamic channel assignment
available channels. There is a trade-off
strategies, which minimize the number
between the decrease in probability of
RofA required
V I S H Aguard
R M Achannels
( K C S by
- 7 efficient
11) M o b i l and
forced termination e C ototal
m p ucarried
ting
demand-based allocation, are used.
traffic.
49
 Practical Handoff Considerations
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Umbrella Cell
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Micro Cell

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Umbrella cell for High speed traffic Micro Cell for Low speed traffic
50
 Exercise
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
1. Can you identify a simplex and half duplex communication system as seen in real life?
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
2. What is the dwell time in a cellular communication?

3. What do we mean by Intersystem handoff?

4. What is the cell dragging problem with the handoffs in umbrella cell approach?
R A VWhat
5. I S isHthe M A 𝚫( Kvalue
A Rtypical C S for
- 7 different
11) M o bsystems?
generations of cellular ile Computing

6. What is the improvement (over the cellular generation) in “time required to perform
handoff” after the decision on a suitable handoff cell has been made?
R A VWhat
7. I S isHhard
ARM andAsoft
( Khandoffs?
CS-711) Mobile Computing

8. Name any other metric other than RSS that is utilized for making handoff decisions in
newer cellular systems.

9.
R A VRead
I S about
H A R the
M Afollowing
( K C S -techniques
711) utilized for increasing
M o bthe
i l ecapacity
C o mofp ua tcellular
ing
system: 1) Cell Splitting 2) Sectoring
51
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

52
 GSM: History
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• GSM was originally developed to serve as a PAN-European cellular service.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– 1983: Groupe Spécial Mobile
– 1992: Global System for Mobile Communications

• The GSM standard was developed by European Telecommunications

R AStandards
V I S H A RInstitute
M A ( K(ETSI).
CS-711) Mobile Computing

• Most GSM systems primarily operated in 900 or 1800 MHz bands

(secondary: 850 and 1900 MHZ).
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• GSM is an obsolete technology and its decommissioning across all
different geographical regions started with Telstra in Australia on 1st
December 2016.

•R AItV isI aS Hsecond-generation

A R M A ( K C S - 7(2G)
1 1 ) standard employing
M o time-division
b i l e C o m pmultiple-
uting
access (TDMA) spectrum-sharing.
53
 GSM: Services
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
GSM services follow ISDN* guidelines
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

*
Telephone Services Integrated
• Offered by a mobile service provider to a caller Services
Digital
R A V I S H A •R M
Voice
A call,
( K Cfax,
S -SMS,
7 1 1MMS,
) Emergency Number M o b i l e C o m p Network
uting

Bearer/Data Services
• Limited to Layer 1,2,3 of the OSI reference model
R A V I S H A •R M
Provides
A ( K data
C S -transmission
711) service Mobile Computing
• Circuit Switched (CSD / HSCSD), Packet Switched (GPRS)

Supplementary Services
R A V I S H A •R CallA forwarding,
M ( K C S - 7barring,
1 1 ) waiting, hold, conferencing
Mobile Computing
• Calling Line Identification Presentation (CLIP)/ Restriction (CLIR)
• Closed User Group (CUG), Advice of Charge (AoC)
• Unstructured supplementary services data (USSD) 54
 GSM: Process
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

BSC
Base
Station
R A VMS/UE
I SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Controller
BTS
Mobile Station /
User Equipment Base Transceiver Station
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

PSTN MSC 55
 GSM: Interfaces
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Abis Interface SS7

MS BTS BSC MSC PSTN

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

R A V Air
I SInterface
HARMA (KCS-711) A Interface Mobile Computing
(GSM Radio)

56
 RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

GSM Subsystems
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Base Station Network Switching Operation Support

R A V I Subsystems
SHARMA ( K C S - 7 1 1 Subsystem
) M o b i l Subsystem
e Computing
(BSS) (NSS) (OSS)

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

57
 GSM Subsystems: Base Station
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

R A Mobile
V I S HStation
A R M A ( K CBase
S - 7Transceiver
11) System M Base
o b i Station
l e C o Controller
mputing
(MS) (BTS) (BSC)

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Base Station Subsystem (BSS) 58

 GSM: BSS
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Also, known as Radio Subsystem provides and manages radio
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
transmissions between MS and MSC

• MSs communicate to BSS over Air interface

•R ABSS
V I Sconsists
H A R M of
A (many
K C S - BSCs
7 1 1 )which connects to
M osingle
b i l e MSC.
C o m pEach
u t i nBSc
g
typically controls several hundred BTSs

• BTSs may be co-located at the BSCs while others can be distributed

R Aremotely
V I S H A having
R M A microwave
( K C S - 7 1 link
1 ) or dedicated leased
Mob ile Computing
lines.

