18LEM110L- Indian Art Form

SEMESTER – VI

TEAM MEMBERS:

SHIVAM (RA2111026010126)
SARTHAK DWIVEDI (RA2111026010122)
ANANT SHARMA (RA2111026010115)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING

SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(Deemed University u/s 3 of UGC Act 1956)
Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District, 603 202.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed University u/s 3 of UGC Act 1956)

Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District, 603 202

 BONAFIDE C E RT I FI CAT E

Certified to be the bonafide record of work done by Shivam (RA2111026010126),

Sarthak Dwivedi (RA2111026010122) and Anant Sharma (RA2111026010115)
of B.Tech.(CSE) Degree for the course 18LEM110L(Indian Art Form) in SRM
Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur during the Academic Year 2024.
Date: 05/05/2024

Signature Signature

Faculty In-charge Head of the Department

Dr. S. Amudha Dr. R. Annie Uthra

Assistant Professor HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Department of Computational Department of Computational
Intelligence Intelligence
 CONTENT

Ex.No. Weekly Assessment Page No.

1. Week1 Assignment Mysore and Tanjore Art 4

Week2 Group Discussion motions, mythological significance,

and cultural representation modern paintings 6
2.
Week2 Classwork Indian artists from different fields 7

3. Week3 Individual Project Mughal paintings 9

Week4- Assignment Indus Valley civilization paintings on
pottery 10
Week4-Group Activity Cave paintings from different parts of
4. India
12

5. Week5- Assignment Thanjavur, Madhubani paintings 15

6. Week6- Assignment Pattachitra paintings 17

Week7- Essay Writing Terracotta 19

7. Week7- Assignment Rock cut sculpture, Sculptures in religious
buildings
21
8. Week8- Group Discussion Cultural stonework in India in the 23
form of primitive cupule art

9. Week9- Assignment The Buddhist Pillars of Ashoka of the 25

Mauryan period
10. Week10- Assignment Kolam - the traditional floor drawing of 32
South India
 Week1 Assignment Mysore and Tanjore Art

1.) Write a brief History of Mysore Paintings.

Mysore painting is a traditional form of classical South Indian painting that originated in the
town of Mysore in Karnataka, India, during the late 17th century. It has a rich history that reflects
the cultural and artistic heritage of the region.

The origins of Mysore painting can be traced back to the patronage of the Wodeyar dynasty, who
ruled the Kingdom of Mysore. The Wodeyar were great patrons of art and culture, and they
played a significant role in nurturing and promoting the development of this unique art form.

Mysore paintings are characterized by their intricate details, vibrant colours, and themes inspired
by Hindu mythology, epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as scenes from everyday
life. These paintings are typically executed on wooden panels or paper using natural dyes and
pigments, often featuring gold leaf embellishments for a luxurious touch.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, Mysore painting flourished under royal patronage, with
artists creating exquisite works for the royal court and temples. However, with the decline of
royal patronage in the 20th century and the advent of modern art forms, Mysore painting faced
challenges in sustaining its traditional practices.

In the mid-20th century, efforts were made to revive and preserve the art form, leading to
renewed interest among artists and art enthusiasts. Today, Mysore painting continues to thrive
as a cherished cultural tradition, with artists adapting traditional techniques to create
contemporary works while staying true to its classical roots.

2.) What is the process involved in making Mysore paintings?

The process involved in making Mysore paintings is a time-consuming and intricate one that
requires a great deal of skill and patience. Here are the general steps involved in creating a
Mysore painting:
1. Preparation of the surface: The first step in creating a Mysore painting is to prepare the
surface on which the painting will be created. Typically, a wooden board is used, which is coated
with a mixture of lime and gum. This mixture is then polished to create a smooth surface.
2. Outlining: Once the surface is prepared, the artist will create an outline of the subject
using a pencil or charcoal. This outline will serve as a guide for the painting.
3. Application of colors: The next step is to apply colors to the painting. The artist will use
natural dyes made from vegetables, fruits, and flowers to create a rich and vibrant palette. These
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dyes are mixed with water and applied to the surface in thin layers. The artist will use a brush
or a quill to create fine lines and intricate details.
4. Embellishment: Mysore paintings are known for their use of embellishments such as gold
foil or gold leaf. Once the painting is complete, the artist will apply a layer of adhesive to surface
and then carefully place the gold foil or leaf onto the painting. This adds a level of richness and
depth to the painting.
5. Finishing: Finally, the painting is finished with a coat of varnish to protect the colors and
the embellishments. The varnish also gives the painting a glossy and polished finish.

3.) Write the unique feature of Tanjore paintings.

Tanjore painting, a classical South Indian art form originating in Tamil Nadu's Thanjavur during
the 16th century, is renowned for its opulent appearance and intricate techniques. One of its
hallmark features is the use of gesso, creating embossed patterns and motifs for a three-
dimensional effect. Gold foil, applied meticulously over the gesso work, adds a sense of
lavishness and spiritual significance, often depicting Hindu deities and scenes from mythology.
These paintings boast a vibrant color palette derived from natural materials, enhancing their
visual appeal. Each composition is intricately detailed, from the elaborate jewelry to the ornate
backgrounds, showcasing the artist's skill and precision. Tanjore paintings hold a unique place
in Indian art, blending rich ornamentation with symbolic iconography to create timeless works
of beauty and devotion.

4.) Explain the procedure of Tanjore paintings.

