FERROUS METALS

INTRODUCTION
Ferrous metals
Ferrous metals includes all forms of iron and steel. Iron in its various
forms, including steel, is by far the most important of the metals used
in the construction industry.
Chemical composition and internal structure of ferrous metals are
closely controlled during manufacturing. Therefore, strength and other
mechanical properties can be determined with a high degree of
reliability.
People in the construction field have little control on the quality of iron
or steel. Compared to concrete, of which are partially “manufactured”
during installation at the construction site, there is little that can be
done to improve or harm a ferrous metal product once it leaves the
fabrication shop.
 Historical Background
• Metal as a structural material began with cast iron, used on a 30m
arch span bridge built in England in 1777-1779. A number of cast-iron
bridges were built during 1780-1820 mostly arch shaped with main
girders consisting of individual cast iron pieces forming bars or
trusses.
• Wrought iron began replacing cast iron soon after 1840, the earliest is
the Brittania bridge in Wales built in 1846-1850 made of wrought iron
plates and angles.
• Since 1890, steel has replaced wrought iron as the principal metallic
building material.
• Currently(1989) steels have yield stresses varying from 165 – 690
Mpa.
Cast Iron Pan
Manufacture of Ferrous Metals
 Manufacture of Ferrous Metals
• produce a low grade of iron in a continuously operating furnace called
a blast furnace. These furnaces are about 200 ft high and about 50 ft
in diameter (see figure).
• Iron ore, coke, and limestone are loaded continuously at the top.
• Iron ore is an oxide of iron found in nature mixed with rock or soil
called gangue.
• Coke is produced by heating coal to drive the impurities out. It then
burns with greater heat than coal.
• Burning the coke and supporting the combustion with a strong blast
of hot air melt the iron ore and limestone at a temperature of about
815°C.
The heat melts the iron, frees it of oxygen, and forms carbon monoxide
gas, which imparts carbon to the liquid iron.
 Manufacture of Ferrous Metals
Melting permits separation of iron from the gangue, which combines with
the molten limestone to form slag.
Iron is much heavier than slag, iron flows to the bottom of the furnace and
molten slag floats on the iron. Iron is removed from a tap near the bottom
and slag from a tap slightly higher.
Liquid iron flows into molds and is allowed to solidify into shapes called pigs,
or it is taken in a ladle while still liquid to be refined into steel or a better
grade of iron. In either case, the product of the blast furnace is called pig
iron.
Pig iron contains about 4% carbon, 2 % silicon, 1 % manganese, and 0.05%
sulfur.
Pig iron is not useful for construction because it is weak and brittle, although
it is very hard.
To produce useful iron or steel, a second melting is needed for further
purification.
Pig iron
Wrought Iron
 Manufacture of Cast Iron
• Pig iron is remelted in small furnaces to make the cast metals.
• Chemical composition is controlled by the addition of scrap iron or
steel of various kinds and of silicon and manganese as needed.
• The molten metal flows from the furnace to a ladle from which it is
poured into molds to be formed into useful shapes. This operation is
called casting.
 Manufacture of Cast Iron
• Cast iron is a general term denoting ferrous metals composed
primarily of iron, 2-4% carbon, and silicon, and shaped by being cast
in a mold. They are too brittle to be shaped any other way. The
brittleness is caused by the large amount of carbon present, which
also increases strength.
• Wrought iron is highly refined iron with slag deliberately incorporated
but not in chemical union with the iron. The slag forms one-
directional fibers uniformly distributed throughout the metal.
 White Cast Iron
• White cast iron contains its carbon completely combined with the
iron. A fractured surface appears bright white. The advantages of
white iron over gray iron
• harder and more resistant to wear from abrasion.
• more difficult to machine,
• less resistant to corrosion, more brittle, and more difficult to cast.
• White iron is used in machinery such as crushers, grinders, chutes,
and mixers where resistance to abrasion is critical.
• Tensile strength of 275 Mpa (40 ksi)
 Gray Cast Iron
• Gray cast iron the most widely used type of iron, has a high carbon
content and contains large numbers of graphite flakes. Properties of
gray iron include
• low viscosity when molten (so that fairly intricate castings can be
made),
• excellent machinability,
• high resistance to abrasion, and rather
• poor ductility and toughness
• Tensile strength of 150-400 MPa
 Malleable Cast Iron
• Malleable cast iron is white cast iron that has been annealed. An
annealing heat treatment transforms the brittle structure as the first
cast into the malleable form. Therefore, its composition is similar to
white cast iron, with slightly higher amounts of carbon and silicon.
• Malleable iron, like ductile iron, possesses considerable ductility and
toughness. Like ductile iron, malleable iron also exhibits high
resistance to corrosion and excellent machinability.
 Wrought Iron
Wrought iron consists primary of iron with 1% to 2% slag,
silicon, phosphorus and sulfur.
To produce wrought iron, metalworking companies heat
and bend or work iron multiple times. After heating the
iron, a metalworking company will bend or work it using a
hammer. Next, they’ll reheat the iron, followed by
performing a second round of bending or working.
 Cast Iron vs. Wrought Iron
• Cast iron is made through casting, whereas wrought iron is
made by heating and bending or working iron multiple times.
As a result, most metalworking companies will agree that
cast iron is easier to produce than its wrought iron
counterpart.

