- Spatial Data Model

- Data Model and Reality

- GIS Data Formats
- Vector Model
- Concept of Topology

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 Vector Model Raster Model

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 • representation of reality → model
• GIS itself is based on a model of complexity
• GIS is used to model complexity
• full representation of reality?

Data model =
limited representation of reality

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 Reality is too complex for even the most sophisticated GIS software, so
in order to represent reality in a spatial database, a simplification of
reality is created. This simplification is known as a data model.
 In a data model, reality is represented by geometry and attributes.

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 • Spatial Data
(RASTER)

• Spatial Data
(VECTOR)

• Real World

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There are two formats used by GIS systems to store and retrieve spatial data:

–Vector
–Raster

Vector Raster

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Vector Format
• Data are associated with points, lines, or areas
• Points are located by coordinates
• Lines are described by a series of points join-the-dots-books
(Arcs → nodes, vertices)
• Areas are described by a series of lines enclosing the area.
(Polygons)

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Vector Format
• Any attributes (name or code) can be associated with a point, line or
polygon.
• Data are stored in two files:
– a file containing information of coordinates
– a file containing information of the attributes
• A third file contains information needed to link positional data with their
attributes (Identifier).

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Features have unique identifiers:
point ID, line ID, polygon ID
common identifiers provide link to:
Y –coordinates table (for where)
–attributes table (for what)

Coordinates Table Attributes Table

Point ID x y Point ID model year
1 1 3 1 a 90
2 2 1 2 b 90
3 4 1 3 b 80
X 4 1 2 4 a 70
5 3 2 5 c 70

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RASTER Format
 Data are divided into cell, pixels (picture elements)
 Pixels are organized in arrays
 Row and Column Numbers (coordinates) are used to identify the
location of the pixel within the array.
 Each pixel has a single value (attribute)

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RASTER Format

column
8 pixel:
Coordinate: (2,9)
Attribute: 8

row

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 Vector and Raster Representation of Point
Map Features

GIS Vector GIS Raster

Map Feature Format
Format

(X,Y)
Coordinate in space Pixel Located
in an Array

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Vector and Raster Representation of Line Map Features

GIS Vector GIS Raster

Map Feature Format Format

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 Vector and Raster Representation of Area Map Features

GIS Vector GIS Raster

Map Feature Format Format

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Vector Model
Vector model uses discrete points, lines and/or corresponding to discrete objects with
name or areas code number of attributes.

Raster Model
 Raster model uses regularly spaced grid cells in specific sequence. An element of the grid
cell is called a pixel (picture element).
 The conventional sequence is row by row from the top to bottom and then column by
column from the left to the right.
 Every location is given in two dimensional image coordinates; row number and column
number, which contains a single value of attributes.

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 Vector Raster
 Vector formats are efficient when  Raster formats are efficient when
comparing information whose comparing information among arrays with
geographical shapes and sizes are the same cell size.
different.  Raster files are generally very large because
 Vector files are much smaller because a each cell occupies a separate line of data,
relatively small number of vectors can only one attribute can be assigned to each
cell, and cell sizes are relatively small.
precisely describe large areas and many
attributes can be described to these  Raster representations are relatively coarse
and imprecise.
areas.
 Vector representations of shapes can be
very precise.

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 Vector Model

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 Vector Model
There are different models to store and manage vector information.
Each of them has different advantages and disadvantages.

 Spaghetti Model (list of coordinates)

 Vertex Dictionary Model
 Topological Model (Dual Independent Map Encoding: DIME)
 Arc / Node Model

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 Vector representation without model

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 Spaghetti Model (List of coordinates)

 Simple and easy to

manage
 Lots of duplication,
hence need for large
storage space
 Very often used in CAC
(computer assisted
cartography)
 No topology

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Spaghetti data often contains crossing
lines, loose ends, double digitization of
common boundaries (slivers) …
It’s a mess!

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 Sliver Polygons
• Sliver polygons are small, narrow polygon features that
inevitably appear along borders of polygons following the
overlay of two or more geographic data sets.
– Often occur when a shared boundary arc is digitized twice.
– Should be removed, but difficult to find.