The procedure of creating a Tanjore painting involves several intricate steps, each requiring
meticulous attention to detail and craftsmanship. Here's an overview of the traditional process:

1. Preparation of the Base: The first step is to prepare the base for the painting. This
typically involves stretching a piece of cloth over a wooden board or plank and applying a layer
of paste made from limestone powder (or chalk powder) and a binding agent like gum arabic.
This creates a smooth and sturdy surface for painting.
2. Sketching the Design: Once the base is prepared, the artist sketches the design onto the
surface using charcoal or pencil. The design often includes intricate details of the subject, such
as the deity or scene from Hindu mythology, as well as decorative elements like floral motifs
and architectural features.
3. Gesso Work: After the sketch is finalized, the artist applies gesso over the outlined areas
of the design. Gesso is a mixture of chalk powder or limestone powder and a binding agent,
which is used to create raised, embossed patterns and motifs on the surface of the painting. The
gesso is carefully applied using a fine brush or spatula, following the contours of the design.
4. Applying Gold Foil: Once the gesso work is complete and dry, the next step is to apply
gold foil over the raised areas. Thin sheets of 24-carat gold foil are carefully placed onto the
gessoed portions of the painting, adhering to the surface with a gentle press. The gold foil adds
Week2

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 Week2
Group Discussion
Emotions, mythological significance, and cultural representation modern paintings

Modern paintings, like all forms of art, have the potential to represent a wide range of emotions,
mythological significance, and cultural representation. Here are some examples of how these
elements can be incorporated into modern paintings:

1. Emotions: Modern paintings can be used to express a wide range of emotions, from joy
and happiness to sadness and despair. Artists may use color, form, and composition to convey
these emotions to the viewer. For example, a painting with bright colors and bold strokes may
evoke feelings of joy and excitement, while a painting with muted colors and somber tones may
evoke feelings of sadness or contemplation.
2. Mythological significance: Mythological themes have been a popular subject for artists
throughout history, and modern artists continue to draw inspiration from these stories. Modern
paintings may depict gods, goddesses, and other mythological figures, exploring their stories
and symbolism in new and creative ways. These paintings can provide a window into the
mythology and cultural traditions of different societies, helping to preserve and celebrate these
stories for future generations.
3. Cultural representation: Modern paintings can also be used to represent different cultures
and traditions. Artists may draw inspiration from their own cultural background, exploring
themes such as identity, heritage, and history. Alternatively, they may draw inspiration from
other cultures, exploring themes such as globalization, cultural exchange, and diversity. These
paintings can help to promote cross-cultural understanding and appreciation, highlighting the
beauty and diversity of different cultures.

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 Week2
Classwork Indian artists from different fields

Observe the following images carefully and write a paragraph (200 words) on how folk
art plays crucial role in the lives of common man in India.

India’s diverse folk art traditions are more than just an important part of our culture. They are
a link to India’s past and traditions, and several organisations, individuals, and initiatives are
working to preserve them in recognition of their role.
Folk paintings have been a part of India’s traditions for many millennia. Starting from the pre-
historic cave paintings of Bhimbetka, to Madhubani, which is believed to be as old as the
Ramayana, on to the frescoes at Ajanta and Ellora, every region of India has had its own folk
painting traditions. These painting styles evolved from simple depictions of the
environment— trees, animals, and man—to detailed works of the elements, deities, and
spiritual concepts to depictions of the universe.
The symbology of the gods, and indeed, of the universe as a whole, and of the human body
influenced folk paintings in many forms. Canvases changed from walls of caves and temples to
palm leaves to handmade paper, and created many tools and painting technologies that adapted
to new discoveries while maintaining the traditions and ethos of “story-telling”, continuing and
enhancing Vedic oral traditions and supplementing them, simplifying the spoken and written
word, and making them accessible to the common man.
Each painting has a story—indeed, they were painted to tell stories!
Folk painting depicted the symbology of the epics, the gods and deities, and indeed, cosmology,
mathematics, dance forms, and of Ayurveda and the human body. Indian traditions have been
rich in symbology. Each deity has their own implements, postures, and mudras. The planets, the
trees, the mandalas, the swastikas, and many more symbols made traditional folk art rich and
colourful.

Many regional traditions of paintings

Each region of India has had its own regional folk painting forms—Gond Paintings in Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, and Jharkhand, Santhal paintings in West Bengal and Jharkhand,
Madhubani in Bihar, and the Pattachitra and Kalighat traditions of West Bengal. In the North
and North-West, Tibetan-influenced Tangkha traditions and the Rajasthani and Kangra
traditions of miniature paintings evolved and intermingled with Persian-influenced Mughal
Painting schools.

Natural Colours – sustainable ethos

The “technology” of colours and paints and the “patta” (canvas) evolved too. But, it maintained
the ethos of sustainability and the use of natural resources. The “patta” evolved from the walls
of caves to the palm leaf, and cloth to handmade paper. Artists derived the colours from leaves,
flowers, vegetables, and fruits. The “fasteners” for the colours were natural gums like the gum
from the Bel fruit. The use of resources was well-planned and frugal. Artists produced the
5
colours in the season when the flower, vegetable, or fruit was available. They then stored them
for later use by diluting and mixing the colour with the fastener. Mineral- and stone powder-
based colours were more prevalent in the Rajasthan and Himachal regions. We need to bring
back and incentivise the ethos of natural colours as a part of reviving folk painting traditions.

