Chapter 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. Nguyễn Duy Tân

email: [email protected]

Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics, HUST

February 2024

Vectors-Geometry of Space 1 / 36
 Contents

Contents

1 1.1. Vectors
1.1.1. Definitions and properties
1.1.2. The dot product
1.1.3. Cross product

2 1.2. Equations of lines and planes

1.2.1. Equations of lines
1.2.2. Equations of planes

3 1.3. Cylinder and quadric surfaces

1.3.1. Cylinder surfaces
1.3.2. Quadric surfaces

4 1.4. Cylindrical and spherical coordinates

1.4.1. Cylindrical coordinates
1.4.2. Spherical coordinates

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.1. Definitions and properties

1.1.1. Definitions and properties

A (geometric) vector ⃗v is a directed line segment connecting an initial point A with a terminal
−→
point B and we write ⃗v = AB.
−→ −→
Two vectors ⃗v = AB and u⃗ = CD are equal if they have the same length and same direction, in
which case we write ⃗v = u⃗.
−→
The zero vector ⃗0 = AA.
We can define the sum u⃗ + ⃗v , the difference u⃗ − ⃗v , of two vectors u⃗ and v .
If c ∈ R and ⃗v is a vector, we can define the scalar multiple c⃗v .

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.1. Definitions and properties

Components of a vector

Let Oxyz be a Cartesian coordinate system in (3-)space.

−→
Let v be a vector. We place the initial point of v at O so that ⃗v = OP.
If the coordinates of P of the form (a1 , a2 , a3 ) then these coordinates are called the components of
⃗v and we write
⃗v = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩.

Properties
Given A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ), one has
−→
AB = ⟨x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ⟩

The length of ⃗v = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ is »

|⃗v | = a12 + a22 + a32 .

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.1. Definitions and properties

Vector operations

Vector addition
If ⃗v = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and u⃗ = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩ then ⃗v + u⃗ = ⟨a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ⟩.

Multiplication by a scalar
If ⃗v = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and c ∈ R (a scalar) then c⃗v = ⟨ca1 , ca2 , ca3 ⟩.

In particular, if ⃗v = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ then −⃗v = (−1)v = ⟨−a1 , −a2 , −a3 ⟩

Properties
For any vectors u⃗, ⃗v , and w
⃗ and scalars c and d, the following properties hold.

u⃗ + ⃗v = ⃗v + u⃗ u + ⃗v ) = c u⃗ + c⃗v
c(⃗
u⃗ + (⃗v + w⃗ ) = (⃗
u + ⃗v ) + w
⃗ (c + d)⃗v = c⃗v + d⃗v
⃗
⃗v + 0 = ⃗v (cd)⃗v = c(d⃗v )
⃗v + (−⃗v ) = ⃗0 1⃗v = ⃗v .

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.1. Definitions and properties

Standard basis vectors

The vectors
⃗i = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩, ⃗j = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩, ⃗k = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩,

are called the standard basis vectors. They have length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x-,
y -, and z-axes.

If ⃗v = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ then ⃗v = a1⃗i + a2⃗j + a3⃗j.

Definition (unit vector)

A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector. For instance, ⃗i, ⃗j, ⃗k are unit vectors.
⃗v
Note that if ⃗v ̸= ⃗0, then is the unit vector that has the same direction as ⃗v .
|⃗v |

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.1. Definitions and properties

Example
If u⃗ = ⟨1, 2, −2⟩ and ⃗v = ⟨−2, 1, 3, find |⃗
u | and the vectors u⃗ + ⃗v , u⃗ − ⃗v , 2⃗
u + 3⃗v , and the vector unit
vector in the direction of u⃗
p
u | = 12 + 22 + (−2)2 = 3.
|⃗
u⃗ + ⃗v = ⟨−1, 3, 1⟩.
u⃗ − ⃗v = ⟨3, 1, −5⟩.
u + 3⃗v = ⟨−4, 7, 5⟩.
2⃗
The unit vector with the same direction as u⃗ is
1 1 1 2 −2 1 2 2⃗
u⃗ = ⟨1, 2, −2⟩ = ⟨ , , ⟩ = ⃗i + ⃗j − k.
|⃗
u| 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.2. The dot product

1.1.2. The dot product

Definition
For two vectors u⃗ = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and ⃗v = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, the dot product of u⃗ and ⃗v is the number u⃗ · ⃗v
given by
u⃗ · ⃗v = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

Properties
If u⃗, ⃗v , w
⃗ are vectors and c is a scalar then

u⃗ · u⃗ = |u|2 (c u⃗) · ⃗v = c(⃗

u · ⃗v )
u⃗ · ⃗v = ⃗v · u⃗
u⃗ · (⃗v + w⃗ ) = u⃗ · ⃗v + u⃗ · w
⃗ u⃗ · ⃗0 = 0

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.2. The dot product

Angle between vectors

Suppose u⃗ and ⃗v are two nonzero vectors.

