COMPOSITE

MATERIALS

NIVIN VINCENT
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
RSET
ALL ARE NOT COMPOSITES

• Many of common materials (metal alloys, doped Ceramics and Polymers mixed
with additives) also have a small amount of dispersed phases in their structures,
however they are not considered as composite materials since their properties
are similar to those of their base constituents (physical properties of steel are
similar to those of pure iron)
• Plastics – two different constituents are mixed at macroscopic level but there is
no significant changes in properties compared to its constituents.
• Alloys – there is significant improvement in some of the properties but they are
mixed at microscopic level.
• Composites are having physically distinct phases with distinct
properties
COMPOSITES IN NATURE

• Wood consists of cellulose fibres in a lignin matrix

• Bone consists of hydroxyapatite particles in a collagen matrix

• Granite – granular/particulate composite. Made up of quartz, mica,
feldspar.
 MANMADE COMPOSITES

• Concrete – is the most widely used

manmade composite. Made up of small
rocks or pebbles in a pool of cement
sand mixture. It’s a particulate
composite.
• Plywood – several thin layers of wood
stacked up together. It’s a fibrous
composite.
• Fiber glass – it’s a composite made up
of short fibres of glasses oriented in all
directions and are glued together by a
matrix material. It’s a fibrous
composite
• Cemets – it is a composite made of ceramics (fiber) and metals (matrix). It
is used as a tip of cutting tool. It can take high temperature.
• Long Fibrous composites – Fiber (Glass/Kevlar/Carbon/Nylon) + matrix
(polymer). Used for high end engineering applications.
• The simplest composite materials are composed of just two phases; the
matrix, which is continuous and surrounds the other phase, often called
the dispersed phase.
• Matrix phase
• The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is
usually more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed phase and
shares a load with it.
• Dispersed (reinforcing) phase
• The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a discontinuous
form. This secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase is
usually stronger than the matrix, therefore it is sometimes called reinforcing
phase.
• Functions of matrix

• Distribute the applied load evenly between fibers

• Improves properties such as impact and fracture resistance to
composite
• Holds the fiber together
• Mostly prevent reinforcement from corrosion
• Usually they have low coefficient of thermal expansion
• Reinforcement can be fibers, fabric particles, or whiskers. these reinforcements
fundamentally used to increase the mechanical properties of a composite

• The main purpose of the reinforcement is to

• Provide superior levels of strength and stiffness to the composite.
• Reinforcing materials (graphite, glass, SiC, alumina) may also provide thermal
and electrical conductivity, controlled thermal expansion, and wear resistance
in addition to structural properties.
• The most widely used reinforcement form in high-performance composites
is fiber tows (untwisted bundle of continuous filaments).
HISTORY OF COMPOSITES
 BEGINNING OF COMPOSITES

• Around the century 3500 BC The ancient

Mesopotamians, one of the first civilizations found
in present-day Iraq, Kuwait, and Syria, are the first
people to produce a composites material.
• The Mesopotamian’s early composites were made
from pieces of wood glued together in different
directions. This created an early form of
plywood.
BEGINNING OF COMPOSITES

• The 1500s BCE bring about the

development of brick. Ancient Egyptians
and Mesopotamians mixed mud and straw to
produce a durable composite used to build
houses, public structures, and early religious
buildings. This early brick-like composite also
reinforced pottery and boats.
Beginning of composites • During AD 1200, In East Asia where Mongol
warriors are developing bows that were
stronger and faster than the weapons of
their enemies.
• By combining wood, bone, silk, and “animal
glue,” the Mongol’s compressed their bows
and wrapped them with birch bark and/or
silk to create some of the strongest and
most accurate bows of the time period.
• Genghis Khan’s armies used these bows.
These powerful bows aided in his military
rule.
 DEVELOPMENT OF RESINS
The first resins were originated from plants and animals. For
example, pine resin, a sticky syrup-like substance sealed bows and
boats.

In the 1800s ,Canoe builders would layer wood pulp paper known
as kraft paper with a glue-like material known as shellac. However,
this paper laminate did not last long when submerged in water.