Support the revival of Folk Art. Buy an Indian Folk Painting

Many museums, government institutions, and art galleries have made efforts to revive the Folk
Painting traditions of the country. Bharat Bhavan and The Museum of Man in Bhopal have a
major collection of Folk and Tribal Art. Online Art Galleries like Saffronart have also made
considerable efforts to get folk art its due in art markets. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs, state
museums, and private efforts are playing their part in reviving the Folk Arts.
Initiatives are reviving our rich traditions of the Folk Arts. For example, many rural artisans
now participate in Madhubani and Pattachitra art due to recognition and monetary rewards. We
need a much bigger effort make the impact even larger. Each one of us can help in this effort.
Look to buy and gift folk paintings on festivals, engagements, weddings, corporate events, etc.
Think of gifting Indian folk art on your next gifting occasion. Choose a folk painting from your
region for your homes and offices.

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 Week3
Individual Project Mughal paintings

Mughal paintings are a form of Indian miniature painting that flourished under the Mughal
Empire from the 16th to the 19th century. These paintings were typically created as part of the
royal patronage of the Mughal court, and they reflect the cultural and artistic influences of the
Islamic, Persian, and Indian traditions.

Mughal paintings are characterized by their fine and intricate details, vibrant colors, and their
portrayal of figures and landscapes in a highly stylized and decorative manner. These paintings
typically depict a wide range of themes, including court scenes, hunting scenes, battle scenes,
religious and mythological stories, and portraits of the Mughal emperors and their families.

One of the unique features of Mughal paintings is their use of perspective, which was influenced
by the Renaissance art of Europe. Mughal artists used a technique called "foreshortening" to
create the illusion of depth and dimensionality in their paintings, allowing figures and objects
to appear closer or further away from the viewer.

Mughal paintings were typically created using watercolors and mineral pigments on paper, and
they often featured gold or silver leaf and decorative borders. The artists who created these
paintings were highly skilled and were trained in a variety of artistic techniques, including
calligraphy, miniature painting, and goldsmithing.

Today, Mughal paintings are considered to be a valuable part of India's artistic and cultural
heritage, and many examples of these paintings can be found in museums and private
collections around the world. They continue to inspire contemporary artists and serve as a
testament to the artistic achievements of the Mughal Empire.

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 Week4- Assignment Indus Valley civilization paintings
on pottery

The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan civilization, existed from around
2600 BCE to 1900 BCE in the region of the Indus River Valley in modern-day India and
Pakistan. The people of this civilization created a variety of art forms, including pottery,
which featured painted designs and motifs.

Indus Valley pottery was typically made from terracotta, a type of earthenware, and was
decorated with a range of geometric and stylized motifs. These motifs included abstract
patterns, animal figures, and human forms, often depicted in a highly stylized manner.

One of the unique features of Indus Valley pottery is the use of the "slip technique" in
decoration. This technique involved applying a layer of slip, or a mixture of clay and water, to
the surface of the pottery before firing. The slip was then decorated with a variety of designs
using different colors of pigment.

The designs on Indus Valley pottery are thought to have had both decorative and symbolic
significance. Some of the motifs, such as the bull and unicorn figures, are believed to have
had religious or mythological significance. Others, such as the geometric patterns, may have
been purely decorative.

Stone Statues
Statues whether in stone, bronze or terracotta found in Harappan sites are not abundant, but
refined. The stone statuaries found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of
handling three-dimensional volumes. In stone are two male figures—one is a torso in red
sandstone and the other is a bust of a bearded man in soapstone—which are extensively
discussed. The figure of the bearded man, interpreted as a priest, is draped in a shawl coming
under the right arm and covering the left shoulder. This shawl is decorated with trefoil
patterns. The eyes are a little elongated, and half-closed as in meditative concentration. The
nose is well formed and of medium
Bronze Casting:
• Bronze casting was practiced in wide scale in almost all major sites of the
civilization.
• The technique used for Bronze Casting was Lost Wax Technique.
[Initially, the figure needed is made of wax and covered it with clay. After allowed to dry the
clay, the whole thing is heated so that the wax inside the clay will be melted. The molten wax
was then drained out through a tiny hole made in the clay part. The hollow mold of clay thus
created was filled with molten metal. Once it cooled, the clay cover was completely removed].
• Human as well as animal figures are present in the Bronze casting.

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 • Amongst animal figures the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns
and the goat are artistic merits.
• Copper dog and bird of Lothal and the Bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan
shows that Bronze casting was popular at all centers of Indus valley civilization.
• Metal casting continued even after the Indus valley civilization through late
Harappan, Chalcolithic people, etc.
• Examples of Bronze casting are:
1. Dancing Girl
• Found from Mohenjo-Daro.
• Made up of Bronze.
• One of the best-known artifacts from Indus valley.
• Approximately 4-inch high figure of a dancing girl.
• This exquisite casting depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in the bun and bangles
cover her left arm.
• Cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck.
• Her right hand is on her hip and her left hand is clasped in a traditional Indian dance
gesture.
• She has large eyes and flat nose.
Bull from Mohenjo-Daro
• Bronze figure of the bull found in Mohenjo-Daro.
• The massiveness of the bull and the fury of the charge are eloquently expressed.
• The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right. • There is a
cord around the neck.

Today, many examples of Indus Valley pottery with painted designs can be found in museums
and private collections around the world. These artifacts provide a glimpse into the artistic and
cultural achievements of the people who lived in the Indus River Valley thousands of years
ago.