−→ −→
Suppose u⃗ = OA and ⃗v = OB.
The angle between u⃗ and ⃗v is the angle θ, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, between line segments OA and OB.

Theorem
One has u⃗ · ⃗v = |u||v | cos θ.

Corollary
u⃗ · ⃗v
One has cos θ = .
|u||v |

Two nonzero vectors are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if the angle between them is π/2. By
convention, ⃗0 is orthogonal to any vector.

Two vectors u⃗ and ⃗v are orthogonal if and only if u⃗ · ⃗v = 0.

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.2. The dot product

Example
Let u⃗ = ⃗i + 2⃗j − 2⃗k and ⃗v = 4⃗i − 3⃗j.
Find u⃗ · ⃗v .
Find the angle θ between u⃗ and ⃗v .
⃗ = ⟨4, m, 1⟩ is orthogonal to u⃗.
Find a such that the vector w

u⃗ · ⃗v = 1(4) + 2(−3) + (−2)0 = −2.

p p
u | = 12 + 22 + (−2)2 = 3 and |⃗v | = 42 + (−3)2 + 02 = 5. Hence
|⃗

u⃗ · ⃗v 2 2
cos θ = = =
|⃗u ||⃗v | 3·5 15

and θ = arccos(2/15).
⃗ and u⃗ are orthogona if and only if
w

0 = u⃗ · w
⃗ = 1(4) + 2m + (−2)1 = 2m + 2

if and only if m = −1.

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.2. The dot product

Direction angles and direction cosines

Let ⃗v be a nonzero vector.

Definition
The direction angles of ⃗v are the angles α, β and γ (in the interval [0, π]) that ⃗v makes with the
positive x-, y -, and z-axis.
The cosines of these direction angles, cos α, cos β, and cos γ, are called the direction cosines of the
vector ⃗v .

If ⃗v = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ then
a1 a2 a3
cos α = , cos β = , cos γ = ,
|v | |v | |v |
and cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1, and

⃗v = |v |⟨cos α, cos β, cos γ⟩.

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.2. The dot product

Projection
Let u⃗ and ⃗v are vector such that u ̸= ⃗0.
−→ −→
Suppose that u⃗ = OP and ⃗v = OQ.
Let R be the foot of the perpendicular from Q to the line containing OP.
−→
Then the vector OR is call the vector projection (or orthogonal projection) of ⃗v onto u⃗ and
denoted by proju⃗ (⃗v ).

One has
u⃗ · ⃗v u⃗ · ⃗v
Å ã Å ã
u⃗
proju⃗ (⃗v ) = u⃗ = .
u |2
|⃗ |⃗
u| |⃗
u|

The scalar projection of ⃗v on u⃗ (also called the component of ⃗v along u⃗) is denoted by compu⃗ (⃗v )
and it is defined by
u⃗ · ⃗v
compu⃗ (⃗v ) = .
|⃗
u|
Note that the scalar projection is the signed length of the vector projection and
u⃗
compu⃗ (⃗v ) = · ⃗v = |⃗v | cos θ,
|⃗
u|
where θ is the angle between u⃗ and ⃗v .
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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.2. The dot product

Example
Find the scalar and vector projections of ⃗v = ⃗i − ⃗j + ⃗k onto u⃗ = ⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k.

u |2 = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3.
|⃗
u⃗ · ⃗v = 1(1) + 1(−1) + 1(1) = 1.
The vector projection of ⃗v onto u⃗ is
u⃗ · ⃗v 1 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Å ã
proju⃗ (⃗v ) = u⃗ = (i + j + k)
u |2
|⃗ 3
The scalar projection of ⃗v onto u⃗ is
u⃗ · ⃗v 1
compu⃗ (⃗v ) = =√ .
|⃗
u| 3
Note that
2 4 2
⃗ := ⃗v − proju⃗ (⃗v ) = ⃗i − ⃗j + ⃗k
w
3 3 3
and
2 4 2
⃗ · u⃗ =
w − + = 0.
3 3 3
Hence w
⃗ is orthogonal to u⃗.
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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.3. Cross product

1.1.3. Cross product

Definition
For two vectors u⃗ = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and ⃗v = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, the cross product of u⃗ and ⃗v is the vector

u⃗ × ⃗v = ⟨a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ⟩.

