integrating technology

with student-centered learning

A Report to the Nellie Mae Education Foundation

Prepared by Babette Moeller & Tim Reitzes | July 2011

www.nmefdn.org
1
acknowledgements
We thank the Nellie Mae Education Foundation (NMEF) for the grant that supported the preparation of this
report. Special thanks to Eve Goldberg for her guidance and support, and to Beth Miller for comments on an
earlier draft of this report.

We thank Ilene Kantrov for her contributions to shaping and editing this report, and Loulou Bangura for her
help with building and managing a wiki site, which contains many of the papers and other resources that we
reviewed (the site can be accessed at: http://nmef.wikispaces.com).

We are very grateful for the comments and suggestions from Daniel Light, Shelley Pasnik, and Bill Tally on
earlier drafts of this report. And we thank our colleagues from EDC’s Learning and Teaching Division who
shared their work, experiences, and insights at a meeting on technology and student-centered learning:
Harouna Ba, Carissa Baquarian, Kristen Bjork, Amy Brodesky, June Foster, Vivian Gilfroy, Ilene Kantrov, Daniel
Light, Brian Lord, Joyce Malyn-Smith, Sarita Pillai, Suzanne Reynolds-Alpert, Deirdra Searcy, Bob Spielvogel,
Tony Streit, Bill Tally, and Barbara Treacy.

Babette Moeller & Tim Reitzes (2011) Education Development Center, Inc. (EDC). Integrating
Technology with Student-Centered Learning. Quincy, MA: Nellie Mae Education Foundation.

©2011 by The Nellie Mae Education Foundation. All rights reserved.

The Nellie Mae Education Foundation

1250 Hancock Street, Suite 205N, Quincy, MA 02169
www.nmefdn.org 3
 Not surprising, 43 percent of students feel
unprepared to use technology as they look
ahead to higher education or their work life.
executive summary
With the intent to expand education beyond traditional boundaries, student-centered learning focuses
on educational practices and principles that:

¸¸ P rovide all students equitable access to the ¸¸ Focus on mastery of skills and knowledge, and
knowledge and skills necessary for college
and career readiness in the 21st century, ¸¸ Align with current research on how people learn.

As the principles guiding student-centered learning become more defined, increased attention is being paid
to the tools and resources best suited to its successful adoption. On the surface, technology would seem
to offer a natural—and accessible—way to advance student-centered learning. After all, in today’s public
schools, there’s an average student to computer ratio of 4:1 and a teacher and student population ready,
willing and able to use technology. Yet despite its availability, technology is not widely integrated into the
learning experience. A recent survey of more than 1,000 high school teachers, IT staff and students shows
that only 8 percent of teachers fully integrate technology into the classroom. Not surprising, 43 percent of
students feel unprepared to use technology as they look ahead to higher education or their work life.

To learn more about how technology could enhance student-centered learning, Education
Development Center (EDC) examined current research literature as well as practice and
policy-related reports. This research was enriched by collaboration with EDC colleagues
who have expertise on this subject as well as interviews with educators at selected schools.
This report concludes that while technology can provide a powerful teaching and learning
tool, it cannot drive reform on its own. To be widely adopted, technology must be part of
a comprehensive and systematic effort to change education. This report provides a candid
look at the potential technology offers and the steps needed to better understand when
technology is most effective in student-centered learning—and for whom.

The Potential Technology Offers

Because technology is both highly customizable and intrinsically motivating to students, it is particularly
well-suited to expand the learning experience. To date, research on the effectiveness of technology has
focused primarily on higher education and professional development, yet it suggests that specific uses
of technology can improve K-12 student outcomes as well. Although the findings are general, and not
necessarily specific to student-centered learning, they indicate that technology can:

Help diagnose and address individual needs. Technology can equip teachers to assess an individual student’s
strengths and needs. Two main approaches to technology-supported assessment exist. One is a mastery
learning approach tied to accountability systems. This enables teachers to benchmark students as they progress
through a standards-based curriculum. The other assesses understanding which produces a picture of student
thinking. Both approaches help establish a clear baseline from which teachers can then serve as coaches and

5
 advisors, steering students to the right mix of resources demands on both students and teachers. Appendix
and projects that meet curricular requirements. 2 describes two examples of school models where
technology has been successfully integrated into
Equip students with skills essential for work student-centered learning. These examples are based
and life in a 21st century global society. Using on two distinct approaches:
technology for purposes, such as writing, research
and analysis—rather than simply drills and practice— High Tech High (HTH) is a network of K-12 charter
can enhance student competencies that surpass the schools where the program and curriculum are based
knowledge and skills typically measured in achieve- around personalization with strong student and faculty
ment tests. These competencies include problem collaboration; adult world connection emphasizing
solving, creativity, collaboration, data management community service projects and semester-long
and communication. Many employers find these skills academic internships; and common intellectual mission
lacking among today’s college graduates. In addition, based on a “technical” foundation, real-world
a number of organizations ranging from the Partner- career skills, and a “college prep” education.
ship for 21st Century Skills to the U.S. Department of
Education see literacy in digital media as essential for Technology enables many of HTH’s innovative prac-
succeeding in a global society. tices. For example, to aid classroom learning, schools

Technology can equip students to independently

organize their learning process. So, instead of
being passive recipients of information, students
using technology become active users.
Provide an active experience for students. Tech- are equipped with Specialty Labs dedicated to a range
nology can equip students to independently organize of sciences from biotechnology to robotics. Also,
their learning process. So, instead of being passive throughout their academic careers at HTH, students
recipients of information, students using technology document their learning by compiling and presenting
become active users. At the same time, technology their work in digital portfolios. Moreover, HTH uses
transfers some responsibility for learning to students. technology to emphasize assessment as an “episode
Through online learning (which provides increased of learning”—not as an endpoint—and offers its own
access to course content, more scheduling flexibility, teacher-credentialing program. To date, HTH reports
and better access to alternative education choices) sending 100 percent of its students to college.
and alternative media (such as digital games and
project-based learning), students have the flexibility Quest To Learn, a new public school in New York,
to direct their individual progress. has designed an integrated game-based curriculum
that meets state and national standards while focusing
some models are already in place on game-design and systems thinking. To achieve
Clearly, student-centered learning places new this, subject areas such as math, science, language

6
arts, and social studies are blended together into conclusion: technology is critical
domains. Not only is technology prevalent throughout yet more targeted analysis is needed
the curriculum, it also supports other Quest To This report concludes that technology can support
Learn programs including a specially designed key practices of student-centered learning. This
social networking application as well as a program includes emerging technology already prevalent in
evaluation and assessment lab. the consumer and business worlds (such as digital
books, cloud computing, collaborative environments,
the challenges to overcome and mobile devices). Here’s how:
Integrating technology into educational practices
has proven to be a slow and complex process. In ¸¸ T echnology (done right) provides an invaluable
fact, it can take four or more years from the time way to deliver more personalized learning in a
new technologies are first introduced to the point cost-effective way.
when changes can be observed in students. To date,
the most prevalent barriers to successful integration ¸¸ T echnology provides high-quality, ongoing
include organizational support, teacher attitudes feedback to teachers and students that can help
and expectations, and technology itself. guide the learning process. And when technology
mirrors how professionals use it in the workplace,
 chool culture and structure don’t support
S it can enhance academic achievement, civic
specific uses of technology. Often, technology engagement, acquisition of leadership skills, and
is not aligned with a school district’s vision, mission personal/social development.
and curriculum. As a result, there is no foundation
in place to provide consistent access to—and use ¸¸ T echnology can be designed to provide
of—technology throughout the K-12 years. Using adaptive learning and assessment experiences
technology to support student-centered learning for students. Most important to student-centered
requires leadership, administration and the community learning, technology can enable outcomes that
to collaborate and set an agenda for technology vary based on student strengths, interests, and
that reflects local needs, focuses on a common previous performance.
set of learning standards, and connects students
to real-world audiences. While studies to-date have examined the effective-
ness of specific technology uses on student learning,
Most teachers lack confidence in technology very few have addressed whether those uses can
as well as their technology skills. According to effectively produce different outcomes for different
a National Center for Education Statistics study, only student subgroups. It’s still not clear, for example,
23 percent of teachers surveyed feel prepared to which types of learners are most successful using
integrate technology into their instruction. Those who online learning. Or more specifically whether the
use technology do so primarily to present information drop-out rates associated with online learning suggest
rather than to provide hands-on learning for students. that the amount of reading works against students
Some are unclear about policies governing the use with weak literacy skills. This report concludes that
of technology. Others are uncomfortable with deeper analysis of outcomes for different student
investing instructional time to deal with possible subgroups is needed before specific technology-
equipment failures or slow Internet access. Clearly, enhanced instructional practices can be successful
more of an investment in technology training and at reducing existing performance gaps.
technical support needs to be factored into K-12
funding and resource allocation.

7
…too many students leave high school
without the knowledge and skills
they need for success in further
education or the workplace.
introduction
A key goal for current reform efforts in education is to have students graduate from high school ready for
college or a career, regardless of their income, race, ethnic or language background, or disability status (e.g.,
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy, 2010). But currently too many
students leave high school without the knowledge and skills they need for success in further education or the
workplace (see sidebar 1 for details). There is a growing consensus among education reformers that improving
the preparation of students for the 21st century, including postsecondary education and careers, requires
fundamental and systemic changes in how middle and high school education is organized (e.g., Carnegie
Corporation of New York & Institute for Advanced Study, 2009; National Academy of Sciences, National
Academy of Engineering, & Institute of Medicine, 2007; NCEE, 2006).

In particular, there is recognition that the traditional, the past, school reform efforts driven by technology
rigid “one size fits all” design of schools must give have often failed (e.g., Cuban, 2001; Zhao & Frank,
way to more personalized, student-centered designs 2003). In an effort to provide practitioners and policy-
to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse student makers with some guidance about how to use technol-
population (e.g., Bowler & Siegel, 2009; Christensen, ogy to support student-centered learning initiatives,
Horn, & Johnson, 2008; KnowledgeWorks Foundation Education Development Center, Inc. (EDC) conducted
& Institute for the Future, 2008). A key idea behind an extensive review of the research and practice
this model of education is that learning should be literature. We built on the literature on technology
driven by a focus on students and their proficiency integration as a framework for understanding various
with specific competencies, and not by archaic school uses of technology to personalize learning. This report
structures and arbitrary, age-based benchmarks. summarizes the findings from this review and discusses
implications for practice, policy, and research.
Computer technology and digital media have fun-
damentally transformed all aspects of our lives, and why integrate technology with
many education reformers agree that it can and must student-centered reform efforts?
be an important part of current efforts to personalize There are several reasons cited in the literature as
education (e.g., Christensen, 2008; Collins & Halv- to why technology should be an integral part of
erson, 2009; U.S. Department of Education, 2010; student-centered reform efforts.
Wellings & Levine, 2009; Woolf, Shute, VanLehn,
Burleson, King, Suthers, Bredeweg, Luckin, Baker & First, even though the relationship between technology
Tonkin, 2010). Use of technology can help to improve and learning is complex, research indicates that specific
and enhance the acquisition of knowledge and skills, uses of technology can improve student outcomes.
and learning with and about technology is essential While the availability of technology in the classroom
for students to gain the competencies to function well does not guarantee impact on student outcomes (e.g.,
in a 21st century society and workforce. Moreover, Dynarski, Agodini, Heaviside, Novak, Carey, Campu-
technology can serve as an important tool for districts, zano, Means, Murphy, Penuel, Javitz, Emery, & Sussex,
schools, and teachers to support reforms. Because 2007; Wenglinsky, 1998), when used appropriately,
technology is intrinsically motivating to many students it can help to improve students’ performance on
and also highly customizable, it is particularly well achievement tests (e.g., Kulik, 2003; Wenglinsky, 2006).
suited to support student-centered learning. Yet in Using technology for drill and practice generally has

9
 SIDE B AR 01

by the numbers
Percent of 12th Grade Students Achieving at or above Basic Level on Most Recent NAEP Assessments
Racial / Ethnic Groups

Students with

Not English
American /

Disabilities

Disabilites

Language

Language
Students

Learners
Hispanic

Without
Alaskan
Islander

Learner
English
Overall

Asian /
Pacific

Native
White

Black
Civics7 66% 74% 42% 46% 68% 42% 25% 69% 18% 67%
Economics8 79% 87% 57% 64% 80% 72% 43% 82% 34% 81%
Mathematics9 61% 70% 30% 40% 73% 42% 17% 64% 26% 62%
Reading 10
73% 79% 54% 60% 74% 67% 28% 76% 31% 74%
Science 11
54% 82% 38% 45% 76% 52% 17% 57% 12% 55%
U.S. History 12
47% 56% 20% 27% 54% 32% 21% 49% 8% 48%
Writing13 82% 86% 69% 71% 86% 70% 44% 85% 40% 83%

The Program for International Student Assessment and 32nd out of 54 countries in mathematics (Baldi,
(PISA) compared the scores of U.S. 15-year-old Jin, Skemer, Green, & Herget, 2007).
students in science and mathematics literacy to their
peers internationally in 2006. In this comparison, U.S. On average only about 75 percent of all high school
students ranked 23rd out of 56 countries in science students in the U.S. receive a high school diploma within

been found to be less effective than using technology management, communication, and collaboration skills,
for more constructivist purposes such as writing, which are among the skills that employers find lacking
research, collaboration, analysis, and publication even in many college graduates (The Conference
(Warschauer & Matuchniak, 2010). For instance, based Board, Corporate Voices for Working Families, the
on an analysis of NAEP data, Wenglinsky (2005) found Partnership for 21st Century Skills, and the Society for
that for eighth-grade reading, use of computers for Human Resource Management, 2006)1.
writing activities positively affected test scores, but use
of computers for grammar/punctuation, reading drills, Second, recently released standards documents empha-
or tutorials negatively affected test scores. The educa- size that the use of technology in education is essential
tional use of technology also can enhance compe- in helping students build 21st century skills. The
tencies that go well beyond the knowledge and skills Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) has identified
typically measured by these achievement tests (e.g., the skills and expertise that are essential for succeeding
Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 1999; Collins & Halverson, in work and life in a 21st century global society. These
2009). These competencies include improved under- include information, media, and technology skills;
standing of complex concepts, connections between learning and innovation skills; and life and career skills.
ideas, processes and learning strategies, as well as the These three skill sets are both required for and applied
development of problem solving, visualization, data through sophisticated uses of new digital media.

1  This report is based on a 2006 survey of more than 400 businesses and
follow-up interviews with a smaller sample of HR and other senior executives.
10
four years of entering 9th grade (Stillwell, 2010). High Only about 57 percent of full-time, first-time bach-
school graduation rates vary considerably among different elor’s or equivalent degree-seekers in 2002 attending
racial and ethnic groups, with 91 percent of Asian/Pacific 4-year institutions completed a bachelor’s or equivalent
Islander students graduating within four years, compared degree at the institution where they began their
to 81 percent of Caucasian students, 64 percent American studies within 6 years. Graduation rates vary based
Indian/Alaska Native students, 64 percent of Hispanic on students’ racial and ethnic background. They are
students, and 62 percent of African American students highest for Asian/Pacific Islanders (67 percent) and
(Stillwell, 2010). white students (60 percent), and lowest for Hispanic
or Latino students (49 percent), black or African
Graduation rates for students from low-income families American Students (40 percent), and American Indian
are particularly low. Between 2006 and 2007, students from or Alaska Native students (38 percent) (Knapp, Kelly-
low-income families were approximately 10 times more Reid, & Ginder, 2010).
likely to drop out of high school than were students living in
high-income families (Cataldi, Laird, & Kewal Ramani, 2009).
7 Lutkus & Weiss, 2007

Among those students who graduated high school in 8 Mead & Sandene, NCES 2007
9 Grigg, Donahue, & Dion, 2007
2004 and who entered postsecondary education by 2006,
10 Grigg, Donahue, & Dion, 2007
40 percent of students in four-year colleges and 51 percent
11 Grigg, Lauko, & Brockway, 2006
of students in two-year colleges took remedial courses 12 Lee & Weiss, 2007
(NCES, 2010). 13 Salahu-Din, Persky, & Miller, 2008

While the Partnership’s definition of 21st century skills

is not universally accepted, there is considerable overlap 4 using critical thinking and problem solving to
between their recommendations and those of profes- make informed decisions regarding appropriate
sional teacher organizations and the U.S. Department digital tools and resources,
of Education. Specific technology literacy skills that the
National Educational Technology Standards (International 5 understanding human cultural and societal
Society for Technology in Education, 2007) encourage issues related to technology and practicing legal
teachers to incorporate across content areas include: and ethical behavior,

1 using technology to demonstrate creative 6 understanding technology operations and concepts.

thinking and to develop innovative products,
Similarly, the recently released National Educational
2 using technology to communicate and work Technology Plan (U.S. Department of Education,
collaboratively, 2010), emphasizes the importance of enabling students
to experience technology in the ways professionals do
3 applying digital tools to gather, evaluate, in their fields (e.g., to conduct experiments, organize
and use information, information, and communicate) and encourages

2  Surprisingly, other recently released national standards and policy documents

do not explicitly address technology, as discussed in more detail below.
11
 educators to create learning experiences that mirror Fourth, technology now has a considerable presence
students’ daily lives and the reality of their futures2. in public schools. According to a recent survey
conducted by the U.S. Department of Education
Third, students are highly motivated to use technol- (Gray, Thomas, & Lewis, 2010), 97 percent of teachers
ogy. Technology and media use is pervasive among had one or more computers located in their classroom
children and youth. According to a recent survey every day during the winter and spring of 2009.
of media and technology use by 8-18 year olds Internet access was available for 93 percent of
conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation (Rideout, computers every day (though school firewalls can
Foehr, & Roberts, 2010), young people in this age limit the extent of Internet access in the classroom).
group spent an average of 7 hours, 38 minutes Other technology devices available in the classroom
consuming media per day and through multitasking or in the school included liquid crystal display (LCD)
are able to pack a total of 10 hours, 45 minutes or digital light processing projectors (48 and 36
worth of media content into that time, seven days percent, respectively), interactive whiteboards (23
a week. Twenty percent of this media consumption and 28 percent), and digital cameras (14 and 64
occurs on mobile devices such as cell phones, iPods, percent). Many teachers also reported having access

Sixty percent of teachers reported that they

use technology in the classroom, but just 26
percent of the students indicated they are
encouraged to use technology themselves.

or handheld video game players. In 2009, 31 percent to student data through their school or district
of 8-10 year olds, 69 percent of 11-14 year olds, and network, including grades (94 percent), attendance
85 percent of 15-18 year olds owned their own cell records (90 percent), and student assessments (75
phones. Similarly, 61 percent of 11-14 year olds, 80 percent). Ninety-seven percent of teachers reported
percent of 11-14 year olds, and 83 percent of 15-18 having remote access to school email and 81 percent
year olds owned iPods or MP3 players. Laptops were had remote access to student data. Teachers thus
owned by 17 percent of 8-10 year olds, 27 percent have at their disposal a powerful set of tools to
of 11-14 year olds, and 38 percent of 15-18 year support teaching and learning.
olds. A recent survey sponsored by the MacArthur
Foundation found that nearly all young people (97 framing the review: research
percent) use the Internet by 8th grade. They use the on technology integration
Internet on average almost 14 hours per week, and Despite the ready availability of technology in
types of uses include social networking, gaming, and schools and compelling reasons to use it to
sharing digital resources (sharing files, blogs, and enhance teaching and learning, research indicates
personal websites; Flanagin & Metzger, 2010). that it is not widely integrated into classrooms.