• Mobile handoffs between two BTSs (under the control of same BSC) are
handled by BSC (in-turn reducing the switching burden of the MSC).
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• BSCs are physically connected to the MSC via dedicated/leased lines or
59
microwave links.
 GSM: System Architecture
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

R A V I S H A R M ABTS( K C S - 7 1 1 ) Mobile Computing

MS BTS BSC

R A V I S H A R M ABTS( K C S - 7 1 1 ) Mobile Computing

PSTN

MSC ISDN
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
Data
BTS Networks

MS BTS BSC
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

BTS
60
 GSM: NSS
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• NSS handles the switching of GSM calls between external networks
R Aand
V I the
S H ABSCs
R M Ain (the
K C BSS.
S-711) Mobile Computing

• It is also responsible for managing and providing access to several

customer databases namely:
– Home Location Register (HLR)
R A V I S• HIt Acontains
R M A the
( K subscriber
C S - 7 1 1and
) location information
M for
o b each
i l e user
C o who
m p resides
u t i n gin
the same city as the MSC.
• Each subscriber in a particular GSM market is assigned a unique International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number used to identify each home user.
R A V–I Visitor
S H A RLocation
M A ( K CRegister
S - 7 1 1 )(VLR) Mobile Computing
• It temporarily stores the IMSI and customer information for each roaming
subscriber who is visiting the coverage area of a particular MSC.
• VLR is linked between adjacent MSCs in a particular market/geographical region
R A V I S Hand
A Rcontains
M A (subscription
K C S - 7 1 1information
) of every visiting
M o user
b i l in
e the
C oarea.
mputing
• Once the roaming mobile is logged in the VLR, the MSC sends the necessary
information to the visiting subscriber’s HLR so that call to the roaming mobile can
be appropriately routed over the PSTN by roaming user’s HLR 61
 GSM: NSS
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Authentication Center (AUC)
R A V I S• HItAisRaMstrongly
A ( K Cprotected
S - 7 1 1 )database which handles
M o bthe
i l eauthentication
C o m p u t i nand
g
encryption keys for every single subscriber in the HLR and VLR.
• It contains a register called the Equipment Identity Register (EIR) which
identifies stolen or fraudulently altered phones that transmit identity data
transmit identity data that doesn’t match the information contained in
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
either the HLR or VLR.
HLR VLR AUC
BTS

R A VMS
I S H A R BTS
M A ( K C S - 7 BSC
11) M o b i l e C o mPSTN
puting
BTS
MSC ISDN
BTS
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) M o b i l e C o m p Data
uting
MS BTS BSC Networks
BTS 62
 GSM: OSS
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• It supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centers (OMCs)
R Awhich
V I S Hare
A R used
M A ( to
K Cmonitor
S - 7 1 1 ) and maintain the
M operformance
b i l e C o m p of
u t each
ing
MS, BS, BSC and MSC.

• It has 3 main functions:

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Maintenance of all Telecommunication H/W and network operations with a
particular market
– Management of all charging and billing procedures
– Management of all mobile equipment in the system.
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

• OMC also has provisions for:

– Adjusting BS parameters and billing procedures
R A V– I Providing
S H A R Msystem
A ( K Coperators
S - 7 1 1 )the ability to determine
M o b ithe
l e performance
C o m p u t i nand
g
integrity of each Subscriber equipment within the system.
63
 GSM: OSS
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

HLR VLR AUC

BTS
MS BTS
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711)
BSC M o b i l e C o mPSTN
puting
BTS
MSC ISDN
BTS
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) M o b i l e C o m p Data
uting
MS BTS BSC Networks
BTS

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) OSSM o b i l e Computing

64
 GSM: Channel Types
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• There are two types of GSM logical channels:
R A V– I Traffic
S H A Channels
R M A ( (TCHs)
KCS-711) Mobile Computing
– Control Channels (CCHs)

• TCHs carry digitally encoded user speech or user data and have
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
identical functions and formats on both the forwards and reverse
link.

•R ACCHs
VI SHcarry
A R Msignaling
A ( K C S and
- 7 1 1synchronizing
) commands
M o b i l ebetween
C o m p uthe
t i nBS
g
and the mobile station

•R AFor further subdivision, read at:

VI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
https://www.ecstuff4u.com/2018/02/gsm-channel-types.html
65
 GPRS: General Packet Radio Service
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

Data Communication Standards

(Internet Access)
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

HSCSD EDGE
GPRS
R A V I S H A R M A ( K C S - 7 1 1(High
) Speed M o b(Enhanced
i l e C o m pData
uting
(General Packet
Circuit Switched Rates for Global
Radio Service)
Data) Evolution

RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing

66
 GPRS: General Packet Radio Service
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• It is a packet based data network standard and was originally designed to provide
R Apacket
VI SH data
A Raccess
M A (for
K CGSM
S - 7network.
11) It later expanded
M over
o b i IS-136.
le Computing

• Suitable for non-real time internet usage, e.g.

– Email access, Fax
– Asymmetric (more download, less upload) Web browsing
RAVI SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• GPRS supports multi user network sharing of individual radio channels and time
slots.

• An individual GPRS user can achieve a maximum of 172.2 Kbps (8 time slots of
R A21.4
V I Kbps)
SHARMA (KCS-711) Mobile Computing
• Data throughput experienced by a GPRS user decreases substantially with
simultaneously usage attempts by other users.

•R AImplementation
V I S H A R M Aof (GPRS
K C S merely
- 7 1 1 requires
) the GSM operator
M o b i to
l e install
C o mnew
p u routers
ting
and internet gateways at BS along with a software that redefines BS air interface
standard for GPRS channels and time slots.
– No new BS RF hardware is required. 67