One way to remember: If u⃗ = a1⃗i + a2⃗j + a3⃗j and ⃗v = b1⃗i + b2⃗j + b3⃗j then

⃗i ⃗j ⃗k
a a3 ⃗ a1 a3 ⃗ a1 a2 ⃗
u⃗ × ⃗v = 2 i− j+ k = a1 a2 a3 .
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.3. Cross product

Example
If u⃗ = ⟨1, 1, −1⟩ and ⃗v = ⟨1, 2, 3⟩, find u⃗ × ⃗v .

One has
⃗i ⃗j ⃗k
u⃗ × ⃗v = 1 1 −1
1 2 3
1 −1 ⃗ 1 −1 ⃗ 1 1 ⃗
= i− j+ k
2 3 1 3 1 2
= 5⃗i − 4⃗j + ⃗k = ⟨5, −4, 1⟩.

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.3. Cross product

Direction and length of the cross product

Theorem
The vector u⃗ × ⃗v are orthogonal to both u⃗ and ⃗v .
−→ −→
Note that if u⃗ = AB and ⃗v = AC then the direction is given by the right-hand rule: If the fingers of
your right hand curl in the direction of a rotation (through an angle less than π) from to AB to AC ,
then your thumb points in the direction of u⃗ × ⃗v .
Theorem
If θ is the angle between u⃗ and ⃗v (so 0 ≤ θ ≤ π) then

u⃗ × ⃗v = |⃗
u ||⃗v | sin(θ)

Corollary
The length of the cross product u⃗ × ⃗v is equal to the area of the parallelogram determined by u⃗
and ⃗v .
u⃗ × ⃗v = ⃗0 if and only if u⃗ and ⃗v are parallel, that is, one vector is a multiple of the other vector.

Remark: u⃗ × ⃗v is the vector that is perpendicular to both u⃗ and ⃗v , whose orientation is determined by
the right-hand rule and whose length is |⃗u ||⃗v | sin(θ).
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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.3. Cross product

Example
Let P(−1, 3, 1), Q(0, 5, 2), R(4, 3, −1) be three point in the space.
Find a nonzero vector orthogonal to the plane passing through the points P, Q and R.
Find the area of the triangle PQR.
−→ −→
PQ = ⟨1, 2, 1⟩ and PR = ⟨5, 0, −2⟩.
One has
⃗i ⃗j ⃗k
−→ −→
PQ × PR = 1 2 1
5 0 −2
2
1 ⃗ 1 1 ⃗ 1 2 ⃗
= i− j+ k
−20 5 −2 5 0
= −4⃗i + 7⃗j − 10⃗k.
So the vector ⟨−4, 7, −10⟩ is orthogonal to the given plane. Any nonzero scalar multiple of this
vector, such as ⟨4, 7, −10⟩s, is also orthogonal to the plane.
The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides PQ and PR is the length of the cross product:
−→ −→ » √
|PQ × PR| = 42 + (−7)2 + 102 = 165.
1√
The area of the triangle PQR is half the area of this parallelogram, that is 165.
2
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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.3. Cross product

Properties

If u⃗, ⃗v , w
⃗ are vectors and c is a scalar then

u⃗ × ⃗v = −⃗v × u⃗ u + ⃗v ) × w
(⃗ ⃗ = u⃗ × w ⃗ + ⃗v × w
⃗
(c u⃗) × ⃗v = c(⃗
u × ⃗v ) = u⃗ × (c⃗v ) u × ⃗v )⃗
(⃗ u·w⃗ = u⃗ · (⃗v × w
⃗ ).
u⃗ × (⃗v + w
⃗ ) = u⃗ × ⃗v + u⃗ × w
⃗ u⃗ × (⃗v × w u·w
⃗ ) = (⃗ ⃗ )⃗v − (⃗
u · ⃗v )⃗
w

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.3. Cross product

Scalar triple product

Definition
u × ⃗v ) · w
The product (⃗ ⃗ is called the scalar triple product of vectors u⃗, ⃗v and w
⃗.

Proposition
If u⃗ = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩, ⃗v = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩ and w
⃗ = ⟨c1 , c2 , c3 ⟩ then

a1 a2 a3
u × ⃗v ) · w
(⃗ ⃗ = b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3

|(⃗
u × ⃗v ) · w
⃗ | (the absolute value) is the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors u⃗, ⃗v
and w⃗.
u × ⃗v ) · w
(⃗ ⃗ = 0 if and only if u⃗, ⃗v and w
⃗ are coplanar (they lie in the same plane).