12
According to a recent survey of more than 1,000 Organizational support. Schools naturally
high school teachers, IT staff members, and resist changes that will put pressure on existing
students conducted by CDW Government LLC practices (Collins & Halverson, 2009; Cuban,
(2010), only 8 percent of the teachers surveyed fully 2000; Zhao & Frank, 2003). Unless the culture and
integrate technology into the classroom. Further, structure of a school is compatible with and sup-
the survey found that teachers use the technology portive of specific uses of technology, technology
primarily to teach (e.g., to give presentations), while integration is not likely to succeed. Aspects of
students lack opportunities to use technology hands- organizational support for technology integration
on. Sixty percent of teachers reported that they use that have been identified in the literature include
technology in the classroom, but just 26 percent of the following:
the students indicated they are encouraged to use
technology themselves. Both teachers and students ¸¸ A
 school culture that promotes technology use
reported that they use handheld technology (iPods, and the adoption of new teaching practices,
MP3 players, smart phones) and social media (e.g.,
online text or video chat, blogs, podcasts) in their ¸¸ A
 coherent, shared pedagogical vision for
private lives, but only about 12 percent or fewer of technology use, and support from peers,
teachers reported that they use these technologies administration, and the community,
in the classroom. Not surprisingly, 43 percent of
students reported that they felt unprepared or unsure ¸¸ Availability of technical support,
of their level of preparation to use technology in
higher education or the workforce. ¸¸ T echnology policies (e.g., regarding cell phone
use and access to Internet resources) that
Project RED (Greaves, Hayes, Wilson, & Gielniak, allow teachers to make use of the wealth of
2010) conducted a survey of nearly 1,000 school technological resources available,
principals and technology coordinators3. The survey
found that 80 percent of the schools surveyed ¸¸ A
 culture of collaboration in which teachers
under-utilize technology they have already purchased. work together to explore more effective uses
Few schools employ practices that their study found of technology,
to be correlated with improved student performance,
such as a 1:1 student computer ratio, daily use ¸¸ A
 ssessment systems that go beyond multiple-
of technology in core classes, daily electronic choice tests and that measure changes such as
formative assessments, and weekly teacher deeper understanding and improved problem
collaboration in professional learning communities solving that result from effective technology
(a professional development practice that has been use (Inan & Lowther, 2010; Kopcha, 2010;
found to be effective in supporting teachers’ Lemke et al., 2009; Zhao & Frank, 2003).
technology integration).
Teachers. Teachers’ attitudes towards and
Research on technology integration that has been expertise with technology have been identified as
conducted over the past 20 years sheds some light key factors associated with technology use in the
on why technology is not used more. Technology classroom (e.g., Inan & Lowther, 2010; Sandholtz
integration is a slow and complex process and is et al., 1997; Zhao & Frank, 2003). Teachers need
influenced by many factors. These include to hold a positive attitude towards technology
organizational factors, teacher factors, and factors in order to use it effectively in their teaching.
associated with the technology itself. Moreover, their pedagogical beliefs and existing
3  The sample surveyed in this study was representative of enrollment,
geography, poverty level, and ethnicity of the universe of schools in the
U.S. (Greaves, Hayes, Wilson, & Gielniak, 2010).
13
 teaching practices will shape how they incor- Technology integration as a process. Research
porate technology in the classroom (e.g., Honey & indicates that the integration of technology into
Moeller, 1990; Sandholtz et al., 1997). In order to instruction occurs over time and follows a pattern
use technology effectively for educational purposes, (e.g., Sandholz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer, 1997). Initially,
teachers must not only be familiar with how to oper- teachers incorporate new technologies into existing
ate equipment, but also understand how these tools practices. Once they observe changes in their
are effectively used in the subjects they teach and students, such as improvements in engagement,
how to incorporate resources into classroom activi- behavior, and learning, teachers gradually begin to
ties that accomplish important learning goals. While experiment with using technology to teach in new
many teachers use technology in their private lives ways. It can take four years or more from initial use
and know how to operate it, they often lack some of technology until changes in student learning can
of the other knowledge and skills required to support be observed (Williams, 2002). However, teachers
teaching and learning. Teachers need ongoing may adopt technology at different rates, depending
professional development to keep up with how on their beliefs about technology and their individual
professionals are using technology in the subjects skills, and different implementation factors interact.
they teach and to better understand the essential For instance, with sufficient technical support,
role that technology plays in supporting the work teachers feel more competent and ready to integrate
and generating knowledge in those subjects. A study technology. Overall support and positive expectations
conducted by the National Center for Education from the school community and administration also
Statistics revealed that only 23 percent of the teachers influence teachers’ beliefs about and willingness to
surveyed felt well prepared to integrate technology integrate technology (Inan & Lowther, 2010). Zhao
into their instruction (NCES, 2000). In another study, and Frank (2003) have suggested that the process
more than half of the teachers surveyed did not of technology integration is an evolutionary one,
believe that their pre-service programs prepared and that teacher’s beliefs, pedagogy, and technology
them well in either technology or 21st century skills skills slowly build upon each other and co-evolve
(Walden University, 2010). Yet, only 20 percent of as technology is introduced and assimilated into
states require technology training or testing for the school culture.
recertification or participation in technology-related
professional development (Hightower, 2009). To summarize, research on the use and integration
of technology suggests that technology by itself is
Ease of use of technology. Technology itself has not likely to bring about reforms in schools, but can
been identified as a potential barrier to technology be a powerful tool for educators if it is made part
integration (e.g., Zhao & Frank, 2003; Lemke et al., of a comprehensive and systemic effort to change
2009). Low-bandwidth technology can be unreliable education. Technology is most likely to be widely
and break down at any given moment, which can be adopted by teachers and schools if (1) it supports
an obstacle for accessing the Internet. Teachers may already existing practices and helps to solve problems
not feel comfortable spending valuable instructional or address challenges; (2) it is part of a systemic,
time dealing with equipment failures or slow Internet organization-wide initiative; and (3) teachers have
access. Unless they have access to reliable support, access to ample professional development and
they may opt not to use technology in the classroom. ongoing support. Based on these findings, we
Moreover, continual changes and innovations can organized our review of the literature on technology
make it difficult for teachers to keep up with the and student-centered learning around the following
latest technology. questions, which we will address in the remainder
of this report:

14
1 How is technology currently being used to
help students and teachers meet the demands
of student-centered learning practices?

2 How is technology integrated into curriculum-

based approaches to student-centered learning?

3 How is technology being used as part of

school-wide or district-wide initiatives to
personalize learning?

4 What is the potential of emerging technologies

to help to broaden/deepen opportunities for
student-centered learning?

15
In student-centered learning
environments, students
are more engaged,
responsible learners.
technology and
student-centered learning 4

1. How is technology currently being used to help students and teachers

meet the demands of student-centered learning?
Student-centered learning implies significantly changed roles for students and teachers. In student-centered
learning environments, students are more engaged, responsible learners. They work to develop and explore their
own unique academic and career interests, and produce authentic, professional quality work to demonstrate
their learning. To support students in their new roles, teachers act as coaches, advisors, and facilitators of student
learning. Instead of lecturing to a whole class as the primary mode of instruction, teachers provide opportunities
for students to take charge of their own learning (Clarke, 2003; Hargreaves, 2005; Keefe & Jenkins, 2008).

A student-centered school moves away from the needs, and progress and provide students with the
current “one-size-fits-all” approach to education resources and guidance to engage them in projects
towards a more adaptive and flexible approach in that address their needs and interests, as well as
which learning opportunities are customized to meet curricular requirements. Technology can help
maximize learning outcomes. At some schools, students and teachers meet these demands. Below
students may work closely with advisors and we discuss selected examples of how technology
subject-area coaches to set and assess learning is being used to support student-centered learning
goals and set up a meaningful schedule of learning practices, such as assessment, flexible scheduling
activities that best allows them to progress through and pacing, advising, collaborative learning
their courses. Schools may tailor the content, communities, independent projects, community
delivery, and learning supports within the curriculum involvement, and student-centered curricula.
to address the needs and aspirations of individual Where available, we describe any research on
learners. This type of learning affords a degree of the effectiveness of these uses.
choice about what is learned, when it is learned,
and how it is learned. While there is choice, learners assessment
typically still have to meet certain targets set by In order to meet students where they are, schools
the curriculum. must work to figure out where that is. In a student-
centered learning environment, teachers collect
Student-centered learning thus places new and use data to better understand students’
demands on both students and teachers. Students strengths and needs, as well as to monitor their
must be clear about their interests, strengths, progress towards acquiring content knowledge
and needs and be able to communicate these and skills. Using a variety of methods, including
to their teachers and advisors. They have to be but not limited to teacher observation, digital
self-directed in their learning, be able to relatively diagnostic tools, and developmental knowledge,
independently organize their own learning process, teachers work to become familiar with students’
elicit help from teachers, peers, or experts when cognitive and emotional needs, their preferred
needed, and be able to reflect on their progress. learning styles, and their prior knowledge and
Teachers need to engage in ongoing assessment to skills. Students’ content knowledge and skills are
better understand individual students’ strengths, typically measured in a variety of ways, including
4  Details about the methods used for this review and information about
the type of evidence available from the studies we discuss in this section
are included in Appendix 1.
17
 SIDE B AR 02

school of one
inform instruction for the next day. The assessments are
The School of One pilot program, launched during the
constructed by the database based on the activities the
summer of 2009, focuses its efforts on using technologies
student worked on that day, and consist of up to six
to give students instruction that is tailored to their learn-
multiple-choice questions and two long-answer ques-
ing style and current proficiency with content and skills.
tions. The multiple-choice answers are fed back into the
The School of One model is essentially assessment and
system and are used to generate the next day’s sched-
data-driven. Before the program’s launch, students were
ule. In this model, teachers do not examine students’
given a learning diagnostic in order to create a profile of
assessments, thus there are few opportunities for the
how each student learns best. Students were then given
teachers to diagnose student misconceptions based on
a pre-test to determine what performance indicators
the assessments.
they needed to improve. Taken together, those two
data sets were used to create students’ daily schedules,
matching students to both digital and traditional The School of One model is very popular with New York
resources designed to help them fill in the gaps in their policymakers: it is almost completely data-driven, it uti-
content learning (in mathematics for the pilot phase). lizes cutting edge, data-base technologies, and purports
In the School of One model, students work on a variety to provide students with exactly what they need. During
of computer-assisted instruction programs, and take the pilot however, some issues came up concerning the
daily assessments the results of which are fed back into value of the data being generated through the School
the system in order to formulate each student’s schedule of One model (Light, Cerrone, & Reitzes, 2009). While
for the next day of instruction. the model generates lots of student performance data,
there are limitations in the data around conceptual
The foundation of the School of One model is its use understanding. While beta-testing showed that students
of student data and assessment outcomes to provide who participated in School of One showed substantial
students with appropriate content, at appropriate improvements in standardized-test scores, it is not clear
levels, and in a way that appeals to students’ individual to what extent this model contributes to the develop-
learning styles. The assessment program at School of ment of deep conceptual understanding and complex
One is tied to its database. Students take daily assess- problem solving that mathematics standards call for and
ments, and results from those assessments are used to that are typically not measured by multiple-choice tests.

SIDE B AR 03

accelerated mathematics (AM)

In classrooms using AM, students take a 15-minute, student achievement on standardized math tests in
computer-adaptive pretest, the results of which are classrooms in which teachers used continuous technol-
used to assign them to an instructional level. At that ogy-supported progress monitoring to track student
point, the computer generates at-level practice exer- work and differentiate instruction (Ysseldyke & Bolt,
cises for each student. As the student completes these 2007). One of the problems that researchers found,
exercises, the computer sends immediate feedback to however, concerns fidelity. While the student scores
both student and teacher, and provides the teacher went up in classrooms where teachers were diligent
with summary data on all students in the class. Ide- about their use of AM, those scores from students in
ally, the teacher uses that data to further adapt and classrooms with less consistent use of AM did not show
individualize instruction. The research shows increased significant improvement.
18
standardized tests and naturalistic, performance- the form of frequent multiple choice tests or quizzes
based, or portfolio-based assessments. This intended to provide data about the areas in which
ongoing assessment allows teachers to guide students are not performing well and where teachers
students to appropriate learning activities. need to focus instruction. Technology can support
this kind of assessment by delivering online or
An advantage of technology-enabled assessment software-based tests to students and the results
systems is their capability for customization. Many of these tests to teachers. Some of the assessment
of the systems offer teachers the opportunity to systems also include instructional components,
review assessment items and to select a subset of while others only provide teachers and administrators
items that they deem most relevant. Some systems with the results of the assessments and leave it
also allow teachers to modify test items or add up to them to provide the appropriate instruction.
their own. In addition, technology-based assessment Examples of this type of technology-supported
systems can perform complex analyses of patterns of assessment include Pearson Progress Assessment
student responses that would be difficult to perform Series and Pinnacle Plus. One of the more highly
otherwise. However, the accuracy of instructional publicized content mastery models is the School of
diagnoses performed by the current generation of One (see sidebar 2). A related approach to assessment
artificial intelligence programs is still an issue of debate is progress monitoring. Progress monitoring comes
in the learning sciences and many researchers would out of the tradition of programs designed to be used
argue that human observers still do a better job. frequently to determine what students do and do
Nevertheless, technology can still play an important not know, to inform need-based instruction, and
role in presenting problems and making thinking to show students’ progress through the curriculum.
processes visible in ways that teachers can use to Conceptually, progress monitoring systems are
make instructional diagnoses. designed to keep teachers up to date on the perfor-
mance and progress of every student in their class
Means (2006) distinguishes between two visions of and enable them to make changes in instruction for
technology-supported assessment: assessment tied students experiencing difficulty (Ysseldyke & Bolt,
to accountability systems, which results in a system 2007). Technology-supported progress monitoring
of benchmarking students as they progress through is exemplified by Renaissance’s™ Accelerated Math
a standards-based curriculum, and assessment of program (see sidebar 3).
understanding, which produces a picture of student
thinking described in detail below. Assessment of understanding. The other major
category of technology-supported assessments
Mastery learning approach. In this type of assess- is designed to provide insights into students’
ment, knowledge is broken down into skills, which understanding and reasoning, rather than level of
are worked on until they are mastered. The goal of performance. These formative assessments draw
such assessments is to identify specific standards on learning sciences research that suggests that
for which a student has not yet attained proficiency there are different ways of not knowing something;
in order for that student to receive additional understanding how and why someone is not
instruction on that content. In the mastery learning understanding is key to addressing misconceptions
approach, instruction and learning are measured (Means, 2006). Two students may both lack under-
based on exposure to material and time on task, and standing of a topic or phenomenon, but may think
there is generally little attention given to the quality about it in very different ways. In order to offer
and/or nature of student interaction with material appropriate, personalized learning experiences,
(Means, 2006). In practice, these assessments take teachers need to understand how individual students

19
 are thinking. One example of this type of assess- programmed with facets, or frequently held concep-
ment for understanding is Diagnoser, developed by tions and misconceptions in a certain content area,
Facet Innovations. Diagnoser is a web-based assess- and sets of problems designed to unearth the facets
ment tool based on educational and psychological that students are working with.
theory, designed by a team of science teachers and
computer programmers. It is founded on the theo- Among other technologies used for assessment of
retical framework of Facet-based instruction, which understanding, the Automated Response System
contends that student responses are diagnostic of (ARS) of “clickers,” is gaining popularity. A 2006
underlying reasoning about content areas (Thissen-Roe, study of ARS use in K-12 classrooms found that
Hunt, & Minstrell, 2004). The goal of Diagnoser is to teachers use clickers as a tool for checking for
elicit responses that reveal the underlying thinking, student understanding in real time, diagnosing
or knowledge facets, of each student. The system is misconceptions, displaying responses to trigger

SIDE B AR 04

diagnosing student
thinking with diagnoser
The program consists of computer-administered and discussion of student understanding of content, and
graded, low-stakes, in-class quizzes, aligned to state to go beyond assessing content mastery. To achieve
standards, that grade in a standard way across one this, the program provides an integrated package
state and that deliver immediate feedback to both the of resources, including the assessment tool itself, an
teacher and the student about how well the student is administrative tool, and a teacher guide. The teacher
learning. From a teacher page, teachers assign students guide provides teachers with descriptions of content
question sets on relevant content. Students then log in area facets, and instructional practices and activities
to their individual student pages and proceed through proven to address particular facets (misconceptions).
their question sets. Question sets are made up of mostly
multiple choice questions—with answer choices based An evaluation of Diagnoser found that there were two
on frequent student responses—using some fill-in, and key reasons leading to its promising implementation
some long-answer questions. After a student solves a with 6,000 students in Washington state. The first was
problem, the system will either provide feedback to the the package of integrated resources (Diagnoser, its
student or ask the student to solve a question in order administrative tool, and teacher guide), which make
to confirm the facets that student is employing in that it easy for teachers to understand and make use of
problem series. In that respect, the idea is to make the the student and class data they receive. The second
assessment itself into a learning experience: taking a is that Diagnoser was purposefully designed to be
student response (correct or incorrect) and providing technologically simple: it has a good user interface,
pointed feedback that helps the student understand but, equally important, it can run on most existing
why that response was correct or incorrect on a hardware in school systems. The same evaluation found
conceptual level (Thissen-Roe, et al; 2004). that students who used Diagnoser in their classrooms
on multiple occasions scored an average of 14 points
Diagnoser is designed as a complement to the teacher. higher on state tests than those students who did not
20 It is intended to help provide the means for a qualitative (Thissen-Roe, 2004).
discussion, providing formative data to guide Camino Nuevo High School serves as an illustration
instruction, and efficiently administering and scoring of one way they can be implemented (see sidebar 5).
quizzes (Penuel, Boscardin, Masyn, & Crawford,
2006). ARSs are especially valuable for teachers of For teachers, the most valuable assessment tools
classes with large numbers of students. The teacher are those that are designed to reveal specifics about
can present a problem with multiple-choice answers students’ thinking in ways that can inform further
to the class, and have students solve the problem on instruction (Means, 2006; Black & William, 1998).
their own and input their answers into their own ARS Many of the assessment systems designed to support
clickers. Those answers are gathered by the computer classroom assessments that are linked to standards
and can be instantly displayed to the class. The teacher and accountability systems lack this capacity to
then might ask the class to look at how other students inform instructional decisions. They provide information
are answering the question, convene in small groups, about whether a student has achieved mastery, but
and come to a consensus about which is the right do not provide insight into the way the student is
answer (Caldwell, 2007). Research shows that AR thinking. Given the multiple-choice format of these
systems result in a distinct rise in student engagement. assessment systems, they tend to stress facts, name
However, increases in student achievement were recognition, and discrete procedures, rather than
mostly found in classrooms where teachers had a deeper understanding or the relationships among
significant amount of professional development around concepts. Assessments that show teachers how
using AR systems in their classroom, as well as those students think are more helpful in guiding selection
classrooms with veteran teachers (Penuel et al., 2006). of appropriate learning experiences that are matched
to a student’s specific strengths and needs. Nevertheless,
Technology-enabled performance-based assessment both forms of assessments are likely to co-exist in the
is another way for teachers to gain insights into classroom. And either approach puts heavy demands
student understanding. Digital portfolios are a collec- on teachers to bring to bear expertise in the subjects
tion of student work in electronic format and can they teach and the ways that students think about
include text, images, audio recordings, multimedia, and problem solve in those content areas in order
blog entries, and links to resources on the web. They to design instruction to support further learning.
have become a way for students to keep track of Appropriate professional development is key for these
their work as they grow as learners. Digital portfolios assessments to be used effectively.
are more suited than other types of assessment
tools to document higher order thinking skills and Flexible Content, Scheduling, and Pacing
performance skills that are necessary for students In a student-centered learning environment, students
to graduate from high school both college- and and teachers have input into the use of their time.
career-ready for the 21st century. Engaging teachers Student-centered learning offers opportunities to
in the development and scoring of these assessments expand education beyond the traditional boundaries
can strengthen curriculum and instruction and can of schools by making it available during afterschool
support more diagnostic teaching practices (e.g., hours and year-round. Technology can be an important
U.S. Department of Education, 2010.) Though there vehicle for providing flexible scheduling and pacing
exists little research on the efficacy of digital portfolios through online learning. It takes place in the form
on student achievement, they are being used in of online courses that are provided either through
programs such as New Tech Network, Boston Arts traditional brick-and-mortar schools or through virtual
Academy, High Tech High, and the Science Leadership schools. In online courses teachers and students are
Academy in Philadelphia. Digital portfolio programs physically separated, with the majority of content and
vary at different schools, but the example from instruction delivered via the Internet. There are many

21
 SIDE B AR 05 more comprehensive

portfolio assessment
understanding of individ-
ual students’ strengths
and needs (Davis, 2010).

at camino nuevo A virtual school is an

organization that offers
At Camino Nuevo, students are trained in web design and tasked with online K-12 courses.
building and maintaining their own personal digital portfolio. The portfolios While there are a
live on the school’s server, and serve as an “authentic and public way for number of diploma-
students to display their work while demonstrating a mastery of some basic granting virtual schools
new media skills” (Cramer, 2009). At the end of the 10th, 11th, and 12th where students enroll
grades, students are required to present their portfolio, which contains work as full-time students,
demonstrating the skills and concepts developed during each year across the majority of virtual
disciplines. Often, students will go back over their work and reflect, or school programs provide
perhaps even improve upon it, e.g. reediting an essay, or rethinking the expanded learning
results of a science experiment. opportunities in the
form of online courses
Teachers at Camino Nuevo cite many benefits of their digital portfolio to already established
program, including a positive impact on student achievement, parent and educational institutions.
community access to student work, and preparing students to present Clark (2008), distinguishes
themselves professionally in the real world (Cramer, 2009). between three different
types of virtual schools:

different approaches, which can range from delivering 1 State-led virtual schools. These schools generally
all content and instruction online to more blended provide supplemental courses for already existing
courses, which supplement a majority online course educational institutions, supplementing and
with significant face-to-face instruction. As the field complementing existing local curricula. The
of online learning evolves, educators are embracing Florida and New Hampshire Virtual Schools are
a mix of online and face-to-face instruction, referred examples of a state-led virtual school program.
to as either blended or hybrid models (Means et al,
2009; Watson, 2009). Researchers have described a 2 Virtual Charter Schools. Operating under state
number of advantages of hybrid models. As Dziuban, charter law, these schools offer tuition-free,
Hartma, & Moskal (2004) point out, blended models full-time online programs. They generally serve
combine the effectiveness and socialization oppor- K-8 student populations, and the majority of
tunities of the classroom with the technologically- these programs serve students with extraordinary
enhanced active learning possibilities of the online circumstances, such as medical conditions.
environment. Because online learning environments
provide an additional lens on students’ performance 3 Privately Operated Virtual Schools. These
(e.g., how they communicate in the online medium, tuition-based programs offer full-time or
how they participate in group discussion) and more supplemental learning opportunities. They may
opportunities to engage in one-on-one communication be schools of record, but are often contracted
with students, they help can help teachers to get a by established educational institutions to provide
online learning opportunities.