• Shortly after the 1870s and 1890s man-made, or synthetic, resins were
invented. These resins could transform from liquid to solid by cross-linking
molecules through a process known as polymerization.
• The evolution of resin and the use of polymerization continued into the
early 1900s where the curing (hardening) properties of unsaturated
synthetic resins lead to early plastics
 RISE OF PLASTICS

• Belgian-born U.S. chemist Leo Hendrik Baekeland in 1907, creating

Bakelite, one of the first synthetic resins.
• The resin was extremely brittle, but Baekeland found he could soften and
strengthen it by combining it with cellulose.
• The first commercial use of Bakelite was to make gearshift knobs in 1917
for Rolls Royce automobiles. New and better resins were produced
during the 1920s and 1930s.
RISE OF PLASTICS

• In the early 1930s, two U.S. chemical companies, American Cyanamid and
DuPont, further developed polymer resins. In the course of their
experimentation, both companies independently formulated polyester
resin for the first time.
 Transformation from plastics to
composites
• In 1935, an incredible change occurs in the plastics
world. Owens Corning, a composites and glass company,
invented a glass fiber known today as fiberglass.

• When Ray Greene, an employee of

Owens Corning, combined fiberglass
with a plastic polymer, it became a
lightweight and incredibly strong
material.
• This unique material became known
as fiber-reinforced polymer or FRP
 • Prior to WWII, the first air crafts used thin
DURING WORLD WAR II layers of wood and plastic resin for the wings.
As WWII began, air crafts utilized fiberglass to
cut weight and prevent corrosion in all
weather

• Besides fiberglass’s lightweight and strength,

WWII brings us the discovery of
fiberglass’s “invisibility” to radio frequencies.
Fiberglass quickly helped shelter electronic
radar equipment during the war.
• By 1947, a fully composite body automobile was prototyped and tested, leading to the
development of the 1953 Corvette.

The Story of Fiberglass, Pt. 2 - Making the Plastic Corvette - Corvette Report
APPLICATION OF COMPOSITES

• Aerospace
• Marine
• Automobile
• Défense and communication
• Safety equipments
• Buildings and infrastructures
• Medical industry
• Sports
MARINE APPLICATION

• Composite materials have been used in the marine industry for a number of
years. The more traditional applications for composites include gratings, ducts,
shafts, piping, hull shells, etc for several decades.
• Composites make up more
than 20% of the A380's airframe.
AEROSPACE
DEFENSE AND COMMUNICATION
 MEDICAL INDUSTRY

 Press fit femoral stem – made up of PEEK,

polysulfone, liquid crystallizine polymer(LCP),
polyethermide

 Composite bone plate – made up of laminated continuous

fibers in polylactide(PLA) matrix
These are either partially resorbable or fully resorable.

Eg. Carbon fibre reinforced, calcium phosphate glass fiber

reinforced or continuous poly L-Lactide fiber
Medical industry
Medical industry
 Medical industry
• Tissue generation using scaffold
 Medical industry
• Composite prosthetics
SPORTS
AUTOMOBILE
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE
• Classification based on matrix material
• Classification based on matrix material
• Polymer matrix composite
 Polymer matrices generally are relatively weak, low-stiffness, viscoelastic materials.
 The strength and stiffness of PMCs come primarily from the reinforcing fibers.
 There are two major classes of polymers used as matrix materials, thermosets and
thermoplastics.
Two classes of polymers
• Thermosets
 3d molecular structure formed after curing at particular temperatures
Cannot be reused because it cannot change its shape once formed after
curing
They decomposes at high temperature instead of melting
• Classification based on matrix material
• Metal matrix composite
 Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum, magnesium, iron,
cobalt, copper) and a dispersed phases like ceramic (oxides, carbides) or other classes of
reinforcement
 Metal matrix composites or MMCs are usually have high strength, fracture toughness, high
stiffness compared to PMCs
 MMCs are usually used in engineering applications of elevated temperatures, where PMCs are
inferior.
• Classification based on matrix material
• Ceramic matrix composite
 The key ceramics used as CMC matrices are silicon carbide, alumina, silicon nitride, mullite,
and various cements.
 Ceramics exhibit high melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at elevated
temperatures
 The properties of ceramics, especially strength, are even more process sensitive than those of
metals. In practice, it is very difficult to determine the in situ properties of ceramic matrix
materials in a composite.
 CMCs are used for engineering applications at high temperature ( above 800 C)
• Classification based on matrix material
• Carbon matrix composite
• C/C composites are composite materials composed of carbon fibers and matrix phases (such as coke,
sintered carbon and graphite)
• Matrix have the characteristics of low density, high mechanical strength, high thermostability, high
electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity, low CTE, excellent fracture toughness
• In this class of composites, The matrix will be a form of carbon such as C60, graphite, and composites
of carbon with metals, which is being reinforced mostly by carbon in fiber or particle state.
• 2d or 3d carbon woven fabric can also be acting as reinforcement
• C/C matrix composites are usually used in extreme operating condition depending upon its application
• Large-particle and dispersion-strengthened composites are the two subclassifications of
particle-reinforced composites.
• The distinction between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism.
Large particle reinforced composites( diameter greater than 100 nm)
• The term “large” is used to indicate that particle–matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic
or molecular level; rather, continuum mechanics is used.
• For most of these composites, the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix.
• These reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each
particle.
• In essence, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the
load.
• The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on strong bonding at
the matrix–particle interface
Dispersion-strengthened composites
• For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller, with diameters
between 0.01 and 0.1 m (10 and 100 nm).
• Particle–matrix interactions that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular level
• The mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation hardening
• Rule of mixtures
• Fibers very strong in tension