Some other properties:

u × ⃗v ) · w
(⃗ ⃗ = −(⃗v × u⃗) · w⃗ = −(⃗u×w ⃗ ) · ⃗v
u × ⃗v ) · w
(⃗ ⃗ = (⃗v × w
⃗ ) · u⃗ = (⃗
w × u⃗) · ⃗v
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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.3. Cross product

Example
Use the scalar triple product to verify that the vectors u⃗ = ⃗i + 5⃗j − 2⃗k, ⃗v = 3⃗i − ⃗j, and
⃗ = 5⃗i + 9⃗j − 4⃗k are coplanar.
w

The scalar triple product

1 5 −2
u × ⃗v ) · w
(⃗ ⃗ = 3 −1 0 = · · · = 0.
5 9 −4
Hence u⃗, ⃗v and w
⃗ are coplanar.

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 1.1. Vectors 1.1.3. Cross product

Example
Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors u⃗ = ⃗i + ⃗j, ⃗v = ⃗j + ⃗k, and w
⃗ = ⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k

The scalar triple product

1 1 0
u × ⃗v ) · w
(⃗ ⃗ = 0 1 1 = 1.
1 1 1
The volume of the parallelepiped is 1.

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 1.2. Equations of lines and planes 1.2.1. Equations of lines

1.2.1. Equations of lines

A line in 3-space is determined when we know a point on the line and a nonzero vector parallel to the
line.
Let L be a line in space. Suppose P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is a point on L and ⃗v = ⟨a, b, c⟩ is a nonzero vector
parallel to L.
−→ −−→
Let P(x, y , z) an arbitrary point on L. Let ⃗r = OP and r⃗0 = OP0 .
−−→
Then vector P0 P = ⃗r − ⃗r0 is parallel to ⃗v . Hence ⃗r − ⃗r0 = t⃗v , for some scalar t.
Thus we obtain a vector equation of L:

⃗r = ⃗r0 + t⃗v

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 1.2. Equations of lines and planes 1.2.1. Equations of lines

Equations of lines
Writing ⃗r = ⟨x, y , z⟩, ⃗r0 = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩, ⃗v = ⟨a, b, c⟩ and comparing corresponding compenents we
obtain parametric equations of L

x = x0 + ta, y = y0 + tb, z = z0 + tc,

where t ∈ R. Each value of the parameter t gives a point (x, y , z) on L.

Eliminating t we obtain the symmetric equations of L (if all a, b, c are nonzero)

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c

If one of a, b or c is 0, for instance a = 0, we can write the equation of L as

y − y0 z − z0
x − x0 , =
b c

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 1.2. Equations of lines and planes 1.2.1. Equations of lines

Example
Find a vector equation, parametric equations, symmetric equations for the line that passes through the
point (1, 2, 3) and is parallel to the vector ⃗v = ⟨−2, 1, 1⟩.

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 1.2. Equations of lines and planes 1.2.2. Equations of planes

1.2.2. Equations of planes

A plane in 3-space is determined when we know a point on the plane and a nonzero vector which is
orthogonal to the plane.
A nonzero vector which is ortthogonal to the plane is called a normal vector (to the plane)
Let P be a plane in space. Suppose P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is a point on P and n⃗ = ⟨a, b, c⟩ is a normal
vector to P.
−→ −−→
Let P(x, y , z) an arbitrary point on P. Let ⃗r = OP and r⃗0 = OP0 .
−−→
Then vector P0 P = ⃗r − ⃗r0 is orthogonal to n⃗. Thus

n⃗ · (⃗r − ⃗r0 )

or
n⃗ · ⃗r = n⃗ · ⃗r0 .

Either of the above equations is called avector equation of P.

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 1.2. Equations of lines and planes 1.2.2. Equations of planes

Equations of planes

Writing ⃗r = ⟨x, y , z⟩, ⃗r0 = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩, ⃗v = ⟨a, b, c⟩, the vector equation become

a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0.

This is called the scalar equation of the plane (through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with normal vector
n⃗ = ⟨a, b, c⟩).
Note the above equation can be rewritten as

ax + by + cz + d = 0,

where d = −(ax0 + by0 + cz0 ).