22
There exists a fairly extensive literature describing extended illness), the chance to keep up with their
how online learning has been used in K-12 coursework (Barbour & Reeves, 2008; Clark, 2008;
education. Online learning is being used to provide Wood, 2005). Online learning also offers students a
increased access to course content, increased different type of flexibility. Depending on the structure
scheduling flexibility and geographic flexibility, and of the online course, a student may have the opportu-
increased access to alternative educational choices nity to spend as much or as little time going through
for students (Barbour & Reeves, 2008; Means, course content and activities as needed. For advanced
Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, & Jones, 2009). Smaller students, this means that they can move through
schools and schools in rural areas utilize online courses without having to stop and wait for their
programming in order to offer courses that they would classmates, and struggling students can take the extra
otherwise not have the resources to teach, including time they need to become comfortable with course
higher-level mathematics and science courses and content and work through course activities.

Computer-based delivery of education

is one of the fastest growing trends in
educational uses of technology.

Advanced Placement courses. Further, schools use Computer-based delivery of education is one of
university- sponsored online learning programs, the fastest growing trends in educational uses of
such as Project Advance from Syracuse University technology. Christensen et al. (2007) predict that
and the Clipper Project from Lehigh University, to by 2019, 50 percent of all high school classes will
give students the opportunity to earn college credit be taught over the Internet. However, while providers
while still in high school (Barbour & Reeves, 2008; of online education believe that it is effective in
Clark, 2008). Online learning is also used to provide reaching and serving a wide range of students, little
students with access to remedial courses (offered by research has been performed to date to examine
online curriculum companies, such as Apex Learning its effectiveness compared to face-to-face instruction
Inc. and Plato Learning Inc., as well as nonprofit in elementary and secondary settings. Much of the
providers such as the Orlando-based Florida Virtual existing evidence on the effectiveness of online
School and Georgia Virtual School), or online tutoring learning comes from research that has focused on
and homework help services such as e-tutor or Tutor. higher education and professional development
com (Trotter, 2010). contexts (Barbour & Reeves, 2008; Means et al., 2009;
Smith, Clark, & Blomeyer, 2005). A meta-analysis
Delivering content and instruction online can also of the available research (primarily conducted in
allow students at brick-and-mortar schools to fit post-secondary settings) showed that on average,
additional courses into an otherwise busy schedule, students in online learning conditions performed
and it can allow students who are unable to attend better than those receiving face-to-face instruction.
brick-and-mortar schools, for whatever reasons (e.g., Students who participated in blended online learning

23
 experiences outperformed students in face-to-face result in more engaged and more confident students.
settings by a larger degree than students who In online instruction, as in face-to-face instruction,
participated in online courses that were conducted having a more involved teacher does not necessarily
entirely online (Means et al., 2009). It should be mean having a teacher who dominates instructional
noted, though, that blended courses often include time with lectures. Rather, in online learning
additional learning time and instructional elements environments strong teachers must be able to connect
not included in traditional face-to-face settings, so pedagogy, content, and technology in order to facilitate
the difference in performance cannot entirely be communication between students, and design infor-
attributed to the online delivery medium alone. mative and engaging learning experiences, all while
keeping pace with and integrating effective Internet
Five of the research articles included in the meta- technologies to support their teaching practices.
analysis conducted by Means et al (2009) reported
on studies conducted in K-12 settings. These studies Despite the availability of some research, many
compared blended conditions with face-to-face questions about the integration of online learning
learning. One of the studies was a randomized control into student-centered learning environments remain.
trial (Long & Jennings, 2005) and the others were For instance, which types of learners are most suc-
quasi-experiments (Rockman, 2007; O’Dwyer, Carey cessful using online learning? Online courses often
& Kleiman, 2007; Sun, Lin & Yu, 2008; Englert, Zhao, have substantial dropout rates, suggesting that not
Dunsmore, Collings, & Wolbers, 2007). One of the all students may do well in this type of learning
quasi-experimental studies (Rockman et al., 2007) environment. Online courses often require a lot of
favored face-to-face learning, while the other studies reading, which raises the question of how students
favored online learning. with weak literacy skills fare in these environments.

In addition to the research on effectiveness, there Advising

exists some research on the conditions under which Schools that provide students with a student-
online learning is effective. Based on their synthesis of centered learning model allot a significant amount
the research literature, Means et al. (2009) found that of time for teacher-student advisement. Our review
few of the variations in which online learning is being found very little research discussing the role of
implemented in different contexts (e.g., synchronous technology in advisory programs such as those in
versus asynchronous interaction; see sidebar 6) made student-centered high schools like High Tech High
a difference in student outcomes, except for the use and Science Leadership Academy (see sidebar 7). In
of a blended, rather than a purely online approach, those student-centered models, groups of no more
and the expansion of time on task for online learners. than twenty students are paired with an advisor for
These two online learning practice variables signifi- their entire four-year high school experience. Stu-
cantly improved student learning. Further, elements dents meet in their advisories anywhere from twice
of online learning such as video and quizzes did not to ten times a week for varying amounts of time.
influence the amount that students learned in online In many of these schools, most adults in the school
classes. However, the research suggests that online building are advisors, including teachers, adminis-
learning can be enhanced by giving learners control of trators, and counselors (Keefe & Jenkins, 2008). In
their interactions with media and prompting learner these models, advisors become adult advocates for
reflection. Moreover, DiPietro, Ferdig, Black, & Preston their advisees, developing strong relationships with
(2008) found that the most important factor related to their parents or caregivers, and communicating with
student perceptions and outcomes in online learning their teachers to help them grow socially, personally,
courses is the role of the teacher. Stronger teachers and academically.

24
SIDE B AR 06

synchronous and
asynchronous online learning
Typically, communication in online learning environments is broken down into either synchronous or asynchronous.
Often, online courses will use a combination of asynchronous and synchronous communication tools. It is important
to consider the benefits of each approach and to be aware of ways of incorporating both approaches when possible
(e.g., by making a live, synchronous chat available asynchronously by archiving it) (Quillen, 2010).

Synchronous instruction refers to online teaching and website (often this will be a pre-packaged customizable
learning that happens in real time via the Internet. course management system (CMS), such as Blackboard)
Synchronous instruction methods afford life interactions that contains a course syllabus, course calendar, assign-
between teachers and students, and student with each ments, content resources, and communication tools such
other, similar to face-to-face interactions. For example, as message boards and file sharing utilities. Based on the
using a synchronous communication tool, a teacher syllabus and calendar, the student will use the available
might deliver a lecture or facilitate a class discussion, or online resources, as well as, perhaps, supplementary
share online media or data. Synchronous communication texts and other media to complete weekly assignments,
tools also allow teachers to deliver immediate feedback which he or she will hand in to the teacher through the
to students in an online environment (Barbour & Reeves, CMS. Assignments may vary and include written reports,
2009; Watson, 2009). For example, online tutors in the posting on the class message board twice a week, or
School of One pilot were able to work with students posting a weekly synopsis of course-relevant news
one-on-one via audio chat and a shared computer articles, for example. Teachers provide feedback about
screen. Sharing the screen allowed the student and written work to individual students, and monitor activity
tutor to better communicate their ideas to one another on the message boards to ensure that students are par-
without a time lag. There are a variety of synchronous ticipating in group discussions (Barbour & Reeves, 2009;
communication tools, including: live chat, audio and Watson, 2009). One of the benefits of asynchronous
video conferencing, shared screens, and virtual hand- teaching and learning is that it allows students to work
raising. Students can interject questions in order to at their own pace to a greater degree. For instance,
request clarification or ask for more in-depth coverage a student who is struggling with the course material
of relevant topics. Virtual hand-raising makes it possible can take more time to work through a problem set or
to adjust the pace and content of a class to match the a difficult assignment, while a more advanced student
skills and goals of the students. can complete assignments at a faster pace and move
ahead in the syllabus without having to wait for the rest
Asynchronous instruction refers to online teaching and of the class. Asynchronous communication tools include
learning that utilizes Internet-based, time-delayed com- e-mail, threaded discussion, newsgroups, bulletin
munication tools. Typically, students log in to a course boards, and file attachments.

25
 SIDE B AR 07

technology for advisement at

the science leadership academy
In order to better understand the different roles that technology can play in these models, we spoke with the head
guidance counselor at the Science Leadership Academy (SLA) in Philadelphia. The school’s advisory program begins
when students come in as freshmen and are matched with an advisor. Advisory groups are 18 students per advisor,
and meet two days a week for 50-minute periods at the end of the school day. The focus of advisory programming
at SLA changes as students move through their high school career: in 9th grade working on their transition into high
school; in tenth and eleventh grades engaging in career planning, and in twelfth grade working on college prep and
the application process. Throughout all four years, advisory is also a place where students discuss prevalent issues—
from school policies to global affairs—and sometimes just hang out and chat with each other (Z.F.S., Counselor,
personal interview, May 23, 2010).

At SLA, a school where technology use is ubiquitous accessible for teachers to see. The program has also made
(all students have laptops and use them frequently, it easier for the school’s counselors to integrate student
and technology is well-integrated into the curriculum), support programs through the district (e.g., “docu-
advisory is where technology is used the least because menting when teachers call home, that parent contact
of the one-to-one human interaction that the school is was made on such and such date”). Though there are
trying to foster. However, technology is not absent from glitches to the system, such as an inability to cut and
SLA’s advisory program. The main uses of technology in paste from a Word document, the communication affor-
the program are for communication and for organizing dances that it provides have been a welcome addition
students’ college application process. to the SLA program. As one counselor put it: “For me
it’s awesome... especially as a one-to-one student-laptop
SLA is piloting a new Internet communication platform ratio makes documentation so much easier.”
called School Tool. While School Tool has many functions
for schools, including collecting, coding, and disseminat- At SLA, Naviance is used to help track where students
ing assessment data, the counseling team at SLA praises are applying to college, to cut down on paper work
the program for how easy it has made communication by enabling high schools to transmit documents to
among stakeholders. According to the counselor at SLA, college admissions offices electronically, and to
one of the advantages of School Tool is that teachers streamline the application process. One of the poten-
and administrators can log in and see a record of the tial benefits of using Naviance is the abundance of
messages in a student’s folder (e.g., “Student A was late statistics that the program can provide to a school,
handing in her benchmark assignment in Math. Her including data on acceptance rates, financial aid,
parents were contacted on 5/23/2010, and an e-mail alumni records, etc. Accessible data on alumni accep-
was sent to the student’s e-mail address.”) The program tances and financial aid has helped counselors at SLA
acts as a “digital folder” in which a record of correspon- guide current students to the programs that best suit
dences regarding each student is maintained and easily their interests and needs.

26
Communication plays a key role in the advisement and completion. Schools also can extract information
process. Technology can facilitate more streamlined essential to adjusting academic offerings and programs.
and regular communication between teachers, No published research provides direct evidence about
advisors, administrators, students, and parents or the effectiveness of Naviance, or how this program is
caregivers. A Harvard Family Research Project study being used in schools. However, a 2009 What Works
has concluded that ongoing, two-way communication Clearing House report, “Helping Students Navigate
is associated with students’ academic success, and the Path to College: What High Schools Can Do,”
that Internet technology represents an opportunity outlines a number of research-based recommenda-
for increasing communication between families and tions that support the use of a tool like Naviance.
schools (Bouffard, 2008). School Tool is an example Those recommendations include helping students
of a documentation and communication tool that through each of the multiple steps needed to com-
allows teachers and advisors to send messages to plete the college application process and providing
students, parents/caregivers, and other teachers information about financial aid opportunities and
either regarding a particular student (e.g., perhaps a how best to take advantage of them (Tierney, Bailey,
student has not yet turned in a major assignment, or Constantine, Finkelstein, & Hurd, 2009).
has been dealing with personal issues that teachers
should be aware of). Messages to parents/caregivers In summary, existing tools hold some promise to
and students are sent to their e-mail addresses, while support advisement functions such as communication
messages to other teachers and administrators are and the college application process, but little
sent through the School Tool system. These messages research has been done on the use and effectiveness
are saved and kept in each student’s digital School of these tools.
Tool folder, which can only be accessed by teachers
and administrators. Published research on School Tool presenting content in alternative ways
or similar programs is not yet available. An important Student-centered learning models acknowledge that
question for future research to investigate is how digital content can and must be presented in multiple ways
divide issues (e.g., what happens with families that in order to provide access for students who learn
do not have access to a computer at home or that are best in particular ways, as well as to deepen learning
not adept with technology) affect the effectiveness of for all students. Universal Design for Learning is an
these communication tools. Such research could help approach to curriculum design that aims to address
schools to prioritize their use of technology for specific the needs of the broadest range of learners by
purposes, and to weigh the cost of implementing a highlighting the importance of providing multiple
particular technology solution against other costs. means of representation, expression, and engage-
ment. According to Rose and Meyer (2006) univer-
The college application process can be complicated sally designed learning environments are built on
and trying for students, as well as high school guid- the following three key principles:
ance counselors. Technology can help to scaffold
and streamline much of the process. Naviance is an 1 They provide multiple means of representation,
example of a Web-based, college-planning program. to give diverse learners options for acquiring
The program provides students and families with information and knowledge.
online access to information about colleges and schol-
arships, and provides innovative search tools, graphs, 2 They provide multiple means of action and
and statistics that offer insight into the application expression, to provide learners with options for
process. It can be used to create detailed reports that demonstrating what they know.
reveal data about college application, enrollment,

27
 SIDE B AR 08
Digital games can be computer-,

civilization game console- (XBox, PS3), or

handheld-based (Nintendo DS,
iPhone), and are defined by two
Civilization is a computer game in which a player can key elements: an interactive virtual
lead his or her chosen nation from the beginning of time playing environment and the player
through the Space Age and become the greatest ruler pursuing a win-state (Salen &
the world has ever known. A player’s tasks include making Zimmerman, 2003). Games are
decisions about resource allocation, diplomacy, and virtual worlds in which learners “play
knowledge advancements for society. Researchers report at” some role as they solve problems
that Civilization can be a good way for kids to learn about and make connections by learning
history, specifically including vocabulary and geography, as to “think like” scientists, historians,
well as generally increase their interest in the topic itself. journalists, soldiers, diplomats, or any
Researchers at Games Learning Society at the University other group that employs systematic
of Wisconsin and the Education Arcade at MIT have been methods of inquiry and problem
looking at how teachers are using Civilization in classrooms framing in order to investigate the
and the resulting effects on students’ content knowledge world. Games also provide a way for
and thinking skills. These studies found that students were teachers to meet students where they
able to use historical concepts to interpret and analyze are. A 2006 study reports that, on
the game; to ask questions about historical events; and to average, eighth-grade boys play 23
consider alternate possibilities to history. While Civilization hours of video games per week, and
is a tool in helping students engage with, interpret, and girls play 12 hours per week (Dawley,
analyze history; teachers still need to provide context and 2006). Young people know how to
scaffolding through class discussions. interact with games. However, games
are not designed to teach without
some human intervention.