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 Week4-
Group Activity Cave paintings from different parts of India

Sure, here are some examples of cave paintings from different parts of India:

1. Bhimbetka Rock Shelters, Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka is a UNESCO World Heritage

site located in Madhya Pradesh, known for its prehistoric cave paintings. The paintings here
date back to the Mesolithic era (around 10,000 BCE) and depict scenes of hunting, dancing,
and everyday life.

2. Edakkal Caves, Kerala: The Edakkal Caves are located in the Wayanad district of
Kerala and contain several prehistoric rock paintings and petroglyphs. The paintings here
depict human and animal figures, hunting scenes, and symbols.

3. Elephanta Caves, Maharashtra: The Elephanta Caves, located on the Elephanta Island
near Mumbai, contain a series of rock-cut caves and temples dating back to the 5th century
CE. The caves contain several intricate sculptures and paintings depicting Hindu deities and
mythological scenes.

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4. Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra: The Ajanta Caves, located in the Aurangabad district of
Maharashtra, contain some of the finest surviving examples of Indian rock-cut architecture
and art. The caves contain intricate murals and sculptures depicting Buddhist teachings, as
well as scenes of daily life.

5. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Odisha: The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves,
located near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha, contain several ancient rock-cut caves and
sculptures dating back to the 2nd century BCE. The caves depict scenes from Jainism and
Hinduism, as well as everyday life during the time period.

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Each of these cave paintings has its unique style, subject matter, and cultural significance,
making them valuable examples of India's rich artistic heritage.

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 Week5- Assignment Thanjavur, Madhubani paintings

Thanjavur paintings and Madhubani paintings are two distinct styles of traditional Indian art,
with their unique characteristics and origins.
Thanjavur paintings:
Thanjavur paintings, also known as Tanjore paintings, are a popular style of painting that
originated in the town of Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu. These paintings are known for their use of
rich, vibrant colors, gold foil, and intricate details.

The process of making Thanjavur paintings involves several steps, including creating a wooden
base, applying layers of cloth and chalk powder to the base, sketching the design, and filling it
with vibrant colors. Finally, gold foil is added to the painting to give it a rich, regal look. These
paintings typically depict Hindu deities, mythological scenes, and portraits.

Madhubani paintings:

Madhubani paintings are a folk art style that originated in the Mithila region of Bihar and Nepal.
These paintings are known for their bright, bold colors, and use of intricate patterns and designs.
The themes of Madhubani paintings are mainly drawn from Hindu mythology and depict scenes
of daily life, nature, and folklore.
The process of making Madhubani paintings involves using natural dyes and pigments made
from flowers, leaves, and other materials to create the colorful designs. The paintings are created
using a variety of techniques, including finger painting, brushwork, and the use of matchsticks.
The paintings are typically created on handmade paper, cloth, or walls.

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Vijayanagara Rayas
The Vijayanagar empire, founded by Harihara and Bukka, was for long a bulwark against the
rapidly advancing Islamic influence from the nearby Deccan and the farther North. While the
foreign influences did gradually percolate into the Peninsular South, the Vijayanagar empire
ensured that the older Hindu artistic traditions were protected and preserved. The empire had
reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya (1509–29). Its territory stretched across the entire
South Indian peninsula, from the Tungabhadra river in the North to Kanyakumari in the south
and the Malabar coast on the Arabian sea in the west to the Coromandel coast on the Bay of
Bengal in the east at its peak. In 1521–22, Krishnadevaraya travelled to the Tamil country
(Tamilagam) visiting holy places and as was his wont, made munificent donations to temples
and other religious establishments.[5] It can be surmised that some of this munificence was also
channeled into art and artists.
In summary, while Thanjavur paintings are known for their use of gold foil and intricate details,
Madhubani paintings are characterized by their use of bold colors and intricate patterns. Both
styles of painting have a rich cultural significance and continue to be popular forms of
traditional Indian art.
Thanjavur has a unique place in the history of Indian painting, in that it houses the 11th century
Chola wall paintings in the Brihadeeswarar temple (Periya koyil or Pervudaiyar koyil in Tamil)
as also paintings from the Nayak period (many times superimposed on the earlier Chola
paintings[3]) dating to the 16th century.[4] The fall of the Vijayanagar Empire and the sack of
Hampi in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE resulted in the migration of painters who had been
dependent on the patronage of the empire. Some of them migrated to Thanjavur and worked
under the patronage of the Thanjavur Nayakas. Subsequently, the Maratha rulers who defeated
the Thanjavur Nayakas began to nurture the Thanjavur atelier.

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 Week6 Assignment
Pattachitra paintings

Pattachitra is a traditional style of painting that originated in the state of Odisha in eastern India.
The word "Pattachitra" is derived from two Sanskrit words - "Patta" meaning canvas and
"Chitra" meaning painting. The paintings are created on cloth or palm leaves and are known for
their vibrant colors, intricate details, and religious themes.

The process of creating Pattachitra paintings involves several steps. First, a piece of cloth or
palm leaf is coated with a layer of a mixture of chalk powder and tamarind seed paste. After
this, the artist sketches the design using a pencil or charcoal. The next step involves applying
colors made from natural pigments and dyes, such as turmeric, indigo, and vermilion. The
paintings are then outlined in black to add definition to the design.