• Wrought iron is also stronger than cast iron. Each time

wrought iron is heated and worked, it becomes a little
stronger. Because of its strength, wrought iron is often used
in commercial applications.

• Cast iron is harder than its counterpart. It’s able to resist

deformation under pressure or stress with greater ease than
wrought iron.
 Chemical Composition of Ferrous Metals
Typical Composition %
Metal C Si Mn P S
Cast Steel 0.5-0.9 0.2-0.7 0.5-1.0 0.05 0.05
Gray Cast iron 2.5-3.8 1.1-2.8 0.4-1.0 0.15 0.10
White Cast iron 1.8-3.6 0.5-2.0 0.2-0.8 0.18 0.10
Malleable cast iron 2.0-3.0 0.6-1.3 0.2-0.6 0.15 0.10
Wrought Iron <0.035 0.075-0.15 <0.06 0.10-0.15 .006-0.015
Pure iron 0.015 trace 0.025 0.005 0.025
Pig Iron 3-5 1-4 0.2-1.5 0.1-2.0 0.04-0.10
 Carbon Steel
Pig iron is further oxidized in another furnace at about 1650°C to produce steel.
Most steel is made by the basic oxygen process, electric-arc process, open-hearth
process,or vacuum process. Each has unique features, but in all cases, pig iron, scrap steel,
and sometimes iron ore are melted together with a flux of limestone or lime. The process
is a repetition of the blast-furnace operation with variations. The purpose is the same to
remove impurities. Impurities are removed as gases and in the slag.
Phosphorus and sulfur are reduced to less than 0.05 percent of the steel.
Manganese content is reduced to an amount from 0.2 to 2.0 percent; silicon from 0.01 to
0.35 percent. The final amounts depend on the specifications for the steel. Carbon is the
key element in controlling the properties of ordinary steel called carbon steel. Strength and
hardness increase with anincrease in carbon up to about 1.2percent.Brittleness increases
and ductility decreases as carbon increases. Usually an amount less than 1.2 percent is
specified in order to obtain a product satisfactory in all respects.
Carbon in an amount up to 2 percent is completely soluble in molten iron, and
when cooled, the mixture forms a solid chemical solution. Carbon in greater amounts
forms separate grains of graphite or iron carbide throughout the metal.
Steel is defined as a chemical union of iron and carbon (carbon is, therefore, less
than 2 percent by weight) plus other elements. This definition does not exclude every kind
of iron.
 Pig Iron 4% C