Researchers and game developers largely agree that

3 They provide multiple means of engagement games do not necessarily teach content. However,
to tap into learners’ interests, offer appropriate Gee (2005a) has proposed that games can provide
challenges, and increase motivation. kids with experiences that teach them valuable higher
order thinking skills and some habits of mind that are
Technology has long been known to offer options for very valuable in today’s post-industrial society. Groff,
teachers to present information in multiple media and Haas, Klopfer, & Osterweil (2009) have observed
modalities and for students to express and demon- teachers using games to get students to take on the
strate what they know through multiple means (e.g., role of scientist, engineer, mathematician, journalist,
text, images, audio, animations, video) (e.g., Brans- etc., and found that students developed the higher
ford et al., 2000). Recently, researchers and educators order thinking skills associated with those professions.
have devoted more attention to how technology Gee (2005b) has demonstrated that game playing can
can be used to engage students in alternative ways. help to develop users’ thinking skills, such as the ability
Specifically, a number of studies have examined how to quickly process information, to review information
digital games can be used to present content in new and decide what is relevant and irrelevant, to process
and engaging ways. In the remainder of this section, information concurrently from a variety of sources,
we summarize emerging research in this area. to explore content in non-linear fashion, to become

28
 SIDE B AR 09
familiar with digital collaboration
networks, to take a relaxed approach
to play and problem solve by
exploring, to form hypotheses, and
conspiracy code
to experiment. An example of a game that has been explicitly designed
for educational purposes is Conspiracy Code. The game is
When researchers discuss games in part of an online course on American history offered by the
terms of education, they split them Florida Virtual School. The course revolves around students
into COTS (commercial, off-the-shelf) playing an espionage adventure game that requires players
games, and games that are designed to acquire knowledge of American history to solve problems
explicitly for education. Both types of and ultimately stop a conspiracy.
games have been used in classrooms.
An example of a COTS game that The aim of Conspiracy Code is to strengthen higher-order
researchers have examined is Civiliza- thinking skills, written communication, problem-solving,
tion. An example of a game that has and collaborative skills through playing engaging concept-
been explicitly designed for educa- practice games, responding to a variety of question types,
tional purposes is Conspiracy Code writing assignments and essays, completing authentic
(see sidebars 8 and 9). game-based assessments, and participating in discussion-
based assessments. In order to ensure student understand-
For teachers, using games in the ing as the course progresses, teachers of this course review
classroom either online or face- students’ mission assessments and peer collaboration, check
to-face is not necessarily easy. As student log books, and facilitate discussions.
with any instructional tool, there
are a variety of different strategies
for implementation, for instance
students play alone, in pairs, or as a whole class led content, it is important to note that the research
by the teacher. Successful implementation of digital concedes that games can be powerful educational
games in the classroom must overcome a number of tools when they are used as a springboard for
barriers, including school culture, pedagogical and engaging in critical thought and play. However,
technical support, teacher’s proficiency with technol- Groff et al. (2009) suggests that class discussions
ogy and pedagogy, students technical proficiency, and are needed to help students develop critical
resources. In order to work through those barriers, the perspectives on game play and to understand
Education Arcade, an MIT-based research and develop- where games fail to represent reality.
ment center, suggests for teachers to explore games
themselves. Teachers should spend time becoming project-based learning
familiar with digital games, especially the ones they Project-based learning is an instructional approach
want to use in their classroom, and collaborating with that builds on students’ interests to engage them in
a colleague, either in person or online. Collaborating learning essential knowledge and skills through an
with another teacher who is interested in similar extended, student-driven, and often collaborative
teaching methods is a good way to generate ideas inquiry process structured around complex, authentic
and troubleshoot (Groff et al., 2009). questions and carefully designed products and tasks
(e.g., Ravitz, 2009). A qualitative synthesis of meta
While teachers can use games like Civilization to analyses comparing project based learning to more
offer students a different approach to historical traditional instruction conducted by Strobel & van

29
 Barneveld, 2009 found that project-based learning that uses technology to support both teachers and
was superior when it comes to long-term retention, students in carrying out projects (see sidebar 10).
skill development and satisfaction of students and Other examples include the Adobe Youth Voices
teachers, while traditional approaches were more and Scratch programs, which focus on teaching
effective for short-term retention as measured by students new technology tools to support their
standardized board exams. presentation of projects and ideas both in school
and in afterschool settings (see sidebars 11 and 12).
Technology can serve an important role in project-
based learning by scaffolding component processes In order for students to have authentic influence
such as accessing information, collecting data, over their own learning, student-centered learning
analyzing information, collaborating with others, programs often provide a set of structured learning
and sharing and presenting the outcomes of a activities for all content areas, as well as the
project. ThinkQuest is an example of a program opportunity for students to work with teachers

SIDE B AR 10

thinkquest
To support teachers in the development and implementation of learning projects, the Oracle Education Foundation
has developed and hosts an online environment called ThinkQuest. The environment is flexible so that teachers
can design projects to meet their specific teaching and learning goals. ThinkQuest is available only to teachers and
students at accredited schools to create a safe space for interaction. ThinkQuest also allows teachers to control
whether their materials are limited to their classrooms only or open to all ThinkQuest members globally. ThinkQuest
is available free of charge to primary and secondary schools around the world. It currently supports more than
400,000 students and teachers in 43 countries (SRI International, 2009). Components of ThinkQuest include:

¸¸ A shared online space for designing learning ¸¸ A competition space in which students can
projects that can include an essential question submit their projects to international contests
and ties to the curriculum
¸¸ A library of past student projects to use as
¸¸ Publishing and collaboration tools that support references or as sources of inspiration
a variety of project activities such as authoring
content, conducting online discussions, and ¸¸ A professional development program, which
sharing digital objects such as photos, charts, trains teachers to integrate project learning and
and presentations 21st century skills into their curriculum.

¸¸ A global community of teachers and students Anecdotal evidence from case studies of classrooms using
to draw from for cross-cultural collaboration ThinkQuest suggests that the use of this online learning
opportunities and to serve as an audience for environment can result in improved outcomes for
presentation of project results students (SRI International, 2009). These include critical
thinking, creativity, teamwork, cross-cultural understand-
ing, communication, technology skills, and self-direction.

30
to create new learning activities. Activities might educators to facilitate projects that are meaningful to
range from short-term guided independent study to the specific populations they serve. Opportunities for
long-term work culminating in the production of a students to engage deeply in questions and issues they
collaborative project, such as a short film, and will care about and to express their knowledge and opinions
contain sufficient scaffolding such that key content can support the development of their skills and contrib-
and skill areas are addressed and assessed. ute to their sense of themselves. For instance, evidence
from case studies of classrooms using ThinkQuest sug-
Research conducted on ThinkQuest and Adobe gests that the use of this online learning environment
Youth Voices (SRI International, 2009; Education can result in improved outcomes for students in areas
Development Center, 2010b,c,d) suggests that these including critical thinking, creativity, teamwork, cross-
programs can fit into a variety of content areas across cultural understanding, communication, technology
the curriculum, as well as into different learning con- skills, and self-direction (SRI International, 2009).
texts (in school and afterschool settings). They enable Similiarly, case studies conducted in conjunction with

SIDE B AR 11

scratch
Scratch, created by a partnership between the Peppler and Kafai (2007) identify three main benefits
Lifelong Kindergarten group at MIT Media Lab and for youth participating in creative media production
Yasmin Kafai’s group at UCLA, is a graphic program- in informal spaces:
ming environment that emphasizes media manipula-
tion and supports programming activities that build 1 Using programs like Scratch helps to increase
on the interests of youth, such as creating animated youth flexibility and fluency when moving
stories, games, and interactive presentations (Malo- between platforms.
ney, Peppler, Kafai, Resnick, Rusk; 2008). Scratch
projects can be uploaded and shared with a growing 2 Engaging in creative production affords young
Scratch community via the Scratch website. people opportunities to question traditional media
conventions and designs, such as turning a critical
Scratch has been used in a variety of afterschool pro- eye towads video games and television.
grams. Maloney et al. (2008) report on participants in
an urban computer clubhouse afterschool program 3 These
 programs allow users a space for personal
using Scratch on their own, with very little teach- expression, creativity, and the appropriation of
ing, except when assistance from program staff was new media, which allows youth to connect to their
requested. Other programs, such as one afterschool prior knowledge and personal interests.
program run by the Museum of the Moving Image
in New York City, hired media arts professionals
to teach semester-long curricula around Scratch
(Maloney et al., 2008; Peppler & Kafai, 2007).

31
 the implementation of the Adobe Youth program in In these programs, technology is being used to sup-
a small number of school and afterschool settings port communication, to provide students with access
suggest that this program can contribute to increas- to experts and real-world audiences for their work,
ing students’ engagement, acquisition of 21st century and to engage them in authentic problem solving and
skills, and self-confidence and pride in their abilities. research activities. Since these programs are still under
However, adequate teacher professional development development, research on their effectiveness is not
and support is key. Both the ThinkQuest and Adobe yet available. However, they align well with promis-
Youth Voices programs have teacher professional ing practices that have been identified by research on
development as a central component. service learning. Billig (2007) has identified service-
learning practices that emerged as predictive of student
community involvement learning outcomes, such as academic achievement,
Student-centered learning environments give students civic engagement, acquisition of leadership skills, and
opportunities to learn in a variety of ways, as well as personal/social development. Among others, these
in a variety of settings. When they are well developed practices include:
and supervised, internships and other community-
based learning opportunities play a very important ¸¸ P lanning and implementing service learning
role in connecting learning to the real world, providing with specific learning objectives in mind,
genuine experiences and promoting thoughtful
reflection (Billig, 2007). An example of an internship ¸¸ E ngaging students in ongoing, cognitively
program that makes linkages to the community by challenging reflection activities,
introducing students to careers in the emerging field
of sustainable technologies is the GreenFab academic ¸¸ G
 iving students a say in every phase of a
enrichment program (see sidebar 13). A number of service-learning project,
technology-based programs currently under develop-
ment (see sidebar 14) also link to the community in ¸¸ Teaching students respect for diversity,
a variety of ways, including the following:
¸¸ S electing service-learning opportunities that
¸¸ E nabling students to share their ideas about students perceive as valuable, useful, relevant,
proposed urban development designs with and interesting,
developers and planners,
¸¸ B
 uilding reciprocal partnerships with
¸¸ C
 onnecting students to real-world mentors community organizations.
and experts,
2. How is technology integrated
¸¸ Involving students in data collection that into curriculum-based approaches
can be shared with research institutions for to student-centered learning?
citizen-science projects, There is little focus on curriculum in the literature
on student-centered learning. This does not mean
¸¸ S haring student-produced videos with it is not an important element to consider. On
commuters to provide them with information the contrary, a well-designed curriculum is vitally
about different neighborhoods, important for personalizing learning. A curriculum
is a coherent plan that links goals for learning,
¸¸ S upporting students to collaborate globally on informed by national and state standards, and
real-world problems. the work that happens in the classroom. The

32
curriculum provides guidance on what to teach, centered learning approach and tie together the
how to teach, and how to assess student learning. various elements described above (Kantrov, 2009).
Well-designed curricula can embody the student- Technology can be integrated into such curricula

SIDE B AR 12

adobe youth voices

The Adobe Youth Voices program trains educators in Program participants have shown deepened engage-
both technical and pedagogical strategies for working ment in education and career development, as well
with youth and digital media technologies. The pro- as the acquisition of relevant 21st century skills and
gram trains educators to work with youth ages 13 to 18 increased self-confidence and pride in their abilities.
to create digital media projects designed to contribute Educators who have gone through the Adobe Youth
the essential perspectives of youth to critical topics and Voices program have gained skills in effectively using
inspire new solutions to long-standing problems, fol- digital tools with youth, increasing the use of digital
lowing the program’s motto: “creating with purpose” tools to teach across content areas, and capitalizing
(Adobe Youth Voices, 2010). Participants are encour- on the learning opportunities presented when youth
aged to go out and interview members of their com- use media to express themselves (Education Develop-
munities and capture images and ideas to communicate ment Center, 2010b,c,d).
the stories they want to tell. Through the programs’
partnership with various media outlets, participants can
display their work to a global audience.

SIDE B AR 13

greenfab
Students participate in afterschool sessions and summer computer programming, sustainable design engineer-
fellowships designed to introduce sustainable practices, ing, and community advocacy. Students take one course
industrial design, and prototyping. This program is per semester, either Green Technology (focused on
designed to teach STEM concepts through hands-on, engineering) or Sustainable Design (focused on design).
project-based learning activities that emphasize career At the completion of each semester, students present
development in the emerging field of sustainable their final projects in an expo. An external evaluation of
technologies. Although Green Technology is one of the GreenFab program is being conducted by EDC’s Cen-
the fastest growing industries, there is a dearth of ter for Children and Technology. So far, the evaluation,
qualified professionals in the field. GreenFab seeks to which is still underway, has shown that the program has
increase participants’ technological and engineering been very rewarding for the students who enjoy science,
fluency while providing a community and framework design, hands-on projects, and the connections to the
for students to explore “Green Collar” jobs. GreenFab outside world. An integral part of the success is the rela-
provides its participants with classroom instruction in tionship that develops between students and instructors,
mechanical and electrical engineering, 3D modeling, who provide a lot of individualized help.

33
 SIDE B AR 14

programs that support

community involvement
The following programs are currently under develop- own questions about ecology and the environment, and
ment with funding from the Digital Media and Learning to foster the habits of mind of being a citizen scientist.
program of the MacArthur Foundation.
History Game Canada. Using a platform similar to Civili-
Participatory Chinatown is an immersive game where zation, this game presents players with game scenarios
players take on the role of one of 15 virtual residents of taken directly from Canadian history. Players can play
Boston’s Chinatown, and attempt to complete quests, the game as different historical characters, giving them
such as finding a job or renting an apartment. In the different perspectives on historical events. Players’
game, players have to overcome real-life challenges like choices throughout the game affect the outcome of
language barriers and income levels to succeed in their each scenario, giving players a chance to not only think
quests. After playing the game, players are then asked about, but also play out “what was,” as well as “what
to walk their characters through proposed urban devel- might have been,” and why. Players share their game
opment designs and share their reactions and ideas. experiences in online discussion forums, and can discuss
These comments are seen by developers and planners current events with experts.
working on developing Boston’s Chinatown.
Metrovoice: About/In/By Los Angeles. Students col-
Talkers and Doers, due out in Fall 2010, is a new game laborate to create, write and produce videos exploring
franchise for at-risk teens and young adults from eLine aspects of their communities, families, and neighbor-
Media (Gamestar Mechanic). Talkers and Doers focuses hoods. The videos are geo-coded, and are shown on
on entrepreneurship in areas of interest to youth. The the TV screens on the 2200 city buses running through
first installment in the series, Talkers and Doers: Gear Los Angeles. The videos are envisioned to transform
will use a social networking platform for a game to the buses into “mobile learning labs” that connect
inspire kids to design clothes and other apparel, and program participants to the city at large.
craft ways to market and sell their ideas. Each game
will unlock tools and missions where players can make Global Challenge is an online, collaborative, problem-
real money and connect with real-world mentors and solving competition that engages teens throughout
community-based resources. the world. The competition groups students into teams
of four and presents them with real-world climate and
WildLab sets up students to use mobile devices to environmental problems to solve. Using a wide variety
become citizen scientists. They walk around and use of digital media and social networking tools, teams can
iPhones set up with the WildLab app to identify and take on problems from a number of approaches with
photograph birds that they see within a specified area. varying levels of difficulty, from exploration of ideas
The data they collect can be shared and analyzed in the to developing a working global solution business plan.
classroom, and/or sent out via the Internet to research All levels of projects are judged by project staff, peers,
institutions. WildLab has developed a curriculum for kids and experts, and winners receive awards such as
to use the data they collect in order to develop their merit scholarships.

34
both as a means to support students’ acquisition classes carried over into other classes. Evaluators noted
of knowledge and skills and as an object of study. that Ford PAS students were noticeably better commu-
The Ford Partnership for Advanced Studies (Ford nicators, more inquisitive, more likely to be self-starters,
PAS) curriculum serves as an example. and more capable of working alone and in groups. A
2006 SPEC Associates case study of an urban school
Ford PAS, developed by Ford Motor Company Fund with a high-need student population noted the
in partnership with EDC, is an interdisciplinary, career- potential of Ford PAS to prepare students for postsec-
focused, academic curriculum. Based on extensive ondary education and refine career aspirations, as well
research on project-based learning (Ravitz, 2009) and as improve cognitive skills such as research, problem-
the integration of career and technical education in solving, and interpersonal skills. The case study also
academic programs (Stone, Alfeld, Pearson, Lewis, & provided cautionary evidence that contextual factors
Jensen 2006), it is designed to provide high school make a significant difference in effect: It stressed the
students the knowledge and skills necessary to suc- need for professional development and coaching
ceed in college and in the 21st century workforce. Ford around the Ford PAS curriculum as well as buy-in from
PAS is made up of 20 standards-based modules that school administration and the community. Finally, in an
focus on content with realistic applications in areas implementation survey conducted by MPR, teachers
such as design and product development, information and site coordinators indicated the program is having
systems, environmental sustainability, global econom- a strong impact on the 21st century skills the program
ics, business planning, personal finance, and market- is designed to advance; in particular, teachers reported
ing. The curriculum encourages the establishment of a very strong positive effect on communication and
partnerships with local businesses and higher education problem solving (MPR Associates, 2009).
institutions to provide students with real world learning
experiences. Focusing student learning on career areas The flexible, modular design of the Ford PAS
and participating in real-world learning experiences curriculum offers schools flexibility in how to
requires that the students become familiar with and implement it. Some schools use it as a framework
develop skills in appropriate technologies, for example for an entire school program, while others use a subset
computer-assisted design (CAD) for product develop- of modules on selected themes, or modules that can
ment or database design for information systems. All be used as units in traditional academic courses or
learning is designed to be project-based in an effort to electives. The curriculum also can be used in a formal
let students follow their personal academic and career program of study; an informal setting, such as summer,
interests. Performance assessments provide evidence of after-school, or weekend programs; or a combination
critical thinking, conceptual connections, and mastery of these two options.
of knowledge and skills.
The design of the Ford PAS curriculum can serve
Preliminary findings from research on Ford PAS cur- as a useful model for the development of student-
riculum implementation suggest its potential to impact centered curricula in other content areas. Essential
teaching and learning. A 2005 CNA Corporation features of the curriculum include:
study showed that even where implementation was
limited or relatively new, students were enthusiastically ¸¸ P roject-based learning experiences that
engaged and were developing important 21st century help students master concepts and connect
skills and knowledge. The study reported that Ford PAS classroom learning to personal interests and
classes differed substantially from other classes and career exploration,
provided learning experiences not otherwise available.
There was also evidence that learning from Ford PAS ¸¸ Performance assessments that provide evidence

35
 of critical thinking, conceptual connections, ¸¸ T here is an emphasis on using technology
and mastery of knowledge and skills, in authentic ways (e.g., using digital probes
to collect scientific data, using computer-
¸¸ T echnology being used as a tool to support assisted design tools for creating blueprints)
learning and as an object of study as well, that mirror how professionals in the
workplace use digital tools.
¸¸ P artnerships with local businesses and higher
education institutions to provide students with ¸¸ S tudents are active users and shapers of digital
real-world learning experiences. tools, rather than passive recipients of informa-
tion delivered online.
3. How is technology being used
as part of school- or district-wide ¸¸ T he schools utilize performance-based assess-
initiatives to personalize learning? ments that include technology as a tool and
Over the past two decades, a number of schools allow teachers to measure, among other things,
have been created that use student-centered learning students’ competence with technology and 21st
approaches. Some of these schools have made tech- century skills.
nology an integral part of their mission. Appendix 1
includes detailed descriptions of two of these schools ¸¸ T eachers receive extensive professional
(High Tech High and Quest to Learn) to illustrate development on using technology to support
school-wide approaches for implementing and sup- learning and have access to ongoing assistance
porting the use of technology for student-centered during the school year.
learning. Other examples of schools that deeply
integrate technology into student-centered learning The technology-using, student-centered schools
include iSchool, the Science Leadership Academy, that we reviewed have met with considerable
School of One, Opportunity High School, School for success; they show low dropout rates, strong
the Future, and New Tech Network (URLs to websites academic achievement, and high college enroll-
for these schools are included below). ment for graduates. For instance, High Tech
High schools report sending 100 percent of their
These schools use technology in similar ways: students to college, with 80 percent to four-year
schools, and 27 percent earning technical degrees
¸¸ T echnology is deeply integrated into the overall in math, science, or engineering (the national
vision, mission, and curriculum of the schools. average is 15 percent). Similarly, New Tech schools
report that in the 2008-2009 school year, 85
¸¸ It is used flexibly across the curriculum as tools percent of their seniors applied to college, 98
for project-based learning and to support the percent of whom were accepted to at least one
pursuit of academic goals. post-secondary institution. The drop-out rate
at two-thirds of the schools in the network is 0
¸¸ T echnology is also an object of study through percent. The School for the Future reports a four-
courses such as video production, multimedia year high school graduation rate of 91 percent
design or computer science. (compared to 75% nationally) and an attendance
rate of 91 percent for the 2008-2009 school year.
¸¸ T he curricula in these schools are explicitly While this success cannot be attributed to tech-
designed to foster the development of 21st nology use alone, the educational approaches of
century skills. these schools, which are supported by technology,