The Pattachitra when painted on cloth follows a traditional process of preparation of the canvas.
First the base is prepared by coating the cloth with the soft, white, stone powder of chalk and
glue made from tamarind seeds. This gives the cloth tensile strength and a smooth, semi-
absorbent surface, allowing it to accept the paint. The artist does not use a pencil or charcoal
for the preliminary drawings. It is a tradition to complete the borders of the painting first. The
painter then starts making a rough sketch directly with the brush using light red and yellow. The
main flat colors are applied next; the colors used are normally white, red, yellow, and black.
The painter then finishes the painting with fine stokes of black brush lines, giving the effect of
pen work. When the painting is completed it is held over a charcoal fire and lacquer is applied
to the surface. This makes the painting water resistant and durable, besides giving it a shining
finish.

The materials used in the paint are from vegetable, earth, and mineral sources. Black is made
out of lampblack, yellow from haritala stone, and red from shingle stone. White is prepared
from crushed, boiled, and filtered shells. The subject matter of the Pattachitras include religious,
mythological, and folk themes. Krishna Leela and Lord Jagannath are important motifs.

The Pattachitra artists also paint their themes on wooden boxes, on bowls, on tussar silk, on
outer shells of the coconut, and on wooden doors. They are also working on producing painted
15
wooden toys based on animals and birds portrayed in the paintings. The English alphabet is cut
in the wood and painted in the Pattachitra style for sale. The artists have also traditionally
painted playing cards or Ganjifa. Chitra-pothies --- a collection of painted palm leaves stacked
on top of each other and held together between painted wood covers by means of a string ---
illustrate mythological themes.

Pattachitra paintings were traditionally drawn by the Mahapatra or maharanas, the original
artiste caste in Odisha. These paintings became an important art form with the ornamentation
of Lord Jagannath in the innermost sanctum, where paintings on especially treated Cloth or Pata
of the deities were done by the temple painter. The themes were tribal and folk.

Pattachitra paintings often depict scenes from Hindu mythology, such as stories of Lord Krishna
or the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu. The paintings are characterized by their intricate details,
such as the jewelry worn by the characters, and the use of geometric patterns and borders. The
artists who create Pattachitra paintings are usually part of a hereditary community known as the
Chitrakars, who have been practicing this art form for generations.

Pattachitra paintings have a rich cultural and historical significance and are considered one of
the most important traditional art forms in Odisha. The paintings are often used for religious
and ceremonial purposes, such as decorating temples or as part of rituals during festivals. Today,
Pattachitra paintings continue to be popular among art lovers and are also used in contemporary
designs and home decor.

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 Week 7
Essay Writing Terracotta

Terracotta, derived from the Italian words "terra" meaning earth and "cotta" meaning cooked,
is a type of earthenware made from clay. This ancient technique has been used for thousands of
years to create pottery, sculptures, and architectural elements, and has been an integral part of
many cultures around the world. In this essay, we will explore the history, characteristics, and
cultural significance of terracotta.

Terracotta has been used for pottery and other decorative objects since ancient times, with
evidence of its use dating back to 3000 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization. It was also widely
used in ancient Greece and Rome, where it was used to create sculptures and architectural
elements such as roof tiles and pipes. In India, terracotta has been used for religious and
decorative purposes, with many temples and shrines featuring intricate terracotta sculptures and
reliefs.

One of the most distinctive characteristics of terracotta is its natural, earthy color, which ranges
from light beige to dark brown. It is also known for its durability and resistance to weathering,
making it an ideal material for outdoor sculptures and architectural elements. Terracotta is often
molded by hand or using a potter's wheel, then fired in a kiln to harden and preserve the shape.

In addition to its practical uses, terracotta has also played an important role in the art and culture
of many societies. In ancient Greece, terracotta sculptures were often used in religious and
funerary contexts, with many depicting gods and goddesses, mythological scenes, and everyday

17
life. In India, terracotta sculptures have been used for centuries to depict religious figures, such
as Hindu gods and goddesses, as well as scenes from mythology and folklore.
The Terracotta Warriors are considered an 8th wonder of the world.” They were created over
2000 years ago to protect Qin Shi Huangdi in the afterlife. Some people believe that the warriors
were for protection, others believed that they were a curse and new research has caused
argument that they were for military training. “The Terracotta Army was traditionally believed
to have been the guardians of the first emperor of a unified China, but research has claimed that
they could have been military training models,” Sun Jiachun, a researcher of the army. The
Terracotta Warriors were an army built under the power of the first emperor of China, Qin Shi
Huangdi, over 2000 years ago in Xi’an, China.
From an ancient unknown writer, we have learnt that the labourers made the tomb of bronze,
with its floor being a map of China and rivers of mercury, which, as long as they flowed, Qin
would live forever in his underground world. The workers continued construction on the tomb
until the emperor’s death in 209BC. The mound was a scale model of the palace, the empire
and the world. The labourers installed automatically triggered weapons in the mausoleum to
safeguard the treasures and ward off tomb robbers. Most of the workmen who were working on
the tomb when the Emperor died were buried alive with Qin to serve him in the afterlife. The
warriors were constructed by the 700, 000 employed workers of Qin Shi Huangdi to prepare
him for his afterlife journey.
Today, terracotta continues to be an important material in the world of art and design. Modern
artists and designers use terracotta in a variety of ways, from creating large-scale sculptures to
designing decorative objects and household items. Its natural, earthy texture and color have
made it a popular choice for contemporary interior design, with many designers incorporating
terracotta tiles and pottery into their work.