Oxidation using air blast

White Cast Iron

Wrought iron 0.04%C Cast Iron 2% C Grey Cast Iron
Malleable cast Iron

Oxidation

Carbon Steel <1% C

 Carbon Steel
Any added element is considered an alloying element, but when only
the aforementioned five elements are involved, the steel is not considered
an alloy steel. Other elements may be added to impart certain properties to
steel. These are also called alloying elements, and the steel that results is
called alloy steel. Table 5–3 shows the effects of alloying elements.
Steels are identified according to a classification system of the Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Each type of steel is designated by a group of
numbers. The first digit indicates the class of steel. For example,carbon steel
is designated by No.1 and nickel steel by No.2.The next one or two digits
indicate the approximate percentage of the major alloying element for alloy
steels. The last two or three digits indicate the carbon content in hundredths
of a percent. The classification system is outlined in Table 5–4.
 Alloy Steel
SAE Classification System

Carbon Steels 1xxx

Nickel Steels 2xxx

Nickel-Chromium Steels 3xxx

Molybdenum 4xxx

Chromium Steels 5xxx

Chromium-Vanadium Steels 6xxx

Tungsten Steel 7xxx

Tripple Alloy Steels 8xxx

Silicon-Manganese Steels 9xxx

 ASTM Specifications for Various Steel Shapes
Carbon Steels
ASTM Fy Min Yield Fu Tensile Stress Common Usage
Designation Stress ksi, ksi (Mpa)
(Mpa)
A36 36 (250) 58-80 (400-550)

A53 Gr. B 35 (240) 60 (415)

A500 Gr. A 33(228) 45 (310)
Gr. B 42 (290) 58 (400)
Gr. C 46 (317) 62 (427)
A501 36 (250) 58 (400)
A529 Gr. 50 50 () 65-100 ()
Gr. 55 55 70-100
 ASTM Specifications for Various Steel Shapes
High Strength Low Alloy
ASTM Fy, Min. Yield Fu Tensile
Stress ksi, (Mpa) Stress ksi (Mpa)
Designation
A572 Gr. 42 42 60
Gr. 50 50 65
Gr. 55 55 70
Gr. 60 60 75
Gr. 65 65 80
A618 Gr. I & II 50 70
Gr. III 50 65
A913 50 50 60
60 60 75
65 65 80
70 70 90
A992 50-65 65
ASTM Specifications for Various Steel Shapes

Corrosion Resistant High Strength Low Alloy

ASTM Fy, Min. Fu Tensile Stress
Designation Yield ksi (Mpa)
Stress ksi,
(Mpa)
A242 42 63
46 67
50 70
A508 50 70
A847 50 70
ASTM SPECIFICATIONS-BAR SIZE, GRADES, AND TENSILE
Type of Steel Bar Size Grade Min. Yield Min. Tensile
and ASTM Strength Strength psi [Mpa]
Specifications Psi [Mpa]
Billet Steel #3 to #6 40 40,000 70,000
A615 [10 mm to 19 [300] [300] [500]
mm]

#3 to #18 60 60,000 90,000

[10 mm to 57 [420] [420] [620]
mm]

#6 to #18 75 75,000 100,000

[19 mm to [520] [520] [690]
57mm]

Low Alloy Steel #3 to #18 60 60,000 80,000

A706 [10 mm to [420] [420] [550]
57mm]
• Billet steel is made from regular steel that has been
heated until it is malleable enough for shaping by
forging.
• common type-flat bars and reinforcing bars
• This process results in a much stronger metal than
regular steel because it has undergone an intensive
heating process that strengthens its molecular structure.
 Steel Forming Method
The steel may be poured directly from the ladle into molds to make
castings. Steel castings are made the same way and used for the same
purposes as iron castings. Steel is stronger and tougher, but more expensive.
Most of the steel is poured into ingot molds prior to further shaping.
The ingots are of various sizes and shapes depending on their future use.
Their weight ranges from hundreds of pounds to many tons. They are tall
compared to their cross sections, which are square or rectangular. A
common size is about 6 ft tall with a cross section 2 ft by 2 ft and a weight
over 4 tons. An ingot is cooled to a uniform temperature throughout in a
soaking pit, which is a furnace where the steel temperature is allowed to
decrease to about 1260°C.It is then taken to a mill to be given its final shape.
Steel properties are influenced to a great extent by the mechanical
operations that change an ingot of steel into a useful shape.
 Hot Working (1090°C)