• Provide significant strength improvement to the composite

• Ex: fiber-glass reinforced composite
- continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix

Glass fibers – strength and stiffness

Polymer matrix – holds fibers in place
– protects fiber surfaces
– transfers load to fibers
Structural composites
• Composites having properties which depend not only on properties of
constituents but also on the geometrical design of various structures
• Laminar composite
• Sandwich composite
Laminar composite
• Composed of 2 dim sheets or panels that have a preferred high strength direction.
• The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together such that the orientation of
the high-strength direction varies with each successive layered

• For example, adjacent wood sheets in plywood are aligned with the grain direction at
right angles to each other.
• Laminations may also be constructed using fabric material such as cotton, paper, or
woven glass fibers embedded in a plastic matrix.
Sandwich composite
• Class of structural composites, are designed to be light-weight beams or panels having relatively
high stiffnesses and strengths
• A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets, or faces, that are separated by and adhesively
bonded to a thicker core
• The outer sheets are made of a relatively stiff and strong material, typically aluminum alloys, fiber-
reinforced plastics, titanium, steel, or plywood
• They impart high stiffness and strength to the structure, and must be thick enough to withstand
tensile and compressive stresses that result from loading
• The core material is lightweight, and normally has a low modulus of elasticity
• Core materials typically fall within three categories: rigid polymeric foams (i.e., phenolics, epoxy,
polyurethanes), wood (i.e., balsa wood), and honeycombs
• Structurally, the core serves several functions
• It provides continuous support for the faces
• In addition, it must have sufficient shear strength to withstand
transverse shear stresses, and also be thick enough to provide high
shear stiffness (to resist buckling of the panel)
Interface and type of
bonding
• An interface between a reinforcement and a matrix as the bounding surface
between the two constituents across which a discontinuity in some parameter
occurs.
• An interface is the region through which material parameters, such as
concentration of an element, crystal structure, atomic registry, elastic modulus,
density, coefficient of thermal expansion, etc., change from one side to another
• The discontinuity across the interface may be sharp or gradual
• Interface between phases in a composite material:
• Direct bonding between primary and secondary phase
• Addition of a third ingredient to bond primary and secondary phases(forming
an interphase between them)
• The behavior of a composite material is a result of the combined behavior of the
following three entities:
• Fiber or the reinforcing element,
• Matrix, and
• Reinforcement/matrix interface

• The fiber surface area is essentially the same as the interfacial area
• Ignoring the fiber ends, one can write the surface-to-volume ratio (S/V) of the
fiber as
𝑆 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
=
𝑉 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙
where r and l are the fiber radius and length of the fiber, respectively.
• Thus, the surface area of a fiber or the interfacial area per unit volume increases
as r decreases
• The applied load should be effectively transferred from the matrix to the fibers
via the interface.