In conclusion, terracotta is a versatile and enduring material that has played a significant role in
the art and culture of many societies throughout history. Its durability, natural color, and unique
texture have made it a popular choice for pottery, sculpture, and architectural elements, and its
cultural significance continues to be celebrated in many parts of the world today.
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 Week8
Assignment Rock cut sculpture, Sculptures in religious buildings

Rock-cut sculptures and sculptures in religious buildings are two distinct styles of sculpture in
India, with their own unique characteristics and cultural significance.

Rock-cut sculptures:
Rock-cut sculptures are a form of sculpture created by carving directly into the surface of a rock
or cave. This style of sculpture was popular in ancient India and can be found in various regions
throughout the country. The sculptures are often religious in nature and depict Hindu deities,
such as Shiva, Vishnu, and the goddesses Durga and Kali.

Rock-cut sculptures are known for their intricate details and are considered a significant form
of ancient Indian art. Many of these sculptures were created during the Gupta and Maurya
periods, from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD. Some of the most famous examples of
rock-cut sculptures in India include the Ajanta and Ellora caves in Maharashtra, which feature
elaborate carvings depicting Buddhist and Hindu mythology.

Sculptures in religious buildings:

Sculptures in religious buildings, such as temples and mosques, are another popular style of
sculpture in India. These sculptures are often created using stone, metal, or wood and are found
in various forms, such as statues, reliefs, and carvings.

Sculptures in religious buildings are often highly detailed and intricate, with many depicting the
gods and goddesses of Hinduism. In Hindu temples, sculptures of the deities are often placed
in niches and shrines, where they are worshipped by devotees. Islamic architecture in India also
features sculptures, such as the intricate carvings found on the walls and ceilings of the Jama
Masjid in Delhi.

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In summary, rock-cut sculptures are carved directly into rocks or caves and often depict
religious themes, while sculptures in religious buildings are found in temples, mosques, and
other religious structures and depict deities and other religious figures. Both styles of sculpture
have a rich cultural significance and continue to be popular forms of art in India.

Rock-Cut Sculptures of Rock Cut Monuments

The rock cut monuments of India are charming instances of rock-cut sculpture. The Stupa at
Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh is another masterpiece in this regard. The rock cut shrine at
Udayagiri in Bhopal, belonging to the age of the Guptas, Dashavatara Temple, Devgarh near
Jhansi which boast of 'Nagara style of architecture', Jain and Brahamanical Temples at Aihole,
Karnataka, Undavalli Caves, Andhra Pradesh, Bagh Caves, Madhya Pradesh, Konark Temple,
Odisha, Pandavleni Caves, Maharashtra are some of the many rock cut monuments with
excellent rock cut sculptural designs.

Week8- Group Discussion Cultural stonework in India in the form of primitive cupule
art Essay writing

Primitive cupule art is a form of cultural stonework found in India and other parts of the world,
characterized by small, circular depressions or "cupules" carved into rocks and boulders. These
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 cupules are typically less than five centimeters in diameter and are often arranged in patterns or
clusters on the surface of the rock.

Cupules have been found in various parts of India, including Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
and Rajasthan, and are believed to date back to the prehistoric period. Some of the earliest
examples of cupule art in India have been found in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya
Pradesh, which contain more than 600 cupules and other rock art dating back to the Paleolithic
era.

The cultural significance of cupule art is not fully understood, but it is believed to have served
various purposes for the communities that created it. Some researchers believe that cupules
were used for ritualistic or spiritual purposes, with the circular shape and repetitive patterns
symbolizing fertility, the cycles of the moon, or other natural phenomena. Others speculate that
cupules were created for more practical purposes, such as marking trails or boundaries or
serving as a form of early communication.

Regardless of their original purpose, cupule art remains an important cultural artifact in India,
providing a window into the lives and beliefs of prehistoric communities. Today, many of these
cupules are protected by law, and efforts are being made to preserve and study them for future
generations.
In addition to cupule art, India has a rich tradition of cultural stonework, including rock art,
megaliths, and other forms of primitive sculpture. These ancient artifacts provide valuable
insights into the history, culture, and artistry of India's early civilizations and continue to be a
source of inspiration for artists and scholars alike.
1.)When Were Cupules Made?
Cupules are the earliest known prehistoric art and have been found on every continent except
Antarctica. They were produced during all three eras of the Stone Age - Paleolithic, Mesolithic
and Neolithic - as well as in historical times 1 . The oldest cupulebearing rock is the rounded
cobble discovered in the primordial Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, dating to approximately 1.7
million BCE
2.)What Are the Main Characteristics of Cupules?
Cupules are typically found in groups, often numbering several hundred (even a thousand) in a
single location. Singletons are highly unusual. Almost all specimens are between 1.5 and 10
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 centimetres in diameter, but larger examples have been found1 . In short, cupules are
hemispherical, cup-shaped, non-utilitarian, cultural marks that have been pounded into a rock
surface by human hand2 . Received message. Cupules are typically found in groups, often
numbering several hundred (even a thousand) in a single location. Singletons are highly
unusual. Almost all specimens are between 1.5 and 10 centimetres in diameter, but larger
examples have been found. In short, cupules are hemispherical, cup-shaped, non-utilitarian,
cultural marks that have been pounded into a rock surface by human hand.

3.)Where Do Cupules Occur?