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 1.2. Equations of lines and planes 1.2.2. Equations of planes

Example
Find an equation of the plane passing through the points P(−1, 3, 1), Q(0, 5, 2), R(4, 3, −1).
−→ −→
PQ = ⟨1, 2, 1⟩ and PR = ⟨5, 0, −2⟩.
One has
⃗i ⃗j ⃗k
−→ −→
PQ × PR = 1 2 1
5 0 −2
2
1 ⃗ 1 1 ⃗ 1 2 ⃗
= i− j+ k
−20 5 −2 5 0
= −4⃗i + 7⃗j − 10⃗k.
So the vector n⃗ = ⟨−4, 7, −10⟩ is orthogonal to the given plane. Hence n⃗ is a normal vector.
An equation of the plane is

−4(x + 1) + 7(y − 3) − 10(z − 1) = 0 or 4x − 7y + 10z + 15 = 0.

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 1.3. Cylinder and quadric surfaces 1.3.1. Cylinder surfaces

1.3.1. Cylinder surfaces

Definition
A cylinder is a surface that consists of all lines (called rulings) that are parallel to a given line and pass
through a given plane curve.

Example
The surface z = x 2 (the equation does not involve y ) is a cylinder.

Any vertical plane with equation y = k (parallel to the xz-plane) intersects the surface in a curve
with equation z = x 2 (and y = k).
The surface is formed by taking the parabola z = x 2 in the xz-plane and moving it in the direction
of the y -axis.
The surface is called a parabolic cylinder, made up of infinitely many shifted copies of the same
parabola.

The rulings are parallel to the y -axis and pass through the parabola z = x 2 in the xz-plane.

Vectors-Geometry of Space 28 / 36
 1.3. Cylinder and quadric surfaces 1.3.1. Cylinder surfaces

Example
The surface x 2 + y 2 = 4 (the equation does not involve z) is a cylinder.

This is a circular cylinder. The rulings are parallel to the z-axis and pass through the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4
in the xy-plane

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 1.3. Cylinder and quadric surfaces 1.3.2. Quadric surfaces

1.3.2. Quadric surfaces

A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation in three variables x, y , and z.

The most general equation is

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Exz + Fyz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0

By translation and rotation it can be brought into one of the two standard forms

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + J = 0 or Ax 2 + By 2 + Iz = 0

Vectors-Geometry of Space 30 / 36
 1.3. Cylinder and quadric surfaces 1.3.2. Quadric surfaces

x2 y2 z2
Ellipsoid: + + = 1. If a = b = c then the ellipsoid is a sphere
a2 b2 c2

x2 y2 z2
Hyperboloid of one sheet: + − =1
a2 b2 c2

Vectors-Geometry of Space 31 / 36
 1.3. Cylinder and quadric surfaces 1.3.2. Quadric surfaces

x2 y2 z2
Hyperboloid of two sheets: + − = −1
a2 b2 c2

x2 y2 z2
Cone: + − =0
a2 b2 c2

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 1.3. Cylinder and quadric surfaces 1.3.2. Quadric surfaces

x2 y2
Elliptic paraboloid: z = 2
+ 2
a b

x2 y2
Hyperbolic paraboloid: z = 2
− 2
a b

Vectors-Geometry of Space 33 / 36
 1.3. Cylinder and quadric surfaces 1.3.2. Quadric surfaces

Cylinders
x2 y2
Elliptic cylinder + = 1.
a2 b2
x2 y2
Hyperbolic cylinder 2 − 2 = 1.
a b
Parabolic cylinder x 2 = py .

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 1.4. Cylindrical and spherical coordinates 1.4.1. Cylindrical coordinates

1.4.1. Cylindrical coordinates

A point P(x, y , z) in the space can be represented by the ordered triple (r , θ, z), where r and θ are
polar coordinates of the projection of P onto the xy -plane.
We say that (r , θ, z) is the cylindrical coordinates of P. Note that r ≥ 0, z ∈ R and we usually
restrict θ to 0 ≤ θ < 2π or −π ≤ θ < π.

Convert from cylindrical coordinates to Cartesian coordinates (rectangular coordinates)

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z =z

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 1.4. Cylindrical and spherical coordinates 1.4.2. Spherical coordinates

1.4.2. Spherical coordinates

A point P(x, y , z) in the space can be represented by the ordered triple (ρ, θ, ϕ), where ρ = |OP|, θ
is the same angle as in cylindrical coordinates, and ϕ is the angle between the positive z-axis and
the line segment OP.
We say that (r , θ, ϕ) is the spherical coordinates of P. Note that ρ ≥ 0, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π and we usually
restrict θ to 0 ≤ θ < 2π or −π ≤ θ < π.

Convert from spherical coordinates to Cartesian coordinates (rectangular coordinates)

x = ρ sin ϕ cos θ, y = ρ sin ϕ sin θ, z = ρ cos ϕ

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