• The interfacial zone, consists of near-surface layers of fiber and matrix and any
layer(s) of material existing between these surfaces

• Wettability of the fiber or any other reinforcement by the matrix and the type of
bonding between the two components constitute the primary considerations.

• Additionally, one should determine the characteristics of the interface and how
they are affected by temperature, diffusion, residual stresses
Wettability
• The ability of a liquid to spread on a solid surface.
• We can measure the wettability of a given solid by a liquid by considering the
equilibrium of forces in a system consisting of a drop of liquid resting on a plane,
solid surface in the appropriate atmosphere

• The liquid drop will spread and wet the surface only if this results in a net reduction
of free energy of the system
• Wettability describes the extent of intimate contact between a liquid and a solid
• During the manufacturing process, the matrix is often behaving as liquid like
condition.
• Good wetting means that liquid(matrix) will flow over reinforcement, covering all
bumps and dips of the reinforcement surface
• Interfacial bonding exists due to the adhesion between reinforcement and
matrix(if wetting is good)
• The contact angle, can be measured directly by a goniometer or calculated by
using simple trigonometric relationships involving drop dimensions
• Young’s equation:
𝛾𝑆𝐿 = 𝛾𝐿𝑆 + 𝛾𝐿𝑉 cos 𝜃

• where 𝛾 is the specific surface energy and the subscripts SV, LS, and LV represent
solid/vapor, liquid/solid, and liquid/vapor interfaces, respectively
Contact angle goniometer
• A low contact angle, meaning good wettability, is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for strong bonding
• To obtain an intimate contact between the fiber and the matrix, the matrix in
liquid form must wet the fiber
• Coupling agents are frequently used to improve the wettability between the
components.
• Other approaches, such as modifying the matrix composition, are used
Interfacial Bonding
The important types of interfacial bonding as follows:
• Mechanical bonding,
• Physical bonding,
• Chemical bonding,
– Dissolution bonding, and
– Reaction bonding
• Mechanical bonding
• Simple mechanical keying or interlocking effects between two
surfaces can lead to a considerable degree of bonding.
• In a fiber reinforced composite, any contraction of the matrix onto
a central fiber would result in a gripping of the fiber by the matrix

• A mechanical anchoring of the polymer into the pores and the

unevenness of the fibre, after hardening of the polymer

• If the liquid cannot penetrate into the asperities of the

substrate, the hardening of the resin is accompanied by the
formation of interfacial cavities which are liable to initiate the
failure of the interfacial bond.
• Mechanical bonding

• Pure mechanical bonding alone is not enough in most cases.

• However, mechanical bonding could add, in the presence of
reaction bonding, to the overall bonding.
• Mechanical bonding is efficient in load transfer when the applied
force is parallel to the interface
• In the case of mechanical bonding, the matrix must fill the hills
and valleys on the surface of the reinforcement
• In PMCs and MMCs, one would like to have mechanical bonding in addition to
chemical bonding
• In CMCs, on the other hand, it would be desirable to have mechanical bonding
• In any ceramic matrix composite, roughness-induced gripping at the interface is
quite important.
• Specifically, in fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites, interfacial roughness-
induced radial stress will affect the interface debonding, the sliding friction
between the fiber and the matrix during pullout of debonded fibers, and the fiber
pullout length.
Physical bonding
• Any bonding involving weak, secondary or van der Waals forces, dipolar
interactions, and hydrogen bonding can be classified as physical bonding.
• The bond energy in such physical bonding is very low, approximately 8–16 kJ/mol.
Chemical bonding
• Atomic or molecular transport, by diffusional processes, is
involved in chemical bonding
• Solid solution and compound formation may occur at the
interface, resulting in a reinforcement/matrix interfacial
reaction zone having a certain thickness
• This encompasses all types of covalent, ionic, and metallic
bonding
• Chemical bonding involves primary forces and the bond energy
is in the range of approximately 40–400 kJ/mol
• Two types