Cupules occur all over the world often associated with other rock art. They can occur on
horizontal, sloping or vertical rock-surfaces, but very rarely on overhead rock ceilings 1 . In
Middle Paleolithic or Middle Stone Age contexts, cupules occur in Africa and Australia, and are
attributable to that era also in Europe. They seem to become less common in the course of the
European Upper Paleolithic, but still occur occasionally
4.)What Are the Oldest Known Cupules?
The oldest known cupules are found in India’s Auditorium Cave, which contains some of the
world’s oldest known “cupules” - cup-shaped hollows, pounded out of the rock by
hammerstones - which date back to between 200,000 and 500,000 BC12 . At least two of these
cupules are anticipated to belong to the Lower Paleolithic Period

5.)What is the Purpose of Cupules? Why Were They Made? The purpose of cupules is not well
understood. Many meanings or purposes have been suggested in the literature (one review lists
71) 1 . In a number of cases cupules were demonstrated to mark specific rocks used as
lithophones; in some cases they served in board games; but other credible ethnographic
interpretations of their former cultural functions have been secured in very few instances12 .
Received message. The purpose of cupules is not well understood. Many meanings or purposes
have been suggested in the literature (one review lists 71). In a number of cases cupules were
demonstrated to mark specific rocks used as lithophones; in some cases they served in board
games; but other credible ethnographic interpretations of their former cultural functions have
been secured in very few instances.

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 Week9-Assignment The Buddhist Pillars of Ashoka of
the Mauryan period

The Buddhist Pillars of Ashoka, also known as the Ashoka Pillars, are a series of pillars
erected throughout India during the Mauryan period (c. 268–232 BCE) by the emperor
Ashoka. These pillars were erected in various locations throughout the Mauryan empire,
which covered much of modern-day India and parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Ashokan pillar, c. 279 B.C.E. - 232 B.C.E, Vaishali, India (where Buddha preached his last sermon).
Photo: Rajeev Kumar, CC: BY-SA 2.5)

A Buddhist king
What happens when a powerful ruler adopts a new religion that contradicts the life into
which he was born? What about when this change occurs during the height of his rule when
things are pretty much going his way? How is that information conveyed over a large
geographical region with thousands of inhabitants?
King Ashoka, who many believe was an early convert to Buddhism, decided to solve these
problems by erecting pillars that rose some 50’ into the sky. [1] The pillars were raised
throughout the Magadha region in the North of India that had emerged as the center of the

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first Indian empire, the Mauryan Dynasty (322-185 B.C.E). Written on these pillars,
intertwined in the message of Buddhist compassion, were the merits of King Ashoka. The
third emperor of the Mauryan dynasty, Ashoka (pronounced Ashoke), who ruled from
c. 279 B.C.E. – 232 B.C.E., is widely believed to be the first leader to accept Buddhism
and thus the first major patron of Buddhist art. Ashoka made a dramatic conversion to
Buddhism after witnessing the carnage that resulted from his conquest of the village of
Kalinga. He adopted the teachings of the Buddha known as the Four Noble Truths, referred
to as the dharma (the law): Life is suffering (suffering=rebirth) the cause of suffering is
desire the cause of desire must be overcome
when desire is overcome, there is no more suffering (suffering=rebirth)
Individuals who come to fully understand the Four Noble Truths are able to achieve
Enlightenment, ending samsara, the endless cycle of birth and rebirth. Ashoka also pledged
to follow the Six Cardinal Perfections (the Paramitas), which were codes of conduct created
after the Buddha’s death providing instructions for the Buddhist practitioners to follow a
compassionate Buddhist practice. Ashoka did not require that everyone in his kingdom
become Buddhist, and Buddhism did not become the state religion, but through Ashoka’s
support, it spread widely and rapidly.

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The pillars

Asokan pillar capital at Vaishali, Bihar, India, c.

250 B.C.E. (photo: mself, CC BY-SA 2.5)

One of Ashoka’s first artistic programs was to erect the pillars that are now scattered
throughout what was the Mauryan empire. The pillars vary from 40 to 50 feet in height.
They are cut from two different types of stone—one for the shaft and another for the capital.
The shaft was almost always cut from a single piece of stone. Laborers cut and dragged the
stone from quarries in Mathura and Chunar, located in the northern part of India within

Ashoka’s empire. The pillars weigh about 50 tons each. Only 19 of the original pillars
survive and many are in fragments. The first pillar was discovered in the 16th century.

Lotus and lion

The physical appearance of the pillars underscores the Buddhist doctrine. Most of the
pillars were topped by sculptures of animals. Each pillar is also topped by an inverted lotus
flower, which is the most pervasive symbol of Buddhism (a lotus flower rises from the
muddy water to bloom unblemished on the surface—thus the lotus became an analogy for

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the Buddhist practitioner as he or she, living with the challenges of everyday life and the
endless cycle of birth and rebirth, was able to achieve Enlightenment, or the knowledge of
how to be released from samsara, through following the Four Noble Truths). This flower,
and the animal that surmount it, form the capital, the topmost part of a column. Most pillars
are topped with a single lion or a bull in either seated or standing positions. The Buddha
was born into the Shakya or lion clan. The lion, in many cultures, also indicates royalty or
leadership. The animals are always in the round and carved from a single piece of stone.