36
can serve as a powerful model for other schools digital books, which can be customized to meet
that seek to use technology in support of student- the needs of individual readers. Digital books are
centered learning. becoming more and more popular on college
campuses as universities attempt to cut down their
4. What is the potential of use of paper, as well as cut publishing costs, but
emerging technologies to help have not yet been used widely in K-12 settings
to broaden/deepen opportunities (Johnson, Levine, Smith, & Stone, 2010).
for student-centered learning?
In planning for future technology use in schools, cloud computing
it is important to consider trends and resources Cloud computing refers to digital programs and
that are not yet widely used in education, but that storage that live in networked computers (rather
demonstrate considerable potential for support- than a local server), and that can be accessed
ing teaching and learning. Below we describe a anywhere using personal computers or mobile
number of technologies that entered the market devices. Many applications that people use every
in the consumer or business worlds and discuss day, such as gmail or GoogleDocs, are cloud appli-
the potential of these technologies to support cations. Cloud computing can bring otherwise
student-centered learning. out of reach resources into classrooms and into
students’ hands. For example, iLab Central makes
digital books authentic experimental laboratories accessible for
Laptop computers and eReaders, such as the students to use and access through the Internet.
Kindle and the iPad, allow students to access And because they live on the network, applications

In planning for future technology use in schools,

it is important to consider trends and resources
that are not yet widely used in education…

digital textbooks and library books anytime and in the cloud make it easy to share documents,
anywhere. Further, as more and more books are collaboratively edit, and effectively manage
transferred to digital platforms, they are rede- versions, both locally and at a distance.
signed to include more multimedia content to
complement the text, or sometimes serve in lieu of collaborative environments
text. Multimedia-enhanced digital books provide Digital collaborative environments range from
accessible content for learners who might be less small single-purpose tools (e.g., GoogleDocs and
comfortable with text-heavy materials. In addi- wikispaces) to comprehensive collaborative virtual
tion, eBooks allow readers to annotate content learning environments (e.g., Blackboard, Moodle,
and then share and archive their comments Schoology, Edmodo). These tools can facilitate
online. Websites such as CAST’s UDL book builder synchronous and asynchronous collaboration on
allow teachers and students to create their own anything from small assignments to semester-long

37
 projects between classmates, students at different computers to help manage and organize the admin-
schools, students and teachers, and teachers istration of assessments and as a data input device
and teachers, via the Internet. Social networking to keep records of students’ errors as they read pas-
platforms also fall into this category. These sites allow sages that are provided to them in print. The system
users to share their interests with their peers, find indicates which assessment subtests are appropri-
other users with common interests, and participate in ate for a given student based on grade level and
online collaboration (Johnson et al., 2010). While the time of year; it also monitors individual progress by
use of collaborative environments in education has keeping track of which passages have already been
not yet been systematically studied, teachers have administered to which students. Though results from
begun to explore the use of this technology in the evaluations of the mCLASS:DIBELS have shown gains
classroom. An example is the Networked Newsroom in student achievement and benefits for teachers
project. Networked Newsroom is an online partici- (Hupert, Heinze, Gunn, Stewart & Honey, 2006 ), it
patory learning news platform for high school or should be noted that this body of work and subse-
college journalism classes. It allows users to post story quent research has focused only on early childhood
ideas, leads, photos, videos and other information education. However, similar use of handhelds might
directly from their computers or mobile phones. Edit- be interesting to pursue at the high school level.
ing is done collaboratively in the virtual newsroom,
where diverse users supplement one another’s work augmented reality
to develop more meaningful and robust stories. Final Augmented reality (AR) is emerging as a popular
stories are published on a public wiki. technology for learning. It involves the use of
smart phones or GPS-equipped devices to explore
mobile devices real-world spaces, such as historical sites, artifacts
Newly released, large-screen mobile devices, or in a museum, or different trees in a local park,
tablets, such as the Apple iPad, Google Tablet, while receiving text, video, images, or other input
and HP Slate, along with cell phones, iPods, and that are associated with their location. At MIT, the
mp3 players that students are already using, offer Education Arcade and Teacher Education program
a variety of educational affordances. In addition to created Environmental Detectives, an AR game
mobile capabilities that might be used in the class- where players use GPS-guided handheld computers
room—such as Twitter to facilitate in-class discus- to try to uncover the source of a toxic spill by
sions, Poll Anywhere (pollanywhere.com) to turn a interviewing virtual characters and conducting
mobile device into an automated response system, large-scale simulated environmental measurements
or Internet browsing—this new generation of mobile and analyzing data. AR lends itself well to students
devices can store digital textbooks and library books working in teams and solving problems in a real-
for students to access anywhere and at anytime, run world environment. As teams of students explore a
augmented reality programs, and allow students to location, they are provided with different clues in
more easily take notes and share digital resources a jigsaw-puzzle style in order to promote collabora-
(Johnson et al., 2010). tion and critical thinking skills necessary to problem
solve in a group setting (Lemke, Coughlin, & Reifs-
Teachers have also used handheld devices (such as neider, 2009). Research has shown that AR experi-
PDAs or smartphones) as progress monitoring tools. ences can successfully engage students in scientific
Wireless Generation has implemented a handheld argumentation and collaborative investigation not
progress monitoring system, mCLASS:DIBELS, in early often achieved through typical classroom activities
childhood classrooms with positive results. Briefly, (Johnson et al., 2010).
the system works as follows: Teachers use handheld

38
gesture-based computing learners move through learning activities using
Human-computer interactions are moving away their whole bodies, and receive haptic feedback
from the standard keyboard and mouse, and (touch or motion based) letting them know how
towards more intuitive gesture-based communication well they are doing (Johnson et al., 2010).
systems that adapt to, or are even designed
for interpreting natural human movements. For visual data analysis
example, the iPhone responds to the gliding of Tools for collecting, analyzing, and visualizing
fingers across its screen, as well as the tilting and complex data sets are becoming more readily
shaking of the device itself. Larger displays allow available. Websites like Gapminder.org allow
multiple users to collaborate on the computer at people to upload, visualize, and manipulate their
one time. One such display, the Microsoft Surface, own data. Researchers and educators see great
has been installed into school study areas, with potential in the eventual ability of such tools to
schools reporting that students appear to enjoy allow students to see and manipulate complex
using them to collaborate on projects. Researchers processes, leading to deeper understanding of
and designers believe that the move away from complex relationships and concepts (Edelson,
keyboards and mice to gesture-based controls Brown, Gordin & Griffin, 1999; Johnson et al.,
will provide opportunities for kinesthetic learning: 2010; Kali & Linn, 2009; Lemke et al., 2009).

39
Educators have a key role to
play in ensuring that
technology supports
student-centered learning.
implications for practice,
policy and research
 hile the research on technology and student-centered learning is limited, the existing knowledge base
W
does suggest some implications for practice, policy, and research, which we will discuss in turn.

implication for practice

Educators have a key role to play in ensuring that technology supports student-centered learning. Teachers,
in collaboration with other stakeholders (e.g., administrators, parents, students, colleges, employers, community
members), need to think carefully about how to use technology well. Decisions about particular uses of
technology should be informed by consideration of the following questions:

¸¸ H
 ow can technology be used to help narrow uses of technology result in the desired learning
performance gaps between student subgroups outcomes?
and to ensure that all students achieve high quality,
standards-based learning outcomes? In addition, administrators need to provide
leadership and support the use of technology for
¸¸ H
 ow do specific uses of technology fit with the student-centered learning. Key questions for them
school’s vision for student-centered learning? to consider include:

¸¸ H
 ow can technology be used to add breadth and ¸¸ W
 hat are the needs of different constituencies
depth to educational experiences, and not just to within and outside of the school (students,
replicate things that can be done without it? teachers, IT staff, colleges, employers) concerning
technology use?
¸¸ H
 ow can technology be used to enhance both
content area competencies and 21st century skills? ¸¸ W
 hat professional development do teachers
need to use technology effectively for student-
¸¸ H
 ow can students experience technology in the centered learning?
ways that professionals use it in their fields?
¸¸ W
 hat ongoing investments in infrastructure and
¸¸ H
 ow can students experience technology in ways human resources are necessary to support the use
that will increase their awareness of and prepare of the technology?
them for a variety of career paths?
¸¸ W
 hat kinds of technology-use policies need to be in
¸¸ H
 ow does technology use in the classroom relate place (e.g., cell phone access, use of Internet filters)
to technology use for educational purposes outside to support effective uses of technology?
of the classroom (e.g., for homework, afterschool
activities, independent studies, internships)? ¸¸ H
 ow can students receive credit for technology-
enabled learning experiences such as online
¸¸ W
 hat data needs to be collected on an ongoing courses or internships?
basis to formatively assess whether and how specific

41
 ¸¸ W
 hat assessments need to be developed and put technology in specific academic content standards.
in place to enable the measurement of higher-order, Along with the articulation of the standards will
21st century skills? come the need to test students’ knowledge of and
skill with technology. This will require the develop-
implications for policy ment of new assessments that are well aligned with
Policymakers at the district, state, and national levels the standards. Existing high school tests, which tra-
have multiple levers to provide leadership and guide ditionally require memorizing facts, often have very
practice towards the use of technology for student- little to do with what it takes do well in college or in
centered learning. These include: the workplace (such as writing and problem solving).
There is a need for assessments that measure com-
1. Policies Related to the Use of Educational plex 21st century competencies and that incorporate
Technology for Learning. While the recently released the use of technology. The Assessment and Teaching
draft of the National Educational Technology Plan of the 21st Century Skills Initiative by Cisco, Intel,
(NETP) (U.S. Department of Education, 2010) puts a and Microsoft at the University of Melbourne is
strong emphasis on 21st century skills and on using undertaking some initial work in this area.
technology to personalize learning, other recently
released national standards and policy documents States also play a key role in supporting online learn-
(such as the common core standards in Mathematics ing. By establishing and financing virtual schools
and English Language Arts, and the blueprint for the that offer courses aligned with their standards, states

It is important to emphasize that research generally

does not tell educators exactly how they should
use technology, but it can inform their decision-
making about its use in particular circumstances.

reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary can contribute to broadening available educational
Education Act) do not explicitly address technology. experiences that are attuned to individual students’
The responsibility to integrate the recommendations interests and needs.
from the NETP with the common core standards
and other reforms falls on states and local leaders. 2. Policies Related to the Training of Educators
To effectively guide practice, states should articulate Standards for teachers and school administrators
technology standards aligned with the NETP and and requirements for initial teacher and administrator
related standards (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, licensure and recertification should include the demon-
2009; International Society for Technology in Educa- stration of competencies related to using technology
tion, 2007). In addition to separate technology stan- to personalize learning experiences.
dards, states should also embed an explicit focus on

42
3. Monitor Access Using Data. In order to insure relating to technology use are over-studied. The federal
equitable access to technology, districts and states need government recently invested six million dollars to sup-
to monitor access to, use of, and capacity with technol- port two large-scale studies that showed that texting
ogy. Data gathering needs to go beyond the counting and driving is dangerous (Richtel, 2009), a finding that
of tools and take into consideration how technology few people would have questioned without any data.
is being used and by whom, as well as the capacity of A key task for the field is to determine which questions
educators to use technology to personalize learning. are the most important, relevant, and useful to pursue.

4. Statewide Longitudinal Data Systems. One of There is growing consensus that making research
the four key funding priorities of the U.S. Department relevant for policy and practice requires collaboration
of Education is to support states in developing and between researchers, practitioners, and policymakers
implementing powerful technology-based longitudinal at all levels in the research endeavor, including when
data systems. These systems are intended to help states research is being planned and conducted, not just
and districts manage and analyze the growing wealth of when findings are being disseminated (Easton, 2010).
student and teacher data, including individual student So decisions about what research questions are most
records. Once implemented, these systems have the important to pursue should be made with input from all
potential to help policy makers and educators make stakeholders. Collaborative research that accompanies
data-driven decisions and facilitate research in the field. schools’ or districts’ efforts to integrate technology with
Teachers could benefit from the availability of longi- student-centered learning initiatives would support
tudinal data about individual students, but will need practitioners’ efforts to continually inquire into and
professional development and support to be able to reflect on how technology can be used to support
access and use the data. student-centered learning (i.e., as a method for self-
improvement) and would also yield lessons learned for
5. Funding Priorities. States should make the use of the field. In addition, researchers could play an impor-
technology to support student-centered learning a pri- tant role in helping to aggregate data and synthesize
ority in funding initiatives that support school districts’ lessons learned across different reform efforts.
efforts to integrate technology. Technology funding is
available through the Enhancing Education Through It is important to emphasize that research generally
Technology program, stimulus money for statewide does not tell educators exactly how they should use
longitudinal data systems, Title 1, and the Individuals technology, but it can inform their decision-making
with Disabilities Education Act. about its use in particular circumstances. Research
has an important role to play in helping us to better
implications for research understand the circumstances under which technology
The existing research on technology and student- is effective and for whom. In particular, we need more
centered learning is limited and there are many unan- research on how technology can personalize learn-
swered questions that future research potentially can ing, which requires analyses of which uses produced
address. However, given limited funding resources, what outcomes for different students, not just data
it is not likely that all questions can be researched in that shows that particular technology uses have an
depth. For instance, as Tom Carroll (2000) pointed out, impact on the average student population. In addition,
there is no research that shows the effectiveness of more research is needed about the roles of classrooms,
telephones, yet that doesn’t stop many of us from using schools, and social contexts in mediating the effects of
this technology every day, and few people would deny policies and practices, and the ways in which organiza-
that telephones have a fundamental impact on how we tional factors contribute to the success of efforts to use
communicate. On the other hand, sometimes questions technology in support of student-centered learning.

43
…while technology can support student-centered
learning, technology alone it is not likely to
transform traditional learning environments
into student-centered ones.
conclusions
Research suggests that technology can support integration of technology suggests that teachers
key practices of student-centered learning, such as and schools are most likely to use technology
assessing individual students’ strengths and needs, to personalize learning if (1) it supports already
flexible scheduling and pacing, advising, presenting existing, student-centered practices and helps to
content in alternative ways, project-based learning, solve problems or address challenges; (2) it is part of
and involving the community. Technology also has a systemic, organization-wide initiative to implement
been successfully integrated in curriculum-based student-centered learning; and (3) teachers have
and school-based approaches to personalize learning. access to ample professional development and ongo-
However, while technology can support student- ing support. While the research on technology and
centered learning, technology alone it is not likely student-centered learning is limited, the existing
to transform traditional learning environments into knowledge base does suggest some implications
student-centered ones. Research on the use and for practice, policy, and research.

45
 references
Baldi, S., Jin, Y., Skemer, M., Green, P.J., and Herget, D. (2007). Highlights From PISA 2006: Performance of
U.S. 15-Year-Old Students in Science and Mathematics Literacy in an International Context (NCES 2008–016).
National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
Washington, D.C. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from http://www.nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2008016

Barbour, M. K., & Reeves, Thomas C. (2009). The reality of virtual schools: A review of the literature. Computers
and Education, 52(2), 402-416. Retrieved May 1, 2010 from http://www.michaelbarbour.com/research/pubs.htm.

Bishop, M. J. & White, S. A. (2005). The Clipper II Project Final Report. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University
College of Education. Retrieved May 1, 2010 from http://clipper.lehigh.edu/research

Black, P. & William, D. (1998). Assessment and Classroom Learning. Assessment and Evaluation, 5(1), 7-74.

Bouffard, S. (2008). Tapping into technology: The role of the Internet in family–school communications.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project.

Bowler, M. & Siegel, P. (2009). Unleashing Knowledge and Innovation for the Next Generation of Learning:
Summit Proceedings, Reflections, and Implications. Washington, D.C.: Knowledge Alliance. Retrieved April
16, 2010 from http://www.knowledgegarage.org/discussion/topic/show/238421

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (eds.) (1999). How People Learn. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press. Available online http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6160

Caldwell, J. E. (2007). Clickers in the Large Classroom: Current Research and Best-Practice Tips.
CBE—Life Sciences Education, 6.

Carnegie Corporation of New York & Institute for Advanced Study Commission on Mathematics and Science
Education (2009). The Opportunity Equation: Transforming Mathematics and Science Education for Citizen-
ship and the Global Economy. New York: Carnegie Corporation. Retrieved March 23, 2010 from http://www.
opportunityequation.org

Carroll, T. G. (2000). If We Didn’t Have the Schools We Have Today, Would We Create the Schools We Have
Today? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 1(1), 117-140. Retrieved July 22, 2010
from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CBIQFjAA&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fciteseerx.
ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fdownload%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.112.1394%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf&ei=
52NMTOfWFIXGlQegvp32DQ&usg=AFQjCNGoOk7KwnrYqkeAP_yu2tsO6y7Lw&sig2=JVU16eSRubD0mGJ6a
0nm4A

46
Cataldi, E.F., Laird, J., & Kewal Ramani, A. (2009). High School Dropout and Completion Rates in the United
States: 2007 (NCES 2009-064). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. Washington, D.C. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2009064

CDW Government LLC (2010). The 2010 CDW-G 21st-Century Classroom Report. Vernon Hills, Il: CDW-G.
Retrieved July 2, 2010 from http://newsroom.cdw.com/features/feature-06-28-10.html

Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B., & Johnson, C. W. (2008). Disrupting Class. New York: McGraw Hill.

Clark, T. (2008). Online Learning: Pure Potential. Educational Leadership, Reshaping High Schools, 65(8). Retrieved
May 1, 2010 from http://www.blackboard.com/resources/k12/ASCD_Online_Learning_Pure_Potential.pdf

Clarke, J. (2003). Changing Systems to Personalize Learning. Introduction to the Personalization Workshops.
Providence, RI: Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory of the Education Alliance at Brown
University.

CNA Corporation. (2005). Ford PAS Implementation Study (2003–2005). Unpublished report.

Collins, A., & Bronte-Tinkew, J. (2010). Incorporating Technology into out-of-School time Programs:
Benefits, Challenges, and Strategies. Child Trends.

Cramer, M. (2009). Digital Portfolios: Documenting Student Growth. Horace, 25, (1). Retrieved April 21, 2010
from http://www.essentialschools.org/resources/526

Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and Underused: Computers in the Classroom. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.

Davis, M. R. (2010). E-Learning Seeks a Custom Fit. Education Week Digital Directions, 3(2), 18-19. Retrieved
February 15, 2010 from http://www.edweek.org/dd/articles/2010/02/03/02e-customization.h03.html?qs=e-
learning+seeks+a+custom+fit

Dawley, H. (2006). Time-wise, Internet is now TV’s equal. Media Life. Retrieved June 15, 2010 from
http://www.medialifemagazine.com/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=170&num=2581

DiPietro, M., Ferdig, R. E., Black, E.W. & Preston, M. (2008). Best practices in teaching K-12 online: Lessons
learned from Michigan Virtual School teachers. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 7(1), 10-35.

47
 Donohue, N. C. (2010). Students at the Center: New England’s future demands education based on a
learner’s needs and interests. The New England Journal of Higher Education, Winter 2010. Retrieved March
28, 2010 from http://www.nmefdn.org/uploads/Donohue%20NEJHE%20W10.pdf

Dynarski, M., Agodini, R., Heaviside, S., Novak, T., Carey, N., Campuzano, L., Means, B., Murphy, R., Penuel,
W., Javitz, H., Emery, D., & Sussex, W. (2007). Effectiveness of Reading and Mathematics Software Products:
Findings from the First Student Cohort. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved March
12, 2010 from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20074005

Dziuban, C., Hartman, J., & Moskal, P. (2004). Blended learning. EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research
Research Bulletin. Retrieved May 1, 2010 from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERB0407.pdf

Easton, J. (2010). New Research Initiatives for IES. IES Research Conference Keynote Address.
Retrieved July 7, 2010 from http://ies.ed.gov/director/biography.asp

Edelson, D., Brown, M., Gordin, D. N. & Griffin, D. A. (1999). Making Visualization Accessible to Students.
GSA Today, 9, 8-10

Education Development Center (2009 a). Codifying a Next-Generation Education System: New York City
iSchool. New York: Education Development Center. Retrieved May 5, 2010 from http://cct.edc.org/project_
detail.asp?id=3107

Education Development Center (2009 b). Lessons Learned: Innovative Exhibits.

Newton, MA: Education Development Center.

Education Development Center (2009 c). Lessons Learned: AYV Afterschool.

Newton, MA: Education Development Center.

Education Development Center (2009 d). Lessons Learned: Integrating AYV into the Classroom.
Newton, MA: Education Development Center.