– Dissolution bonding, and

– Reaction bonding
• There are two main types of chemical bonding:
1. Dissolution bonding:
• In this case, interaction between components occurs at an electronic scale
• Because these interactions are of rather short range
• It is important that the components come into intimate contact on an atomic
scale
• This implies that surfaces should be appropriately treated to remove any
impurities
• Any contamination of fiber surfaces, or entrapped air or gas bubbles at the
interface, will hinder the required intimate contact between the components.
• There are two main types of chemical bonding:
2. Reaction bonding:
• In this case, a transport of molecules, atoms, or ions occurs
from one or both of the components to the reaction site, that is,
the interface
• This atomic transport is controlled by diffusional processes
• Such a bonding can exist at a variety of interfaces, e.g.,
glass/polymer, metal/metal, metal/ceramic, or ceramic/ceramic.
• Tests for Measuring Interfacial Strength
• Numerous tests have been devised to characterize the fiber/matrix interface
strength
1. Flexural Tests
• Flexural or bend tests can be used to get a semi-qualitative idea of the
fiber/matrix interfacial strength of a composite
• Governing equations for a simple beam elastically stressed in bending is used.
• Three-Point Bending
• Four-Point Bending
• Short-Beam Shear Test (Interlaminar Shear Stress Test)
• ASTM D2344 testing determines the apparent interlaminar shear strength of
parallel fiber reinforced plastics.
• This test method specifies using a 6.35 mm (0.250 in.) diameter loading nose to
apply a force downwards on the center of the specimen until fracture. It does this
at a rate of 1.3 mm (0.05 in./min.)
• The maximum tensile stress occurs at the outermost surface
2. Fiber pull out test
• Involves pulling partially embedded
single reinforcing particle out of a block
of matrix material
3. Fiber pushout test
• Pointed or conical or rounded indenters can be used to displace a fiber aligned
perpendicular to the composite surface

• The specimen thickness must be large compared to

the fiber diameter for these assumptions to be valid
• Many methods involving the pressing of an indenter
on a fiber cross section have been devised for
measuring the interfacial bond strength in a fiber
reinforced composite
• The pushout test uses a thin specimen (1–3 mm),
with the fibers aligned perpendicular to the viewing
surface.
• In the first region, the indenter is in the contact
with the fiber and the fiber sliding is less than the
specimen thickness t.
• This is followed by a horizontal region in which
fiber sliding length is greater than or equal to the
sample thickness.
• In the third region, the indenter comes in contact
with the matrix.
4. Fragmentation test
• In this test, a single fiber is embedded in a dog-bone-
type tensile sample of matrix
• When a tensile load is applied to such a sample, the
load is transferred to the fiber via shear strains and
stresses produced on planes parallel to the
fiber/matrix interface
• When the tensile stress in the fiber reaches its
ultimate strength, it fragments into two parts.
• If we continue loading, this process of fiber
fragmentation continues,
• i.e., the single fiber continues to fragment into even
smaller pieces until the fiber fragment length
becomes too small to enable loading it to fracture.
This fiber length is called the critical length, lc.
SMART COMPOSITE
Smart composites
• Smart composites can be explained as these are designed materials,
where smart materials are embedded in polymer, metal or concrete
etc. to sense, control, communicate etc.
• Smart materials also called intelligent or responsive materials. They
have the ability to change their physical properties in response to
specific stimulus input or environmental changes.
• These stimulus could be pressure, temperature, mechanical stress,
electric field etc.
• Piezo electric materials – materials that produce voltage when stress
is applied.
• Shape memory materials induce deformation due to temperature,
stress change.
• Optoelectronic materials – convert light to electric current
• Ph Sensitive polymers – material changes volume when the
surrounding atmosphere changes
• Halochromic materials – changes color as acidity changes
• Smart materials used in composites
Classification of smart composites
• Structural smart composites
• Composites for actuation
• Novel functional composites
• Nanocomposites
• Structural smart composites –
• They are materials that have the sensing capability to detect stress, strains, fatigue and
damage, monitor the health conditions of structures that are difficult to inspect or repair
such as wind turbine blades, underground pipes and long span bridges.
• Embedding smart material into structural material is an integrated design that is more
reliable and compact.