Ashoka Pillar at Lumbini, Nepal the birthplace of the Buddha

(photo: Charlie Phillips, CC: BY 2.0)

The edicts
Some pillars had edicts (proclamations) inscribed upon them. The edicts were translated in
the 1830s. Since the 17th century, 150 Ashokan edicts have been found carved into the face
of rocks and cave walls as well as the pillars, all of which served to mark his kingdom,
which stretched across northern India and south to below the central Deccan plateau and in
areas now known as Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. The rocks and pillars
were placed along trade routes and in border cities where the edicts would be read by the
largest number of people possible. They were also erected at pilgrimage sites such as at
Bodh Gaya, the place of Buddha’s Enlightenment, and Sarnath, the site of his First Sermon
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and Sanchi, where the Mahastupa, the Great Stupa of Sanchi, is located (a stupa is a burial
mound for an esteemed person. When the Buddha died, he was cremated and his ashes were
divided and buried in several stupas. These stupas became pilgrimage sites for Buddhist
practitioners).
Some pillars were also inscribed with dedicatory inscriptions, which firmly date them and
name Ashoka as the patron. The script was Brahmi, the language from which all Indic
language developed. A few of the edicts found in the western part of India are written in a
script that is closely related to Sanskrit and a pillar in Afghanistan is inscribed in both

Aramaic and Greek—demonstrating Ashoka’s desire to reach the many cultures of his
kingdom. Some of the inscriptions are secular in nature. Ashoka apologizes for the
massacre in Kalinga and assures the people that he now only has their welfare in mind.
Some boast of the good works that Ashoka has done, underscoring his desire to provide for
his people.

The Hinayana Period

Ashokan Pillar on a relief at the Mahastupa at Sanchi, north gate (torana) post, 3rd c.
B.C.E. (photo: Nandanupadhyay, CC: BY-SA 3.0)
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The pillars (and the stupas) were created in the Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) period. Hinayana
is the first stage of Buddhism, roughly dated from the sixth c. to the first century
B.C.E., in which no images of the Buddha were made. The memory of the historical Buddha
and his teachings was enough to sustain the practitioners. But several symbols became
popular as stand-ins for the human likeness of the Buddha. The lotus, as noted above, is
one. The lion, which is typically seen on the Ashokan pillars, is another. The wheel (cakra)
is a symbol of both samsara, the endless circle of birth and rebirth, and the dharma, the
Four Noble Truths.

Why a pillar?
There are a few hypotheses about why Ashoka used the pillar as a means for communicating
his Buddhist message. It is quite possible that Persian artists came to Ashoka’s empire in
search of work, bringing with them the form of the pillar, which was common in Persian
art. But is also likely that Ashoka chose the pillar because it was already an established
Indian art form. In both Buddhism and Hinduism, the pillar symbolized the axis mundi (the
axis on which the world spins).
The pillars and edicts represent the first physical evidence of the Buddhist faith. The
inscriptions assert Ashoka’s Buddhism and support his desire to spread the dharma
throughout his kingdom. The edicts say nothing about the philosophical aspects of
Buddhism and scholars have suggested that this demonstrates that Ashoka had a very
simple and naïve understanding of the dharma. But, as Ven S. Dhammika suggests,

Ashoka’s goal was not to expound on the truths of Buddhism, but to inform the people of
his reforms and encourage them to live a moral life. The edicts, through their strategic
placement and couched in the Buddhist dharma, serve to underscore Ashoka’s
administrative role and as a tolerant leader.

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 Week10- Assignment Kolam - the traditional floor drawing of
South India

Kolam is a traditional floor drawing that is prevalent in South India, particularly in the states
of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Karnataka. It is a form of art that involves
drawing intricate patterns on the floor using rice flour or other materials.

Kolam is typically drawn early in the morning by women, who use their bare fingers to create
the intricate designs. The process of drawing kolam is considered to be a meditative practice
and is believed to bring good luck and prosperity to the household.

Kolam designs can range from simple geometric shapes to more elaborate patterns featuring
images of animals, birds, and other natural objects. The designs are often passed down from
generation to generation, with each family developing their own unique style and repertoire of
designs.
In addition to being a form of decorative art, kolam also serves a practical purpose. The rice
flour used to draw the designs is believed to attract birds and other small creatures, which in
turn help to keep the household free of pests and insects. Additionally, the patterns drawn in
front of the home are said to act as a welcoming sign for visitors, inviting them to enter the
home and be part of the community.

It is a traditional form of drawing found across southern India. It is drawn by using rice flour,
chalk, chalk powder or rock powder, often using naturally or synthetically colored powders. A
Kolam is a geometrical line drawing composed of curved loops, drawn around a grrid pattern
of dots.
Kolams are thought to bring prosperity to homes. More complex Kolams are drawn and colors
are often added during holiday occasions and special events.

The decoration is not the main purpose of a Kolam. It is a sign of invitation to welcome all into
the home.In the kolam patterns, many designs are derived from magical motifs and abstract
designs blended with philosophic and religious motifs.Motifs may include fish, birds, and other
animal images to symbolise the unity of man and beast. The sun, moon and other zodiac
symbols were also used.
SIGNIFICANCE
Algorithms for drawing kolams are used in the development of Picture drawing Computer
software.
The mathematical properties of Kolam are being used in the computer science field. Kolam
patterns are studied and algorithms are developed for regenerating kolam designs with different
patterns has been done.
Kolams are used for research in the Computational Anthropology.
Kolams are also used to simplify the representation of complex protein structures for easy
understanding.
As Kolams have a strong relationship with contemporary art and art history, they are used in
the artwork and media field.
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Kolam has a long and rich history in South India and is believed to have originated thousands
of years ago. It is deeply rooted in the culture and traditions of the region and is a testament to
the creativity and ingenuity of the people who have practiced it for generations. Today, kolam
remains a popular art form in South India and is celebrated through various festivals and
competitions, where artists showcase their skills and creativity in creating intricate and
beautiful designs on the floor.

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