Englert, C.S., Zhao, K., Dunsmore, N., Collings, Y. & Wolbers, K. (2007). Scaffolding the writing of students
with disabilities through procedural facilitation: Using an Internet-based technology to improve performance.
Learning Disability Quarterly, 30(1), 9-29.

Flanagin, A. J. & Metzger, M. J. (2010). Kids and Credibility: An Empirical Investigation of Youth, Digital Media
Use, and Information Credibility. Boston, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved June 8, 2010
from http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=12287

Greaves, T., Hayes, J., Wilson, L., & Gielniak, M. (2010). Project RED Key Findings. Presentation conducted at
the annual conference of the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), Denver, CO. Retrieved
July 2, 2010 from http://www.projectred.org

48
Grigg, W., Lauko, M., & Brockway, D. (2006). The Nation’s Report Card: Science 2005 (NCES 2006-466).
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2006466

Grigg, W., Donahue, P., & Dion, G. (2007). The Nation’s Report Card: 12th-Grade Reading and Mathematics
2005 (NCES 2007ñ468). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/
pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2007468

Gray, L., Thomas, N., & Lewis, L. (2010). Teachers Use of Educational Technology in U.S. Public Schools:
2009 (NCES2010-040). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. Washington, D.C. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/
pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2010040

Groff, J., Haas, J., Klopfer, E., & Osterweil, S. (2009). Using the Technology of Today in the Classroom Today. The
Education Arcade. Retrieved April 14 from http://education.mit.edu/papers/GamesSimsSocNets_EdArcade.pdf

Hargreaves, D. (2004) Personalised learning: Next steps in working laterally. London: Specialist Schools Trust.

Hightower, A. E. (2009). Tracking U.S. Trends: States Earn B Average for Policies Supporting Educational
Technology Use. Education Week: Technology Counts, 28.

Honey, M., & Moeller, B. (1990). Teachers’ beliefs and technology integration: Different values, different
understandings (Tech. Rep. No. 6). New York: EDC/Center for Children and Technology.

Hull, G., & Zacher, J. (2004). What is after-school worth? Developing literacy and identity out of school.
Voices in Urban Education, 3, 36–44. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from http://www.annenberginstitute.org/VUE/
wp-content/pdf/VUE26_Rothman.pdf

Hunter, N. (2005). Understanding Civilization (III). The Education Arcade. Retrieved April 14 from
http://www.educationarcade.org/node/66

Hupert, N., Heinze, J., Gunn, G., Stewart, J., & Honey, M. (2007). An Analysis of Technology-Assisted Progress
Monitoring to Drive Improved Student Outcomes: White Paper. New York: Wireless Generation. Retrieved
May 5, 2010 from, http://www.wirelessgeneration.com/assets/pdf/resources/mCLASS-Early-Literacy-Research/
Progress%20Monitoring%20WhitePaper_101607.pdf

Inan, F. A. & Lowther, D. L. (2010). Factors Affecting Technology Integration in K-12 Classrooms:
A Path Model. Education Technology Research and Development, 58, 137-154.

International Society for Technology in Education (2007). The ISTE National Educational Technology
Standards (NET•S) and Performance Indicators for Students. Eugene, OR. Retrieved May 5, 2010 from
http://www.iste.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=NETS

49
 Johnson, L., Levine, A., Smith, R., & Stone, S. (2010). The 2010 Horizon Report. Austin, Texas: The New
Media Consortium.

Kali, Y., & Linn, M. C. (2009). Designing Effective Visualizations for Elementary School Science. Elementary
School Journal, 109(5), 181-198.

Kantrov, I. (2009). Curriculum: What Is It and Why Do We Need It? Ford PAS and Ford NGLC Thought Leader
Series. Retrieved February 25, 2010 from http://www.fordnglc.com/thought_leaderJuly09.html

Keefe, J. W. & Jenkins, J. M. (2008) Personalized Instruction: The Key to Student Achievement. Pennsylvania:
Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Knapp, L.G., Kelly-Reid, J.E., and Ginder, S.A. (2010). Enrollment in Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2008;
Graduation Rates, 2002 & 2005 Cohorts; and Financial Statistics, Fiscal Year 2008 (NCES 2010-152). U.S.
Department of Education. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved May 12
from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch.

KnowledgeWorks Foundation & Institute for the Future (2008). 2020 Forecast: Creating the Future
of Learning. Retrieved April 12, 2010 from http://www.futureofed.org/forecast

Kopcha, T. J. (2010). A Systems-Based Approach to Technology Integration Using Mentoring and

Communities of Practice. Education Technology Research and Development, 58, 175-190.

Kulik, J. A. (2003). Effects of Using Instructional Technology in Elementary and Secondary Schools:
What Controlled Evaluation Studies Say. Arlington, VA: SRI International. Retrieved March 12 from
http://www.sri.com/policy/csted/reports/sandt/it

Lee, J., & Weiss, A. (2007). The Nation’s Report Card: U.S. History 2006 (NCES 2007–474). U.S. Department
of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Retrieved May 12, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2007474

Lemke, C., Coughlin, E. & Reifsneider, D. (2009). Technology in Schools: What the Research Says: An Update.
Culver City, CA: Commissioned by Cisco.

Light, D., Cerrone, M., & Reitzes, T. (2009). Evaluation of the School of One Summer Pilot: An Experiment
in Individualized Instruction. New York, NY: Education Development Center.

Liu, M., Russell, V., Chaplin, D., Raphael, J., Fu, H., & Anthony, E. (2002). Using Technology to Improve
Academic Achievement in Out-of-School-Time Programs in Washington, D.C. The Urban Institute. Retrieved
April 21, 2010 from http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=410578

Long, M. & Jennings, H. (2005). Does it work? The impact of technology and professional development on
student achievement. Calverton, MD: Marco International.

50
Lutkus, A.D., & Weiss, A.R. (2007). The Nation’s Report Card: Civics 2006 (NCES 2007–476). U.S. Department
of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Retrieved May 12, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2007476

Maloney, J., Peppler, K., Kafai, Y., Resnick, M., & Rusk, N. (2008). Programming by Choice: Urban Youth Learning
Programming with Scratch. Retrieved April 14, 2010 from http://web.media.mit.edu/~mres/papers/sigcse-08.pdf

McDonald, J. P., Klein, E. J., & Riordan, M. (2009). Going to Scale with New School Designs. New York:
Teachers College Press.

Mead, N., & Sandene, B. (2007). The Nation’s Report Card: Economics 2006 (NCES 2007–475). National
Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, Washington,
D.C. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2007475

Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M. & Jones, K. (2009). Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in
Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department
of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development.

Means, B. (2006). Prospects for transforming schools with technology-supported assessment. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.),
The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (pp. 505-519). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

MPR Associates. (2009). 2008–09 Evaluation of Ford PAS Implementation. Unpublished report.

National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, & Institute of Medicine (2007). Rising Above
the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future. Committee on Pros-
pering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century: An Agenda for American Science and Technology. Washing-
ton, DC: National Academy Press. Retrieved March 23, 2010 from http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11463.html

National Center on Education and the Economy (NCEE) (2006). Tough Choices or Tough Times: Report of the
New Commission on the Skills in the American Workforce. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2000). Teachers Tools for the 21st Century: A Report on
Teachers’ Use of Technology (NCES 2000102). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved
March 23, 2010 http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2000102

National Center for Education Statistics (February 2010). 2002 Educational Longitudinal Study: Second Follow
Up, 2006, previously unpublished tabulations.

O’Dwyer, L. M., Carey, R., & Kleiman, G. (2007). A study of the effectiveness of the Louisiana Algebra I online
course. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(3), 289-306.

Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009). Framework for 21st Century Learning. Tuscon, AZ. Retrieved March
12, 2010 from http://www.p21.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=254&Itemid=120

51
 Penuel, W. R., Boscardin, C. K., Masyn, K., & Crawford, V. M. (2006). Teaching with student response systems
in elementary and secondary education settings: A survey study. Association for Educational Communications
and Technology. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from http://www.redorbit.com/news/education/1020763/teaching_
with_student_response_systems_in_elementary_and_secondary_education/index.html

Peppler, K. & Kafai, Y. B. (2007). From SuperGoo to Scratch: Exploring Media Creative Production in an
Informal Learning Environment. Journal on Learning, Media, and Technology, 32(2), 149-166.

Quillen, I. (2010). E-Learning Delivery Debated. Education Week, 29(30), 55. Retrieved May 1, 2010 from
http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2010/04/28/30edtech_daily.h29.html?qs=e-learning+delivery+debated

Ravitz, J. (2009). Introduction: Summarizing Findings and Looking Ahead to a New Generation of
PBL Research. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 3(1). Retrieved July 23, 2010 from
http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/vol3/iss1/2

Richtel, M. (2009). How the Driving Tests Were Conducted. New York Times, July 28, 2009. Retrieved July 22,
2010 from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/28/technology/28textbar.html?_r=1

Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., & Roberts, R. F. (2010). Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds. Menlo
Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Foundation. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from http://www.kff.org/entmedia/8010.cfm

Rockman et al. (2007). ED PACE final report. Submitted to the West Virginia Department of Education. San
Francisco: Author. Retrieved October 22, 2010 from http://www.rockman.com/projects/146.ies.edpace/finalreport

Rose, D. H. & Meyer, A. (2006). A Practical Reader in Universal Design for Learning. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard Education Press.

Salahu-Din, D., Persky, H., & Miller, J. (2008). The Nation’s Report Card: Writing 2007 (NCES 2008–468).
National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education,
Washington, D.C. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2008468

Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Sandholz, J. H., Ringstaff, C. & Dwyer, D. (1997). Teaching with Technology: Creating Student-Centered
Classrooms. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Smith, R., Clark, T., & Blomeyer, R. L. (2005). A synthesis of new research on K-12 online learning. Naperville,
IL: Learning Point Associates. Retrieved May 1, 2010 from http://www.ncrel.org/tech/synthesis

SPEC Associates. (2006). Ford Partnership for Advanced Studies at the Advanced Technology Academy.
Dearborn, MI: Advanced Technology Academy.

SRI International (2009). The Power of Project Learning with ThinkQuest. Menlo Park: CA: SRI International.
Retrieved April 14, 2010 from: http://www.thinkquest.org/promotion/white_papers/WhitePaper.pdf

52
Stone, J. R. III, Alfeld, C., Pearson, D., Lewis, M. V., & Jensen, S. (2006). Building Academic Skills in Context:
Testing the Value of Enhanced Math Learning in CTE. University of Minnesota: National Research Center for Career
and Technical Education. Retrieved July 23, 2010 from http://136.165.122.102/mambo/content/view/43/56

Stillwell, R.(2010). Public School Graduates and Dropouts From the Common Core of Data: School Year 2007-2008
(NCES 2010-341). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Edu-
cation. Washington, D.C. Retrieved June 1, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2010341

Strobel, J. & van Barneveld, A. (2009). When is PBL More Effective? A Meta-synthesis of Meta-analyses
Comparing PBL to Conventional Classrooms. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning 3(1).
Retrieved March 3, 2011 from http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/vol3/iss1/4

Sun, K., Lin, Y., & Yu, C. (2008). A study on learning effect among different learning styles in a web-based lab
of science for elementary school students. Computers & Education, 50(4), 1411-1422.

The Conference Board, Corporate Voices for Working Families, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, and
the Society for Human Resource Management (2006). Are They Really Ready to Work? Employer’s Perspec-
tives on the Basic Knowledge and Applied Skills of New Entrants to the 21st Century Workforce. Retrieved
March 14, 2010 from http://www.p21.org/documents/FINAL_REPORT_PDF9-29-06.pdf

Thissen-Roe, A., Hunt, E. & Minstrell, J. (2004) The DIAGNOSER project: Combining assessment and learning.
Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers 36 (2) 234-240. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from
http://brm.psychonomic-journals.org/content/36/2/234.full.pdf

Tierney, W. G., Bailey, T., Constantine, J., Finkelstein, N., & Hurd, N. F. (2009). Helping students navigate the
path to college: What high schools can do: A practice guide. (NCEE #2009-4066). Washington, D.C.: National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Depart-
ment of Education. Retrieved May 1, 2010 from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/practiceguides/higher_ed_
pg_091509.pdf

Trotter, A. (2010). Online Options for Credit Recovery Widen. Education Week, 38, 12-13. Retrieved May 1,
2010 from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2008/05/21/38credit_ep.h27.html?qs=Online+options+for+Cr
edit+Recovery+widen

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology (2010). Transforming American Education:
Learning Powered by Technology. Draft National Educational Technology Plan 2010. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Education. Retrieved March 24, 2010 from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technol-
ogy/techreports.html

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy (2010). A EASA Blueprint for
Reform. Washington, D.C. Retrieved March 23, 2010 from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint

53
 Walden University (2010). Educators, Technology and 21st Century Skills: Dispelling Five Myths.
Retrieved July 2, 2010 from http://www.waldenu.edu/Degree-Programs/Masters/36427.htm

Warschauer, M. & Matuchniak, T. (2010). New Technology and Digital Worlds: Analyzing Evidence of Equity in
Access, Use, and Outcomes. Review of Research in Education, 34, 179-225.

Watson, John. (2009). Keeping Pace with K-12 Online Learning: A Review of State-level Policy and Practice.
Evergreen Education Group. Retrieved May 1 from http://www.kpk12.com

Wellings, J. & Levine, M. H. (2009). The Digital Promise: Transforming Learning with Innovative Uses of
Technology. New York, NY: Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop.

Wenglinsky, H. (2006). Teachnology and Achievement: The Bottom Line. Educational Leadership, 63(4), 29-32.

Wenglinsky, H. (2005). Using Technology Wisely: The Keys to Success in Schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

Wenglinsky, H. (1998). Does it Compute? The Relationship Between Educational Technology and Student
Achievement in Mathematics. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Retrieved March 2, 2010 from
http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/PICTECHNOLOG.pdf

Williams, S. G. (2002). Technology in Education: Current Trends. Retrieved March 2, 2010 from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/technology-in-education-current-trends

Wood, Christina. (2005).The Virtual Classroom Redefines Education. Edutopia. Retrieved May 1 from
http://www.edutopia.org/online-education-virtual-classrooms

Woolf, B., Shute, V., VanLehn, K., Burleson, W., King, J. L., Suthers, D., Bredeweg, B., Luckin, R., Baker, R. S.
J.D., & Tonkin, E. (2010). A Roadmap for Education Technology. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts.

Ysseldyke, J., & Bolt, D. M. (2007). Effect of technology-enhanced continuous progress monitoring on math
achievement. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 453–467.

Zhao, Y. & Frank, K. A. (2003). Factors Affecting Technology Uses in Schools: An Ecological Perspective.
American Educational Research Journal, 40 (4), 807-840.

Zucker, A. A. (2008). Transforming Schools with Technology: How Smart Use of Digital Tools Helps Achieve Six
Key Education Goals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

54
websites
Professional Organizations Advocacy Organizations
International Society for Technology in Education Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills
http://www.iste.org http://www.atc21s.org

Consortium for School Networking (CoSN) Common Sense Media

http://www.cosn.org http://www.commonsensemedia.org

State Education Technology Directors Digital Media and Learning Research Hub
Association (SETDA) http://www.dmlcentral.net
http://www.setda.org
Games Learning Society
Research and Policy Centers http://www.gameslearningsociety.org
Center for Implementing Technology in
Education (CITEd) New Media Consortium
http://www.cited.org/index.aspx http://www.nmc.org

National Center for Technology Innovation (NCTI) Next Generation Learning

http://www.nationaltechcenter.org http://www.nextgenlearning.com

Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast Partnership for 21st Century Skills

and Islands (REL-NEI) http://www.p21.org
http://www.relnei.org/home.php
Project RED
Research and Development Organizations http://www.projectred.org
CAST
http://www.cast.org Think Tanks/Operating Foundations
The Carnegie Corporation for the
Concord Consortium Advancement of Teaching
http://www.concord.org http://www.carnegiefoundation.org

EDC/Center for Children and Technology Kaiser Family Foundation

http://cct.edc.org http://www.kff.org

ITEST Learning Resource Center Knowledge Works Foundation

http://itestlrc.edc.org http://knowledgeworks.org

TERC The Stupski Foundation

http://www.terc.org http://www.stupski.org

55
 George Lucas Educational Foundation (Edutopia) e-tutor
http://www.edutopia.org http://www.e-tutor.com

Federal Agencies Facet Innovations

National Science Foundation http://www.facetinnovations.com
http://www.nsf.gov
Florida Virtual High School
U.S. Department of Education, http://www.flvs.net
Office of Educational Technology
http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/ Ford-PAS
technology/index.html http://www.fordpas.org

Private Foundations Gapminder

MacArthur Foundation http://www.gapminder.org
http://www.macfound.org
Georgia Virtual School
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation http://www.gavirtualschool.org
http://www.gatesfoundation.org/Pages/home.aspx
Global Challenge
Carnegie Corporation of New York http://www.globalchallengeaward.org/
http://carnegie.org display/public/Outlines+of+the+Challenges

W.T. Grant Foundation History Game Canada

http://www.wtgrantfoundation.org http://www.historycanadagame.com

Educational Resources iLab Central

Apex Learning Inc. http://ilabcentral.org/about.php
http://www.apexlearning.com/Solutions/
Credit_Recovery.htm Naviance College Planner
http://www.naviance.com/products-services/
Clipper Project college-planner.html
http://clipper.lehigh.edu
Participatory Chinatown
Curriki http://participatorychinatown.org
http://www.curriki.org
Pearson Progress Assessment Series
Digital Media Arts http://www.k12pearson.com/teach_learn_cycle/pem/
http://dma.edc.org pem.html

Education Arcade Pinnacle Plus Assessment

http://educationarcade.org http://www.globalscholar.com/Products/Pinnacle-
Suite.html
Environmental Detectives
http://education.mit.edu/ar/ed.html

56
Plato Learning Inc. OPPortunity High School
http://www.plato.com http://www.opp.org

Project Advance Quest to Learn

http://supa.syr.edu http://q2l.org

School Tool School of the Future

http://schooltool.org http://www.sofechalk.org

Sid Meier’s Civilization IV Game Science Leadership Academy

http://www.2kgames.com/civ4/complete http://www.scienceleadership.org

ThinkQuest
http://www.thinkquest.org

Tutor.com
http://www.tutor.com

UDL Bookbuilder
http://bookbuilder.cast.org

Wild Lab Edu

http://www.thewildlab.org

YouthLab
http://www.globalchallengeaward.org/display/public/
Outlines+of+the+Challenges

Programs
Adobe Youth Voices
http://youthvoices.adobe.com

School of One
http://schoolofone.org

Schools
High Tech High
http://www.hightechhigh.org

iSchool
http://www.nycischool.org

New Tech Network

http://www.newtechnetwork.org

57
 appendix 1
methods for the literature review In addition, we convened a meeting of our
We conducted a search of the research literature, colleagues at EDC who work on projects related to
as well as practice and policy-oriented reports using technology and student-centered learning. We also
the following methods: conducted interviews with educators at selected
schools to obtain detailed information about how
¸¸ Internet searches on Google and educational they are using technology to personalize learning.
research databases using the following key
words: technology, student-centered learning, Our search yielded a large number of resources that
personalized learning, and technology integration. address technology and student-centered learning.
In our search we gave priority to resources that
¸¸ R
 eview of websites of federally funded national included some type of research evidence. We found
and regional resource centers such as NCTI, that few studies have directly examined the effec-
REL-NEI and professional organizations and think tiveness and impact of specific technology applica-
tanks such as ISTE, the Kaiser Family Foundation, tions or programs. Most of the existing research is
KnowledgeWorks Foundation, and the Stupski descriptive in nature and focuses on the potential
Foundation (a list of these websites is included in of various uses of technology for personalizing
the reference section above). teaching and learning and for improving student
learning outcomes. Table 1 below lists the sources
¸¸ R
 eview of websites of selected private and public included in the review and provides information
foundations that provide funding for projects about the research design utilized, key findings,
focused on the use of technology in education, and type of evidence available.
such as the MacArthur Foundation, Bill & Melinda
Gates Foundation, Carnegie Corporation of While there are some studies available that have
New York, W.T. Grant Foundation, Carnegie examined the effectiveness of specific technology
Corporation for the Advancement of Teaching, uses on student learning, very few have addressed
U.S. Department of Education, and the National questions regarding whether those uses are suc-
Science Foundation. cessful for personalizing learning. Addressing these
questions requires complex analyses of outcomes
¸¸ R
 eview of websites of selected schools that use for different student subgroups to examine if specific
student-centered learning. technology-enhanced instructional practices are
successful at reducing existing performance gaps
between these groups.