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Sliver
Polygons

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 Vertex Dictionary Model

no
duplication,
but still this
model does
not use
topology

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 Topological Model

 assigns a directional code in

the form of a "from node" and
a "to node“
 nodes (intersections of lines)
are identified with codes
 both street addresses and UTM
coordinates are explicitly
defined for each link

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Topology

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 The GIS vector data model is slightly more complex as each vertex, arc, node
and polygon is uniquely identified and the relationships between them are
stored in the database.
 The relationships between the elements of a vector data model, in terms of
relative location and connections, are known as Topology.
 Topology gives the vector data model a level of intelligence which means that
the GIS can recognize which arcs are joined to each other, and identify those
polygons which are adjacent to each other.

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 A GIS topology is a set of rules and behaviors that model how points,
lines, polygons share geometry.
 For example, adjacent features, such as two countries, share a common
edge.

Simple definition:
Topology stores the relationships of one spatial element with respect to
another.

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 Topology is a mathematical approach that allows us to structure data
based on the principles of feature adjacency and feature
connectivity.
 It is in fact the mathematical method used to define spatial
relationships.
 Without a topologic data structure in a vector based GIS most data
manipulation and analysis functions would not be practical or
feasible.

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Topology :
the spatial relationships between features in a GIS

Do polygons overlap?
Do lines intersect or connect?
Are points located near each other?

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Three main concepts

• Connectivity
– Arc-node topology

• Definition of areas / Containment

– Polygon-arc topology

• Adjacency/Contiguity
– Left/right topology

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Connectivity:
 The topological identification of connected arcs by recording the from- and
to-node for each arc.
 Arcs that share a common node are connected.
 Arcs connect to each other at nodes
 Describing linear network, links have direction.

Area:
Arcs that connect to surround an area define a polygon

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Containment:
 Accounts for polygons within polygons “islands”
 Describing which landscape features are located within, or intersect, the
boundary of polygons

Adjacency:
 The identification of adjacent polygons by recording the left-hand and right-
hand polygons.
 Arcs have direction and left and right sides
Describing a landscape feature’s neighbor

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• Topology distinguishes GIS data models from non- topological data models
supported by many CAD, mapping and graphics systems
• Topology refers to knowledge about relative spatial positioning of
features.
– knowledge about how features are connected and which features are
adjacent to each other.
• Can be viewed as a mathematical procedure that determines spatial properties
and relationships, including:
– Connectivity, contiguity (adjacency)
– Lengths of arcs and areas of polygons

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Topology Rules for Coverages:
• Each arc has a beginning node and an ending node - this determines
directionality. Directionality is determined during digitizing.
– Actual direction is important only if your application requires
directional modeling.
• Arcs connect to other arcs at nodes
• Connected arcs form polygon boundaries - arc coordinates are stored
only once because two adjacent polygons share the common arc
between them.
• Arcs have polygons on their left and right sides

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 Topology Concept I
– Arc-node topology is how Arc/INFO keeps track of which arcs are connected to
other arcs through shared nodes (nodes are endpoints of arcs).
It defines length, direction, and connectivity for arcs.

The from-node is an arc’s starting point; the to-node is its ending point. They are
determined as you digitize yourdata.
You can see the from-node and to-node whenever you list attribute records for a
coverage containing lines. Arcs connect if they share a node.

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Topology Concept II
– Polygon-arc topology expresses the relationship between the arc features and the
polygon features for which the arcs create boundaries.
It defines area and adjacency.
Arcs or a set of arcs that form a closed figure define the area of a polygon.
Two polygons are adjacent if they share an arc.
Polygons are stored as a list of arcs to avoid redundancy.