Die
roller

roller
Drawing
Rolling
 Hot Working

Die

Ram

Extrusion Forging
 Hot Working
Rolling- compressing and shaping an ingot into a useful shape by squeezing it
through a succession of rollers, each succeeding set of rollers squeezing the
material smaller in cross section and closer to the final shape. The piece being
rolled becomes longer and wider as it is compressed. It may be made narrower by
cutting or by rolling after turning 90° so that the rolling reduces the width.
A wide variety of cross sections useful for construction of buildings and
bridges can be rolled in long pieces by means of specially shaped rollers.
Flat sheets can be rolled by rollers of a constant diameter.
Corrugated sheets can be rolled from flat sheets by using corrugated
rollers.
Hot rolling usually precedes cold rolling until the steel is close to its final
shape. Hot rolling is usually the first step in reducing the size of an ingot prior to
extruding, drawing, or forging.
Hot Rolled shapes
Hot Rolled shapes
 Cold Working
Many metals and alloys can be cold worked, shaped at temperatures
below the recrystallisation temperature of the alloy. The metal work
hardens and its yield point is raised. For pure metals and some alloys it
is the only way of increasing the yield strength.
Cold rolling is extensively used to produce
• sheet material,
• high-strength wire, cables, is cold drawn by pulling through a
tapered die.
• Metal sheets can be shaped into cups, bowls or motor car body
panels by deep drawing or stretch forming.
 Cold Working
Welding. All welding involves essentially the same sequence of
operations at the joint. The material is heated locally to its melting
temperature, additional metal may or may not be added and the joint
is then allowed to cool naturally. Whatever the material or process all
welds should comply with the two following ideal requirements:
Brazing, soldering and gluing. Joining by means of a thin film of a
material which has a melting temperature lower than that of the
parent material and which, when melted, flows into the joint, often by
capillary action, to form a thin film which subsequently solidifies. A
good brazed or soldered joint should have a strength that is not too
different from that of the parent material.
 Cold Working
Riveting. The hot rivet is hammered into prepared holes. As it cools it
contracts and develops a tensile stress which effectively locks the
members together.
High-strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts used in structural steelwork
combine both aspects, the nut is tightened to place the bolt into
tension, and this tensile pre-stress acts in the same way as the tensile
stress in a rivet.
 Cold Working

Shearing Bending
 Terminologies
• An ingot is a mass of metal that has been cast into a size and
shape (such as a bar, plate, or sheet) that is convenient to
store, transport, and work into a semi-finished or finished
product. The term also refers to a mold in which metal is so
cast. Steel ingots range in size from small rectangular blocks
weighing a few pounds (or kilograms) to huge, tapered,
octagonal masses weighing more than 500 tons (450 metric
tons).
Phases of Ferrous Metals
 Crystal Structures
Metal ions tend to pack as closely as possible in order to achieve
as high a density as possible. This requirement means that most metals
have, at any given temperature, one of only three crystal structures.
Metals crystallising in the above forms are:
• fcc – aluminium, copper, nickel, iron (above 910°C), lead, silver, gold;
• hcp – magnesium, zinc, cadmium, cobalt, titanium;
• bcc – iron (below 910°C), chromium, molybdenum, niobium,
vanadium.
Changes from one structure to another, brought about by changes of
temperature, are of fundamental importance to metallurgical practice.
For example, the change from fcc to bcc as the temperature of iron is
reduced through 910°C forms the foundation of the metallurgy of steel.
 Crystal Structures