58
table 1: studies on technology use in support of student-centered learning
included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Barbour, M. K., & Reeves, T. Comparative The research on online learning This paper reviews the
C. (2009). The reality of virtual descriptive shows that it typically benefits literature on online
schools: A review of the litera- study students who have indepen- learning between the
ture. Computers and Education, dent orientations toward years 2004 and 2008.
52(2), 402–416. learning, are highly motivated
by intrinsic sources, and have
strong time-management,
literacy, and technology skills.
Researchers are calling for more
research into the factors that
account for K–12 student suc-
cess in distance education and
virtual school environments,
and more design-research
approaches than traditional
comparisons of student
achievement in traditional and
virtual schools.
Billig, S. H. (2007). Unpacking Research Eight service-learning practices This paper synthe-
what works in service learn- review emerged as predictive of stu- sizes research on
ing: Promising research-based dent learning outcomes, such service learning and
practices to improve student as academic achievement, civic describes practices
outcomes. In: National Youth engagement, acquisition of that are correlated
Leadership Council, Growing leadership skills, and personal/ with improvements
to Greatness 2007. Saint Paul, social development. in student-learning
MN: National Youth Leadership outcomes.
Council.

59
 table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Bouffard, S. (2008). Tapping Comparative Overall, findings from this This paper summarizes
into technology: The role of the descriptive national study suggest that the the results of the analy-
Internet in family–school com- research Internet represents a promising sis of a large national
munications. Cambridge, MA: but largely untapped oppor- data set. Data were
Harvard Family Research Project. tunity for promoting family– taken from the Educa-
school communication. Despite tion Longitudinal Study
the fact that such communica- of 2002 (ELS), a nation-
tion is relatively infrequent at ally representative data-
the current time, it is associated set from the National
with academic benefits. Center for Education
Statistics, which follows
students from 10th
grade into the postsec-
ondary years. Data for
this study was collected
from 14,387 10th
graders. Data were also
collected from 88% of
participants’ parents
and 99% of school
administrators.
Black, P. & William, D. (1998). Research Formative testing raises stan- This paper synthesizes
Assessment and classroom review dards in the classrooms, but research in the field of
learning. Assessment and Evalu- there is room for improvement formative assessment,
ation, 5(1), 7–74. in this area. and builds on the
authors’ previous work.
Caldwell, J. E. (2007). Clickers Review of ARS’s are especially valuable This paper summarizes
in the large classroom: Current research and for teachers of classes with descriptive research and
research and best-practice tips. best practices large numbers of students, best practices on the
CBE—Life Sciences Education, 6. providing them with instant use of clickers in large
feedback on students’ thinking classrooms.
about problems.
Clark, T. (2008). Online learn- Review of This article discusses the poten- This describes examples
ing: Pure potential. Educational descriptive tial benefits of online learning, of the potentials and
Leadership, Reshaping High research and and how educators and policy misconceptions of
Schools, 65(8). policy docu- makers might work toward online learning.
ments realizing that potential.

60
table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
CNA Corporation. (2005). Ford Qualitative Even where implementation This study describes the
PAS Implementation Study research was limited or relatively new, potential impact of the
(2003–2005). Unpublished students who participated Ford PAS curriculum on
report. in Ford PAS classrooms were students.
enthusiastically engaged and
were developing important 21st
century skills and knowledge.
Cramer, M. (2009). Digital Qualitative Teachers at Camino Nuevo cite This article describes
portfolios: Documenting case study many benefits of their digital the implementation
student growth. Horace, 25, portfolio program, including and benefits of the
(1). Available online at: http:// having a positive impact on digital portfolio assess-
www.essentialschools.org/ student achievement, giving ment program at
resources/526 parent and community access Camino Nuevo High
to student work, and preparing School.
students to present themselves
professionally in the real world.
Davis, M. R. (2010). E-Learning Qualitative Online courses are especially This article draws on
seeks a custom fit. Education research suited to provide students with the research literature
Week Digital Directions, 3(2), personalized learning experi- and interviews with
18-19. ences. Virtual schools and researchers in the field
classes use everything from and online education
online data collection to one- providers to describe
to-one virtual interactions with the potential of online
teachers, and can offer more learning for supporting
options for accessing course personalized learning.
material than classes in brick-
and-mortar schools provide.
Dawley, H. (2006). Time-wise, Research This article discusses the rise The article summarizes
Internet is now TV’s equal. review of the Internet as a standard existing research in the
Media Life. Available online at: medium in the home. field in order to portray
http://www.medialifemagazine. the current landscape
com/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view. of Internet media.
cgi?archive=170&num=2581

61
 table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
DiPietro, M., Ferdig, R. E., Black, Qualitative Teaching in online learning This article reports on
E.W., & Preston, M. (2008). research environments is different than best-practices based on
Best practices in teaching K–12 teaching in face-to-face envi- interviews conducted
online: Lessons learned from ronments. The paper concludes with 16 virtual-school
Michigan Virtual School teach- with implications for policy, teachers from the
ers. Journal of Interactive Online research, and practice. Michigan Virtual School
Learning, 7(1), 10–35. (MVS).
Dziuban, C., Hartman, J., & Quasi- Blended learning experiences The article reports the
Moskal, P. (2004). Blended experimental are most beneficial in higher- results of a survey con-
learning . EDUCAUSE Center for education classrooms, and least ducted by the Univer-
Applied Research Research Bul- beneficial for younger students. sity of Central Florida.
letin, 2004(7), 1-12. Available
online at: http://net.educause.
edu/ir/library/pdf/ERB0407.pdf
Education Development Center Qualitative This set of publications This series of reports
(2009 b). Lessons Learned: Inno- research describes Adobe Youth Voices presents findings
vative Exhibits. Newton, MA: (AYV) as having provided the from case studies of
Education Development Center. following benefits in class- the integration of
rooms: AYV in formal and
Education Development Center informal education
(2009 c). Lessons Learned: AYV Generate interest and invest- settings. These cases
Afterschool. Newton, MA: Edu- ment: Hands-on, youth-driven demonstrate various
cation Development Center. projects can engage students approaches that educa-
in learning, and extrinsic goals tors have taken to
Education Development Center can lead to additional invest- make AYV a successful
(2009 d). Lessons Learned: ment and motivation. part of their existing
Integrating AYV into the Class- classes.
room. Newton, MA: Education Plan and support projects:
Development Center. Scaffolding student learning
is important, whether it be
through a series of incremental
projects or by providing models
and examples.

Connect with fellow teachers:

Collaboration among educators
can bring in complementary
skills, enhance educators’ own
learning, and provide a positive
experience for youth.

62
table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Englert, C. S., Zhao, Y., Dun- Quasi- Students in the blended online This study examined
smore, K., Collings, N. Y., & experimental condition outperformed the effectiveness of a
Wolbers, K. (2007). Scaffolding students in the face-to-face web-based writing pro-
the writing of students with condition. gram with 35 elemen-
disabilities through procedural tary grade students
facilitation: Using an Internet- from six special-educa-
based technology to improve tion classrooms across
performance. Learning Disability five special-education
Quarterly 30(1), 9–29. schools. The study
compared student
achievement in blended
online courses with that
in matched face-to-face
classrooms.
Gee, J.P. (2005a). Good video Qualitative Learning is an inherent part of This article summarizes
games and good learning. Phi playing and mastering a digital findings from the
Kappa Phi Forum. 85(2), 33–7. game. The author suggests author’s qualitative
looking at digital games as research on digital
academic learning tools. games and learning.
Gee, J.P. (2005b) Learning by Qualitative Video games can be a power- This article summarizes
design: Good video games as ful learning tool that can help findings from the
learning machines. E-Learning teach and hone a number of author’s qualitative
and Digital Media, 2(1), 5–16. 21st century skills. research on digital
games and learning.
Groff, J., Haas, J., Klopfer, E., Case studies Teacher strategies for the This paper offers sug-
& Osterweil, S. (2009). Using and research successful use of games in the gested practices and
the Technology of Today in the review classroom include: explore the approaches for teachers
Classroom Today. Cambridge, games, partner with a col- using game-based learn-
MA: The Education Arcade, MIT. league, find additional supports. ing and social media in
their classrooms.
Keefe, J. W. & Jenkins, J. M. Case studies This book presents a concep- The authors describe
(2008). Personalized Instruction: and research tual rationale for personalizing best practices based on
The Key to Student Achieve- review instruction, provides twenty a number of ethno-
ment. Pennsylvania: Rowman & working strategies to assist graphic case studies
Littlefield Education. schools in redesigning themselves as well as a review of
for personalization, and cites research in the field of
specific examples of personaliza- personalized learning.
tion in the subject disciplines
and in selected schools.

63
 table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Light, D., Cerrone, M., & Qualitative This paper discusses the pilot The paper draws on the
Reitzes, T. (2009). Evaluation Research program for the School of One authors’ ethnographic
of the School of One Summer program in NYC. The program research and analysis.
Pilot: An Experiment in Individu- drastically changes the role
alized Instruction. New York, of the teacher, while giving
NY: Education Development students more access to digital
Center. technology and online learning
environments.
Long, M. & Jennings, H. (2005). Randomized Students in the blended online This study examined
Does it Work? The Impact of control trial condition outperformed stu- the impact of the
Technology and Professional dents in the face-to-face condi- Pathways to Freedom
Development on Student tion on a researcher-developed electronic fieldtrip as
Achievement. Calverton, MD: multiple-choice test. part of a unit on slavery
Marco International. and the Underground
Railroad. The study
compared student
achievement in a
blended online condi-
tion with that in a
face-to-face condition.
Maloney, J., Peppler, K., Kafai, Qualitative Youth enjoy using Scratch in This paper reports
Y., Resnick, M., & Rusk, N. research informal clubhouse settings. In findings from a review
(2008). Programming by Choice: those settings, the multimedia of 536 Scratch projects
Urban Youth Learning Program- building-block interface of by children and youth
ming with Scratch. Cambridge, Scratch allows young people between the ages of
MA: MIT Media Lab. with no prior experience to 8–18 collected at a Com-
acquire and use programming puter Clubhouse (an
skills and concepts. after-school center) over
an 18-month period.

64
table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Means, B. (2006). Prospects Research This paper reviews research This paper synthesizes
for transforming schools with review relating to two types of research on technology-
technology-supported assess- technology-based assess- supported assessment.
ment. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The ments: accountability-oriented,
Cambridge Handbook of the large-scale assessment, which
Learning Sciences (pp. 505- provides districts with copious
519). New York, NY: Cambridge amounts of student data and
University Press. teacher accountability mea-
sures, and formative assess-
ment, which is recommended
by the learning sciences
community as a way to unearth
student misconceptions and
lead to more in-depth under-
standing of content.
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Mur- Meta-analysis On average, post-secondary This study reports the
phy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. and review of students in online learning results of a meta-anal-
(2009). Evaluation of Evidence- online learn- conditions performed better ysis of 46 experimental
Based Practices in Online ing studies than those receiving face-to- studies comparing
Learning: A Meta-Analysis and face instruction. online and face-to-face
Review of Online Learning learning.
Studies. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Education, Office
of Planning, Evaluation and
Policy Development.
MPR Associates. (2009). Survey Teachers and site coordinators This report describes
2008–09 Evaluation of Ford PAS indicated the program is hav- how sample of users of
Implementation. Unpublished ing a strong impact on the 21st the Ford PAS curriculum
report. century skills the program is perceive its impact on
designed to advance; in par- student learning.
ticular, teachers reported a very
strong positive effect on commu-
nication and problem solving.
O’Dwyer, L. M., Carey, R., Quasi-experi- This study found that students This study examined
and Kleiman, G. (2007). A mental in an online Algebra course the impact of an online
study of the effectiveness of outperformed students in face- Algebra 1 course. The
the Louisiana Algebra I online to-face Algebra courses. study compared student
course. Journal of Research on achievement in blended
Technology in Education 39(3), online courses with that
289–306. in matched face-to-face
classrooms.
65
 table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Penuel, W. R., Boscardin, C. K., Survey study Teachers use clickers as a This study reports
Masyn, K., & Crawford, V. M. tool for checking for student descriptive data about
(2006). Teaching with Student understanding in real time, how teachers are using
Response Systems in Elemen- diagnosing misconceptions, Automated Response
tary and Secondary Educa- displaying responses to trigger Systems in elementary
tion Settings: A Survey Study. discussion, providing formative and secondary
Association for Educational Com- data to guide instruction, and classrooms.
munications and Technology. efficiently administering and
scoring quizzes.
Peppler, K. & Kafai, Y. B. (2007). Ethnographic Creative design in digital media This paper draws on
From SuperGoo to Scratch: study proves beneficial to young ethnographic research
Exploring media creative pro- people, giving them greater flu- done by the authors in
duction in an informal learning ency and flexibility across plat- computer clubhouses.
environment. Journal on Learn- forms, providing an opportunity
ing, Media, and Technology, to explore their own interests
32(2), 149–166. while learning new skills, and
developing a critical eye toward
digital media in the world.
Quillen, I. (2010). E-Learning Expert Synchronous and asynchronous This paper describes
delivery debated. Education interviews means of instruction are no benefits of synchronous
Week, 29(30), 55. longer at theoretical odds, but and asynchronous
each approach has its unique online learning as
benefits. identified by experts on
virtual education.
Ravitz, J. (2009). Introduction: Literature Looking largely at medical This article reviews
Summarizing findings and look- review education, this review outlines three meta-analyses on
ing ahead to a new generation the benefits of project-based Project Based Learning.
of PBL research. Interdisciplinary curricula over traditional teach-
Journal of Problem-Based Learn- ing methods.
ing, 3(1), Article 2.
Rockman et al. (2007). ED Quasi-experi- This study found no significant This study examined
PACE final report. Submitted to mental differences in students’ oral the impact of blended
the West Virginia Department and written Spanish for the online middle school
of Education. San Francisco: blended online and face-to-to Spanish courses offered
Author. face conditions, and a signifi- by the West Virginia
cant advantage of the face-to- Virtual School. The
face condition over the online study compared student
condition for improvements in achievement in blended
students’ writing ability. online courses with that
in matched face-to-face
classrooms.
66
table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. Case studies This book discusses the The authors draw on
(2004). Rules of Play: Game authors’ theories on game- their own experiences in
Design Fundamentals. Cam- based learning the field as well as look
bridge, MA: MIT Press. at a number of case
studies throughout.
Smith, R., Clark, T., & Blomeyer, Experimental No significant improvement This paper is a synthesis
R. L. (2005). A Synthesis of research in student learning was found of the results of eight
New Research on K–12 Online as a result of online learn- studies sponsored by the
Learning. Naperville, IL: Learning ing. However, there are many North Central Regional
Point Associates. important implications for fur- Education Laboratory
ther research of online learning. (NCREL) in 2004.
SPEC Associates (2006). Ford Case study Ford PAS can help prepare This study reports
Partnership for Advanced Stud- students for postsecondary qualitative data about
ies at the Advanced Technol- education and refine career the potential impact of
ogy Academy. Dearborn, MI: aspirations, as well as improve the Ford PAS curriculum
Advanced Technology Academy. cognitive skills such as research, on students.
problem-solving, and interper-
sonal skills.
SRI International (2009). The Qualitative Anecdotal evidence from case This paper draws on
Power of Project Learning with research studies of classrooms using a broad international
ThinkQuest. Menlo Park: CA: ThinkQuest suggests that research base and
SRI International. the use of this online learn- case studies of actual
ing environment can results classroom projects sup-
in improved outcomes for ported by ThinkQuest
students. These include critical to illustrate both the
thinking, creativity, teamwork, theory and practice of
cross-cultural understanding, 21st century teaching
communication, technology and learning.
skills, and self-direction.
Strobel, J. & van Barneveld, Research Project-based learning was This paper synthesizes
A. (2009). When is PBL More synthesis superior when it comes to meta analyses compar-
Effective? A Meta-synthesis of long-term retention, skill ing project-based learn-
Meta-analyses Comparing PBL development and satisfaction ing to more traditional
to Conventional Classrooms. of students and teachers, while instruction.
Interdisciplinary Journal of traditional approaches were
Problem-based Learning 3(1). more effective for short-term
Retrieved March 3, 2011 from retention as measured by stan-
http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/ dardized board exams.
vol3/iss1/4

67
 table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Sun, K., Lin, Y., & Yu, C. (2008). Quasi-experi- Students in the blended online This study examined the
A study on learning effect mental condition outperformed impact of a virtual web-
among different learning styles students in the face-to-face based science lab. The
in a web-based lab of science condition. study compared student
for elementary school students. achievement in blended
Computers & Education 50(4), online courses with that
1411–22. in matched face-to-face
classrooms.
Thissen-Roe, A., Hunt, E., Qualitative This paper discusses the devel- This paper describes
& Minstrell, J. (2004). The research opment of an online assessment the development of the
DIAGNOSER project: Combin- system based on a facet-based Diagnoser tool while
ing assessment and learning. instruction model. In one study, exploring its theoretical
Behavioral Research Methods, students who used Diagnoser and pedagogical foun-
Instruments, and Computers outperformed their peers on dations.
36(2) 234-240. state level tests by 14%.
Tierney, W. G., Bailey, T., Quasi- Technology can play a role in The recommendations
Constantine, J., Finkelstein, N., experimental helping students navigate the for practice outlined
& Hurd, N. F. (2009). Helping research search for the right college in this paper are based
Students Navigate the Path to and manage the application on a review of col-
College: What High Schools Can process. lege access programs,
Do: A Practice Guide. (NCEE school reforms, and
#2009-4066). Washington, DC: policy interventions that
National Center for Education have shown promise
Evaluation and Regional Assis- in increasing access to
tance, Institute of Education college, particularly for
Sciences, U.S. Department of low-income and first-
Education. generation students.
Trotter, A. (2010). Online Qualitative Using online providers for The article describes
Options for Credit Recovery research credit-recovery courses allows current options for and
Widen. Education Week, 38, students to receive remedial uses of online credit-
12-13. instruction tailored to their recovery courses.
needs, and eases the burden
on schools that may not have
the resources to provide their
students sufficient opportunity
for credit recovery.