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Structural smart composites

• Several types of smart materials or sensors have been adopted in sensitive

structural composites.
• Among them, fiber optic sensors, piezo electric have been widely studied
and adopted.
• Their features include, but are not limited to, immunity to electromagnetic
interference, small size, light weight, durability, low cost for mass
production and high bandwidth
• These features allow large numbers of Smart materials or sensors to
operate in the same system and to be integrated within thin materials.
• Example 1: optical fiber embedded CFRP composites
• Fiber optic sensors embedded in carbon fibre reinforced polymer
composites can be used to monitor structural health in their
fabrication and their in service condition.
Optical fibre
embedded
• Single mode optical fibers with Fiber bragg grating sensors used.
CFRP • Optical fibers were coated with UV-cured resin, whose outside diameter was
composite 250 micrometer.
• The FBG sensor is sensitive to the transverse cracks that run through the
thickness and width of the 90 ply.
• Moreover, since the optical fiber is embedded in 0 ply to be parallel to the
carbon fibers, the matrix rich region around the optical fiber is so small that it
does not deteriorate the strength or stiffness of the CFRP laminates.
Cement based Piezo electric ceramic
composite

• Another popular option is based on piezoelectric materials .The piezoelectric

effect is the ability of materials to generate an electric charge in response to
applied mechanical stress.
• By monitoring and measuring the generated electric charge, it is possible to
use piezoelectric materials as sensors.
• A unique characteristic of the piezoelectric effect is that its ability to transform
stress to electricity is reversible, meaning that the materials can generate
stress when an electric field is applied.
• This allows 'smart composites' to not only sense but also actuate (Zhang et al.,
2002; Pelrine et al., 2000). This bridges sensitive composites and another
important group of smart composites, composites for actuation.
Cement based Piezo electric ceramic
composite Fabrication
• Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) piezoelectric ceramic powders and white cement
were used to prepare cement-based piezoelectric composites. White cement is
used as matrix.
• Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) piezoelectric ceramic powders and white cement are
mixed together to make cement-based piezoelectric ceramic composites. In order
to improve the fluidity of the fresh mixture, a superplasticizer was used.
• Then the mixture was compacted into the 13 mm * 13 mm * 3 mm model. After
casting, the specimens were put in the curing room with a temperature of 65°C
and relative humidity of 98% for 24 hours.
 SMART
COMPOSITES
FOR ACTUATION • Shape-memory materials like nitinol etc will deform &
deformation can return to their original position to certain
stimuli like temperature, stress etc
• Shape-memory composites can be manufactured at a low
cost; they are also lightweight and potentially
biocompatible and biodegradable, facilitating applications
such as space-deployable components and structures (e.g.,
antennas and hinges (Sokolowski et al., 2008), as shown in
Fig.
• Shape-memory composites can be controlled using temperature, electricity,
magnetic field and light (Liu et al., 2017), making them flexible in their
implementation.
• Fiber reinforced polymer composite with Shape memory material is in demand
for weight saving application in various engineering applications.
• Advantages are good mechanical behavior, corrosion resistance.
• FRPs brittle failure issues can be solved when integrating with Shape memory as
it can absorb energy leading to better dampening effect.
 Self healing
composites
• Smart composites can also be composites with unusual
properties (additional to sensing and actuation).
• Example -
• Self-healing composites are composite materials that can
recover automatically after damage (Wang et al., 2015b).
The mechanism of healing can be either intrinsic or
extrinsic. Intrinsic healing uses materials' intrinsic .
• Extrinsic healing is based on embedded microstructures
(e.g., microcapsules and microvessels) which contain liquid
healing agents. In the event of a crack, the healing agents
are released to fill the gap and solidify (Pang and Bond,
2005), as shown in Fig.
• Self-healing composites' potential applications are mostly
connected with safety-critical machines and
infrastructures that may be difficult to access, inspect,
maintain and repair, such as off-shore wind turbines,
aircrafts and satellites.
• Artificial skins with very good stretchability and sensing capability have grown
rapidly in the last decade. They are soft and stretchable materials with embedded
electronic sensing components.
• For example, conductive elastomeric composites incorporating carbon nanotubes
(Roh et al., 2015) can be stretchable, transparent, ultrasensitive and patchable.
• Artificial skins can sense touch, temperature, humidity and biological variables .
• The color of electronic skins can also be tuned by embedding organic
electrochromic devices .There has also been work on skins with self-powering
capability (e.g., through triboelectric mechanisms) (Shi et al., 2016) shown in
figure.
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