Close packed hexagonal structure

Crystal Structures

Face centered cubic structure

 Crystal Structures

Body-centered cubic structure

 Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Eutectic
Y X

C B
A
Eutectoid
 The Fe–C diagram
• At lower carbon contents, less than ≈1 per cent, at temperatures below
910°C, pure Fe forms into body-centered cubic crystals, known as ferrite.
• At higher temperatures, the crystals have face centered cubic structures
and are known as austenite.
• Up to 2%C can dissolve in austenite at 1150°C, but this rapidly reduces and
cementite (iron carbide) Fe3C is precipitated as the temperature falls to
723°C, at which a maximum of 0.8 per cent carbon can dissolve in
austenite.
• Almost no carbon will dissolve in ferrite.
• Transitions from austenite to lower temperature forms of the alloys give
rise to a part of the diagram that is reminiscent of a eutectic diagram.
• eutectoid (eutectic like)-transitions from one solid condition to another
solid condition
 The Fe–C diagram
• Hypoeutectoid steel – carbon steel containing < 0.8% carbon
• High ductility and toughness
• Used as structural steel
• Hypereutectoid steel – carbon steel containing > 0.8% carbon
• Higher strength, hardness and wear resistance
• Low ductility (elongation < 5%)
• Cast irons have carbon contents usually above 2 per cent.
• Products of solidification are iron (Fe) and iron carbide (Fe3C),
sometimes Fe and graphite, and sometimes Fe, Fe3C and graphite.
 The Fe–C diagram
• Consider the alloy X at 1000°C (Fe-C diagram). It is fully austenitic; on
cooling to the point A some Fe3C is precipitated and the composition
of the austenite in equilibrium with the Fe3C is given by point B.
• Similarly, on cooling alloy Y from 1000°C to say 750°C, ferrite is
precipitated and the composition of the austenite in equilibrium with
ferrite is at C.
• At 723°C, we have the eutectoid point and the austenite contains
0.8%C.
• Further cooling causes the austenite to decompose into a mixture of
ferrite and Fe3C. It consists of alternating lamellae (lathes) of Fe and
F3C, arranged in colonies within which the lamellar are nearly parallel.
Mixture is known as pearlite.
 The Fe–C diagram
Eutectic-low melting point (1147°C)
Eutectoid-723°C
Eutectic composition – composition of a mixture of two liquid materials
which has a freezing point lower than any other structure of the same
two materials.
Ex. For the salt water mixture, the eutectic composition is 23.5%
salt 76.5% water.
Melting point of pure salt : 801°C
Melting point of pure ice : 0°C
Eutectic temperature : -21 °C
 Ferrites

A ferrite is a ceramic material made by mixing and firing iron(III)

oxide (Fe2O3, rust) with one or more additional metallic elements,
such as manganese, nickel, and zinc. Fe2O3 + ZnO → ZnFe2O4
Ferrite – α-iron
• body centered cubic structure
• the solubility of carbon in ferrite is very small (<0.025%)
• Tensile strength < 45 ksi
• Ferromagnetic at temperature below 768°C
 Ferrite powder

They are used to make permanent magnets for applications such as refrigerator magnets, loudspeakers,
and small electric motors .
 Pearlite
Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and cementite forming distinct layers or
bands in slowly cooled carbon steels. Pearlite is an iron alloy that
contains around 88% ferrite and 12% cementite.
Pearlite is known for being tough and it is used in a variety of
applications, including: cutting tools, high-strength wires, knives,
chisels, nails, pearlite.
pearlite
 Cementite/ledeburite
Cementite (or iron carbide) is a compound of iron and carbon, more
precisely an intermediate transition metal carbide with the formula Fe3C. By
weight, it is 6.67% carbon and 93.3% iron. Very hard non-ductile (very weak by
itself)

In carbon steel, cementite precipitates from austenite as austenite

transforms to ferrite on slow cooling, or from martensite during tempering.

ledeburite is a mixture of 4.3% carbon in iron and is a eutectic mixture

of austenite and cementite e.g. austenite surrounded by cementite.
Cementite (iron carbide Fe3C)
 Graphite

• Graphite is a crystalline form of the element carbon. It consists of

stacked layers of graphene. Graphite occurs naturally and is the most
stable form of carbon under standard conditions.
• Cast-irons containing graphite are relatively soft and easy to machine.
• Cast-irons containing no graphite but with all the carbon as Fe3C are
very hard and wear resistant e.g. earth moving machinery.
 Phase Changes in Pure Iron