68
table 1 CONTinueD: studies on technology use in support of student-centered
learning included in the review

RESEARCH
STUDY KEY FINDING(S) TYPE OF EVIDENCE
DESIGN
Wagner, T (2008). The Global Case studies The author describes many The author draws on a
Achievement Gap: Why Even and research problems with the national wide range of research
Our Best Schools Don’t Teach review education landscape in the on US education policy
the New Survival Skills Our United States and points to a as well as a number of
Children Need—And What We number of innovative schools case studies.
Can Do About It. Basic Books, that are successfully reimagin-
New York. ing public education, including
High Tech High.
Watson, J. (2009). Keeping Pace Qualitative In addition to the spread of This paper reports
with K–12 Online Learning: A research online learning programs to results of a survey on
Review of State-Level Policy and most states across the country, the state of online
Practice. Evergreen, CO: Ever- the majority of existing online education throughout
green Education Group. programs show considerable the United States.
growth in the number of
students they are serving. Forty
percent of the online programs
responding to a recent survey
reported annual growth of over
25 percent in the 2006–2007
school year, and half of these
programs reported growth of
50 percent or higher.
Wood, C. (2005). The Virtual Review of Virtual schools make available This article describes a
Classroom Redefines Education. research and a world of new courses, from number of examples of
Edutopia. Available online at: practices obscure electives to advanced- virtual schools around
http://www.edutopia.org/online- placement classes, which the United States,
education-virtual-classrooms challenge students intellectually and draws on existing
and open up new doors educa- research.
tionally. Students with a range
of special circumstances (from
health issues to job or family
constraints) don’t have to fall
behind or drop out.
Ysseldyke, J., & Bolt, D. M. Experimental Students showed increased This study shows the
(2007). Effect of technology- study achievement on standardized potential effect of
enhanced continuous progress math tests in classrooms where Accelerated Mathemat-
monitoring on math achieve- teachers used continuous ics, a progress monitor-
ment. School Psychology technology-supported progress ing system, on student
Review, 36(3), 453–467. monitoring to track student work achievement.
and differentiate instruction.

69
 appendix 2
high tech high engage in extended project-based learning, and
High Tech High (HTH) was founded as a charter most of the time those projects are grounded in
school in 2000, serving 200 students from the San community related issues. Often, students are working
Diego area. Since then, HTH has grown into a school on real-world problems, and are able to see the
development organization comprised of a growing impact of their work.
network of K-12 charter schools that serves some
3,500 students and employs 350 faculty and staff The HTH program and curriculum are based around
(Edutopia, 2008; Wagner, 2008). At its inception, three core “design principles,” which pervade every
HTH partnered with the wireless technology com- aspect of the program from pedagogy to facilities.
pany Qualcomm, who donated $100,000 a year The design principles are:
for the first five years of the program. Other than
that, HTH operates its schools with the standard ¸¸ Personalization: Students have faculty advisors,
$6,200-per-student operating budget that the state pursue their interests through project work, and
provides for charter schools (Wagner, 2008). compile and present their work in digital portfolios.
The HTH facilities are designed to foster small-
At HTH all learning is designed to be authentic and group collaboration, with networked wireless
applicable to the real world. For students at HTH, laptops, project rooms, and exhibition space for
that means they are encouraged to utilize their student work throughout the schools.
schools’ wealth of technology, from new media pub-
lishing programs to robotics labs, in order to pursue ¸¸ Adult World Connection: Starting in the 9th
projects about subjects they are passionate about. grade, HTH students might shadow an adult
Students also use their junior year full-semester 8 through a workday, participate in community
hour/week internship to become engaged in work service projects, or attend “power lunches” on
that they are interested in. The leadership at HTH areas of interest with adults from outside the
believes that giving their students the freedom to schools. In 11th grade, students are required to
pursue their passions, and providing them with the complete a semester-long academic internship,
tools to do so in a professional, authentic manner, and in the 12th grade students develop and carry
results in students who are more engaged than out projects that foster learning while focusing
students forced to work on projects of little or no on real-world problems or interests.
interest to them. And engagement through person-
alization “creates ownership...and then the skills ¸¸ C
 ommon Intellectual Mission: All students
you need to succeed in school and life kind of trail at HTH receive a “technical” education, acquir-
along” says the principal. ing real-world career skills, as well as a “college
prep” education. All students are held to the
Design Principles same, performance-based standards, learning
HTH has taken a student-centered approach to just through projects with no focus on test-prep.
about every aspect of their schools’ practices. The
organization’s academic approach is a break from HTH school facilities are designed to reflect and
the traditional industrial model of teachers lecturing embody the HTH design principles. Accounts of
in front of rows of students. At HTH, students school visits often include an impression that the

70
school feels more like a high-tech workspace than a ects result in technology-enabled student products
traditional school building (Wagner, 2008; Edutopia, from blogs to multimedia art to documentary films.
2008). The school buildings all have high ceilings, Sample projects that integrate technology include:
bright colors, comfortable furniture in informal
meeting areas, and lots of windows, both internal ¸¸ In a collaboration of art and science, an art
and external. The walls in the schools’ hallways and teacher, a math teacher, and an engineering
public areas are transparent, allowing someone teacher designed a project for students to create
walking through the school to actually see students interactive, museum-quality exhibits that fit in a
and teachers at work in the seminar rooms and labs. window frame and illustrate a principle of math
or physics. The project was called “Analog Flash
The schools are equipped with Specialty Labs for stu- for Windows” (analog: projects were mechani-
dents to work in a range of sciences from biotech- cal, Flash: projects were similar to digital Flash
nology to robotics. To support team teaching and designs, Windows: projects were displayed in
an integrated curriculum, teams of teachers share actual windows around the school building. The
an office next to the seminar rooms in which they project lasted a whole semester, and students
teach. The walls of the seminar rooms themselves and teachers used an online calendar and digital
are dynamic, and able to be easily reconfigured to weekly check-in to keep track of their work.
support a variety of different projects and exhibition
needs. Student work is exhibited in Gallery Spaces ¸¸ A
 more traditional integrated project was created
throughout the school. These spaces take up much by an English teacher and a multimedia teacher,
of the wall and ceiling space in school hallways and where students used multimedia to expose
common areas. hidden cultural paradigms. Projects ranged from
documentaries to photo essays and video instal-
Use of Technology lations, and covered topics including graffiti, the
The HTH program is both technology-focused, media, and self-mutilation. The students’ finished
with students and teachers learning and using work was displayed at the San Diego Museum of
different technologies in and out of the classroom, Contemporary Art.
and grounded in technology. From the ground
up, technology enables many of the innovative Technology also plays a role in how teachers learn
practices at HTH. and reflect on their own practices at HTH. One
option for teachers preparing for a structured reflec-
At HTH, teachers work in teams and across disci- tion session (in which they sit down with an admin-
plines to construct integrated projects and curricula istrator and have a one-on-one conversation about
in order to ensure that their students are frequently their practice) is to make a video of one of their
taking part in projects that confront real-world issues lessons, pick out a 10-minute segment, and come
and problems. These projects often result in student- up with a question to frame the discussion. One
made products that are presented to an audience of administrator writes that “with video, the teacher
student peers and adults, and are exhibited in the can literally play back the lesson and observe the
school, the surrounding community, or online. While classroom dynamics through fresh eyes, often catch-
not all student work is technology-based, many proj- ing student interactions and conversation they may

71
 have missed. This allows for deeper reflection than completing the program. In other words, similar to
when I simply conduct my observations.” medical residency programs, students learn through
on-the-job training. Candidates who successfully
Assessment complete the course receive California state teach-
Assessment at HTH is seen not as an endpoint in ing credentials. HTH believes that keeping teacher
the learning cycle, but as an “episode of learning,” training and certification in-house would help them
and as such, takes place almost daily in the form of recruit strong teachers and teach them the organiza-
everything from quizzes to peer reviews and oral tion’s design and pedagogical principles. Further, by
presentations. Most assessment is performance- training all their own teachers, HTH eliminates the
based. Students are graded on long-term projects need to orient new teachers, trained elsewhere, to
that culminate in a performance or product, with those principles.
intermediate checkpoints or products assessed along
the way. Rubrics are used to make expectations Student Outcomes
for student work explicit. At the end of a project, HTH schools report sending 100 percent of their
students participate in a Presentation of Learning students to college with 80 percent attending
(POL), where they display, discuss, and reflect on four-year schools, and 27 percent earning technical
their work in their school or at a space in the local degrees in math, science, or engineering (the
community. Audiences at POLs are comprised of national average is 15 percent). As of 2008, more
students, faculty, community members, and experts than half of HTH graduates are first-generation
in the field when possible. POLs are intended to be college students (Wagner, 2008).
community learning events rather than presenta-
tions. According to Rob Riordan, HTH’s “Emperor of quest to learn
Rigor,” the goal of assessment at HTH is to assess Quest To Learn (Q2L) grew out of a collaboration
students’ abilities “to access content, play with it, between the Institute of Play and New Visions for
transform it, synthesize it, and use it, and how to Public Schools. The collaborators were awarded
work with others to do all of that.” HTH students a 2-year planning grant from the MacArthur Founda-
also develop digital portfolios that serve as a record tion, and opened Quest To Learn, a public school
of their work, learning, and projects throughout in New York, with a 6th grade in the fall of 2009.
their academic careers at HTH. Students update their One grade will be added each year until the school
digital portfolios each semester, documenting their has grades 6-12. On average, there are 25 students
learning over time. Consistently good test scores on per class. The school focuses on using new designs
compulsory state examinations and SATs, as well as for learning environments to create a place where
the constant exhibition of student work to parents students engage in rigorous integrated curricula as
and other stakeholders has allowed HTH to maintain they prepare for the demands of the 21st century
an alternative approach to assessment. workplace and world. Because Quest To Learn is a
very new school, there has been little research and
Professional Development documentation of school practices so far. However,
High Tech High takes a unique approach to teacher the school’s website and a number of news articles
professional development. In 2004, in partnership have provided a wealth of information about the
with the University of San Diego, HTH started its school’s pedagogical foundations, as well as some
own teacher-credentialing program, the Teacher details about their curriculum and technology use.
Intern Program. The Teacher Intern program is a
2-year program. It is unique because its candidates Design Principles
teach full time, receiving salary and benefits, while A number of things separate the Quest To Learn

72
model from other middle and secondary school At Quest, a curricular domain is a big idea that calls
models, but the most significant difference is Quest’s on content from two or more traditional subjects.
focus on games as a pedagogical model. Quest For example, the sixth-grade curriculum is broken
eagerly points out that focusing on games does down into 6 domains: The Way Things Work, Code-
not equate to having students playing commercial worlds, Being Me, Being Space and Place, Sports
games. Drawing on research in the learning sciences for the Mind, and Wellness. The Quest website has
and digital media, Quest has constructed a pedagog- thorough descriptions of each domain, as well as
ical philosophy that centers around games, which their respective core values. Figure 1 contains the
they define as rule-based learning systems where school’s description of the Codeworlds domain,
players actively participate. Transposed to a theory which integrates math, English language arts, and
of learning, the game-based pedagogical model at computer programming.
Quest is founded on the principles of game design
to create immersive learning experiences where Figure 1:
students use strategic thinking to make decisions, Wellness is both designed into the curriculum as a
problem solve, seek content knowledge, receive domain and is a constant area of focus for school-
constant feedback, and consider multiple points of wide practice. As a domain, Wellness is intended to
view. The game-based foundation resonates through help Quest students grow individually and as part of
most aspects of the school from a game-based their communities, and develop and make informed
curriculum to assessment, as well as to the school’s decisions concerning their bodies, minds, and emo-
advisory program. tions. The domain draws from such fields as human
sexuality and personal health, nutrition, mindfulness,
The curriculum at Quest is founded on the following interpersonal and group dynamics, conflict mediation,
core principles: and movement.

¸¸ Learning for design and innovation, In practice, the domain teachers work with kids
on 10 week long “missions,” which are narrative-
¸¸ L earning for complexity (systemic driven, challenge-based units that are then divided
reasoning), into a series of smaller “quests.” Each quest revolves
around complex problems students have to learn
¸¸ L earning for critical thinking, how to solve. Solving those problems may require
judgment, and credibility, students to analyze text, build digital games, or do
scientific experiments, among other things.
¸¸ Learning using a design methodology,
The school’s game based-pedagogy is seen in their
¸¸ Learning with technology and smart tools, homeroom/advisory program as well. At Quest,
advisories are called Home Bases, and are made up
¸¸ Prep for college and world of work. of groups of 10 students who meet with their adult
advisor at the beginning and end of each day. Home
Based on these principles, Quest works to design an Base groups not only prepare for and reflect on their
integrated game-based curriculum that meets state school days, they also take part in curriculum-driven,
and national standards while focusing on game- collaborative school-wide group activities, called
design and systems thinking. To achieve this, subject Boss Levels, many of which integrate technology.
areas such as math, science, language arts, and For example, one Boss Level may have all the Home
social studies are blended together into domains. Bases in the school competing to build a Rube

73
 Students also have the

codeworlds
(integrated math/ELA/computer programming)
opportunity to attend the
Mobo Studio afterschool
program at the Institute of
Play. The Mobo Studio is a
Students practice decoding, authoring, manipulating, and unlocking space for students to work
meaning in coded worlds, to meet shared needs or for their own pur- with adults and peers on
poses. Work in this learning context requires students to practice with the digital media projects and
concept of language and literacy across disciplines, from math to ELA to learn skills they can bring
computer programming. Codeworlds draws on games as learning envi- back into the classroom.
ronments that produce meaning through the interpretation of symbolic
codes ordering our world. As students reflect on how the underlying Technology
rules of a system shape expression and communication, they gain experi- As a school founded on the
ence in comprehending the world as a meta-system made up of multiple principles of game-based
systems, each containing a set of values, assumptions, and perspectives. learning and design, Quest
To Learn has a unique
Core Values of the domain: relationship with technol-
¸¸ All codes convey meaning; ogy. While technology is
¸¸ Need for literacy across systems: code is key to that literacy; prevalent throughout the
¸¸ Math is a language that describes the world; school’s curriculum, its role
¸¸ Students will gain literacy in multiple languages; is no different from that of
¸¸ Code is a symbolic system that is predictable, repeatable, other tools that help drive
and interpretable; student learning. Quest’s
¸¸ Code is a material for the representation of ideas; approach to technology
¸¸ Code is a common way of making meaning between people (shared); can be gleaned from the
¸¸ Code is a foundation for innovation; following four technology
¸¸ Code is organized by rule sets; principles:
¸¸ Code is a dynamic system;
¸¸ All language is constructed & can evolve and change; 1 Technology is linked
¸¸ Ordering, sequencing, patterning (novel); directly to curriculum and
¸¸ By manipulating language you can create worlds; learning objectives.

This principle dictates that

the use of technology
Goldberg machine over a number of weeks. Hav- for teaching and learning is teacher driven and
ing gained the content knowledge to accomplish implemented only as it serves to further student
this task in previous missions, and having been understanding.
presented with an assessment rubric, students will
work with each other and their advisor to build 2 Technology adds breadth and depth to educa-
the best machine. At the conclusion of the Boss tional experiences.
Level, a panel of judges will award points to each
Home Base for their design and construction. Similarly, this principle stresses that technology
is implemented only as it serves the purposes of
teaching and learning.

74
3 Technology is integrated with purpose and an Mission Lab staff members are perpetually work-
eye on pedagogy. ing with teachers to help them develop innovative
curriculum that utilizes technology to enhance
This principle speaks to teachers who are think- student understanding.
ing about using technology in their classrooms.
Teachers should always think about technology One unique use of technology at Quest is their
as it serves to help their students’ understanding. Being Me Social Network. Designed by the
Institute of Play, Being Me is intended to support
4 Technology is a tool like any other in the student academic and socio-emotional growth
school. through online collaboration, sharing of work and
ideas, and community building. Through exploring
This principle posits that while students should be and taking on a variety of ideas and social spaces,
comfortable with using different technologies, they designers hope Being Me will help students
should also be able to discern when using a piece of discover and develop their own intellectual and
technology is beneficial and when it is not. In other career interests.
words, “part of being savvy with technology is learn-
ing when it is not needed, as well.” Being Me has similar functions as other social
networking sites students might be familiar with:
Though Quest employs a critical and discerning there is a portfolio space for them to put up and
theoretical approach to technology, the school has share work with the community, an Expertise
built a number of technology tools and programs in Exchange where they can seek out advice and
an effort to ensure that technology is used well. One knowledge from peers, Mission Channels where
such program is the Mission Lab. The Mission Lab is students can share their work through blogs or
a game and curriculum design, program evaluation, audio/video broadcasts, and a data repository that
and assessment space situated in school. The goal of tracks the issues and ideas students are talking
Mission Lab is to give teachers and students access about in the online community.
to experts qua game designers and digital media
specialists who help them plan and work on projects. Another innovative use of technology is the
As per the Q2L website, the four responsibilities of school’s SmallLab, a space that uses digital projec-
the Mission Lab are: tion and motion-capture cameras to provide a
learning space where students can physically
1 Support current and future curriculum interact with teacher-designed curricular content.
development through collaboration with The SmallLab is intended to give students kines-
Quest teachers and content experts; thetic learning experience by having them use
2 Offer professional development for current wireless controllers to interact with the content.
and incoming teachers; We were unable to find a more detailed descrip-
3 Design learning tools and toolkits for use in tion of the SmallLab or examples of its uses. It is
the school and within the Digital Media and currently being integrated into the Codeworlds
Learning Network; domain described above.
4 Undertake research and development around
assessment and student development. Assessment
Assessment at Q2L is performance-based, and
A review of the literature on Q2L has found few may be supplemented by tests. Assessments are
examples of explicit Mission Lab work, though based on New York standards, but push students

75
 to display enduring content knowledge, higher policy briefs, create a more in-depth analysis that
order thinking skills, and appropriate technology must be supplemented with Google Maps to
proficiency. Q2L has developed a list of assess- show the effect of geography on their work, and
ment principles, including but not exclusive to: then presented.

¸¸ A
 ssessment is situated in learning—located Professional Development
in the discourse, actions, and transactions of Q2L has instituted a professional development
individuals, peers, and groups. program, called Studio Q. Teachers at Q2L are
required to participate in this three-year profes-
¸¸ A
 n assessment program should be designed to sional development program, including summer
allow learners to eventually assess themselves. sessions. In Studio Q, teachers work through their
teaching methods and curriculum while constantly
¸¸ A
 ssessments should measure the extent to reflecting on their practice. Every day teachers
which students can innovate within a domain. either have a planning period or a meeting with
their grade-level team or Mission Lab. Q2L has
¸¸ K
 nowledge to be assessed emerges from developed six dimensions for teacher develop-
engaged participation, reasoning, and resolu- ment and evaluation:
tion of Missions and their Quests.
1 S
 ystems-thinker: Teachers understand the
¸¸ A
 ssessment tools support valid inferences architecture of dynamic systems and are able
about learning. Assessment tools must facili- to think systemically.
tate answers to the question: “What does
a particular performance reveal about how 2 P
 ractitioner: Teachers exhibit exemplary
students know, reason with, and use their pedagogical practices in areas such as: dif-
knowledge?” ferentiation, integrating content expertise,
classroom management, communicating with
¸¸ A
 ssessment is dynamic: equitable and inclu- parents, lesson planning, engaging students in
sive, meeting student needs before, during, learning, and maintaining an effective learning
after, and in-between learning experiences. environment.

¸¸ P articipatory assessment requires that expecta- 3 D

 esigner: Teachers co-design, implement, and
tions, co-constructed and delivered criteria, revise game-like curriculum with game design-
and documentation is ‘open source’ for all ers and curriculum directors.
participants.
4 A
 ssessor: Teachers design and implement
For example, in a unit called Spartan Private embedded assessment, use data from assess-
Investigators from the 6th grade ELA/Social Stud- ments to evaluate student learning, make
ies domain, Being, Space and Place, students are adjustments to curriculum based on assess-
assessed through daily online journaling, oral pre- ments, and help students set learning goals.
sentations, the creation of video podcasts, and a
culminating assignment asking students to create 5 Wellness Integrator: Teachers understand
a policy brief they will then present to the class. dynamics among their students and with other
At the end of the course, students are asked to members in the school community. They are
work in groups to put together and revise their able to act on understandings of interpersonal

76
 and group dynamics to address students’ Research
emotional, academic, physical, and nutritional The Parson’s Center for Transformative Media is
needs. serving as a research institution for the Quest To
Learn School. CTM is working to better under-
6 Technology Integrator: Teachers are able stand the connections between digital media,
to seek out, identify, and use technology to games, and learning, while continuously inform-
enhance student learning. ing educators and administrators at Quest about
their findings and implications for teaching and
learning practices.

77
 1250 Hancock Street, Suite 205N | Quincy, MA 02169 | Phone: (781) 348-4200

www.nmefdn.org

78