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 Left-right topology refers to contiguity -- how polygons are associated with
their neighboring polygons.
 Each arch as a list of which polygons are on the right side and which are on the
left side.
 Commands in Arc/INFO use this information to determine from one polygon
what the adjacent polygons are:

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 Points: represent discrete point features
each point location
has a record in the
table

airports are point features

each point is stored as a
coordinate pair
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Lines: represent linear features
each road segment
has a record in the
table

roads are linear features

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 Lines: fundamental spatial data model
node

vertex vertex

vertex vertex
node
• Lines start and end at nodes
• line #1 goes from node #2 to node #1
• Vertices determine shape of line
• Nodes and vertices are stored as coordinate pairs_
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 Polygons: represent bounded areas
each bounded polygon
has a record in the
table

landforms and water are

polygonal features
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 Polygons: fundamental spatial data model

• Polygon #2 is bounded by lines 1 & 2

• Line 2 has polygon 1 on left and polygon 2 on right_

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 Polygons: fundamental spatial data model

• complex data model, especially for larger data sets

• “arc-node topology,” only used for ArcInfo data sets_
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 Connectivity
– Arc-node topology

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 Definition of areas
– Polygon-arc topology

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 Adjacency/Contiguity
–Left/right topology

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 File 1. Coordinates of nodes and vertex for all the arcs
File 4. Nodes topology
ARC F_node Vertex T_node
1 3.2, 5.2 1, 5.2 1,3 Node Arcs
2 1,3 1.8,2.6 2.8,3 3.3,4 3.2, 5.2
1 1,2
3 1,2 3.5,2 4.2,2.7 5.2,2.7
2 1,2
File 2. Arcs topology 3 3
ARC F_node T_node R_poly L_poly 4 4
1 1 2 External A
2 2 1 A External
3 3 4 External External

File 3. Polygons topology

Polygon Arcs
A 1, 2
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The geometry of a point is given by two dimensional coordinates (x, y), while
line, string and area are given by a series of point coordinates.
The topology however defines additional structure as follows
Node : an intersect of more than two lines or strings, or start
and end point of string with node number
Arc : a line or a string with chain number, start and end node number, left and
right neighbored polygons
Polygon : an area with polygon number, series of arcs that form the area in
clockwise order (minus sign is assigned in case of anti-clockwise order).

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Point-Pont Relationship
"is within" : within a certain distance
"is nearest to" : nearest to a certain point
Point-Line Relationships
"on line" : point on a line
"is nearest to" : a point nearest to a line
Point-area Relationships
"is contained in? : a point in an area
"on border of area" : a point on border of an area
Line-Line Relationships
"intersects" : two lines intersect
"crosses" : two lines cross without an intersect
"flow into" : a stream flows into the river
Line-Area Relationship
"intersects" : a line intersects an area "borders" : a
line is a part of border of an area
Area-Area Relationships
"overlaps" : two areas overlap
"is within" : an island within an area
"is adjacent to" : two area share a common boudary

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• Topology is the spatial relationship between connecting or
adjacent features in a geographic data layer.
– A procedure used by the computer to explicitly define and store the
spatial relationships between connecting or adjacent coverage features.
• Think of topology as geometry on a rubber sheet.
– This type of geometry is concerned with spatial relationships rather
than ridged coordinate location.

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• If a map is stretched and distorted, some
properties change:
– Distances
– Angles
– Relative proximities

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 By tracking all the arcs that meet at any node, topology knows
which arcs connect to each other. (Arc-node topology)
 A list of arcs is used to construct the polygon. Storing each arc
only once reduces the amount of data and ensures that the
boundaries of adjacent polygons do not overlap.
(Polygon-arc topology)
 It is easy to find the similar characteristic between adjacent
polygons.
(Left-right topology)

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 Vector Topology helps deal with:

slivers

overshoots
dang les

Not sharing border

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Address matching to convert street addresses to geographic coordinates and census
reporting zones with geographic coordinates.
Data could be aggregated to user-specified custom reporting zones

DIME files were the major component of the geocoding approach

TIGER

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A list of addresses is
converted to points on a
map by referencing them
to a special street
network.

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Two input files and one output file
Input:
A database (dbf) file that has the address list that needs to be geocoded.
A geographic base file or reference layer (commonly street layer) that will
spatially reference the address location with the address database
(input1).
Output:
This will be a point file that will hold the geocoded address locations
with an attribute file that shows the full address and the matching
accuracy.

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