910 °C 1399 °C 1538 °C

Temp
Body Face Body
centered centered centered Liquid
cubic cubic cubic
(Ferrite) (austenite) δ iron
 Austenite –γ-iron
Austenite –γ-iron
• Austenite is gamma-phase iron (γ-Fe), a solid solution of iron
and alloying elements.
• Face-centered cubic
• Stable structure between 910°C and 1399°C
• Soft and ductile and well suited for fabrication process
• Maximum solubility of carbon = 2%
• Not ferromagnetic
• The eutectoid composition of austenite is approximately 0.8% carbon;
• hypoeutectoid steel(<0.8%C) will contain a corresponding proportion of
relatively pure ferrite crystallites that do not participate in the eutectoid
reaction and cannot transform into pearlite.
• hypereutectoid steels(>0.8%C) will form cementite before reaching the
eutectoid point.
• The proportion of ferrite and cementite forming above the eutectoid point
can be calculated from the iron/iron—carbide equilibrium phase diagram
using the lever rule.
Austenite –γ-iron
 Martensite
Martensite is formed in carbon steels by the rapid cooling
(quenching) of the austenite form of iron at such a high rate that
carbon atoms do not have time to diffuse out of the crystal
structure in large enough quantities to form cementite (Fe3C).
 Heat Treatment
The process of heating and cooling for the purpose of obtaining certain
desirable characteristics.
• Quenching – rapid cooling from an elevated temperature by contact
with liquid, gases or solids.
ex. austenite to martensite
• Tempering – process of heating martensite to a temperature below
the eutectoid temperature for sufficient time to produce tempered
martensite.
martensite ferrite + carbide (tempered martensite)
• Spherodizing –heating to temperature slightly below the eutectoid
temp. to produce a rounded form of carbide in the structure
pearlite spheroidite
 Heat Treatment
• Full annealing – heating the steel to austenite range and cooling
slowly
austenite coarse pearlite
• Process annealing – heating the steel to temp. below the eutectoid
temp to remove strain hardening and increases ductility.
cold worked steel more ductile steel
• Normalizing – heating to austenite range and air cooling
austenite fine pearlite
• Hardening- a process of increasing the hardness of steel
carbon steel heating austenite quenching martensite
 Heat Treatment

• Case hardening- a surface treatment process to harden the surface

layer or case of steel. Chemical composition of the surface layer is
altered in this process.
• Surface hardening – a heat treatment process to harden the surface
of steel without changing the composition of the surface layer.
 Sample Problem 1
• A (0.8%-99.2%) carbon-iron of eutectoid composition cools down to
below the eutectoid temp. Determine the % composition of carbide
and ferrite.

0.8 − 0.025
% "#$%&'( = = 0.117 ≈ 12%
6.667 − 0.025

6.667 − 0.8
% 4($$&5( = = 0.883 ≈ 88%
6.667 − 0.025
 Sample Problem 2
A 0.60% - 99.4% carbon-iron alloy is cooled down from elevated temp.
a.) At the temp. slightly above the eutectoid temp., the two phases are
(1) Ferrite (0.025% C) and (2) austenite (0.8% C)

0.8 − 0.6
%7 = = 0.258 = 25.8%
0.8 − 0.025

0.6 − 0.025
%8 = = 0.742 = 74.2%
0.8 − 0.025
 Sample Problem 2
b.) at temp below the eutectoid temp, the γ of eutectoid composition
transforms into pearlite, therefore
% :(#$;&5( = 74.2%
Note: The amount of pearlite present is equal to the amount of
eutectoid austenite transformed.
6.667 − 0.6
<=5#; % 7 = = 0.913 = 91.3%
6.667 − 0.025

0.6 − 0.025
<=5#?; % "#$%&'( = = 0.087 = 8.7%
6.667 − 0.025
 Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials

In the Charpy impact test, a notched specimen is abruptly subjected to bending stress. The
specimen is usually 55 mm long and has a square cross-section with an edge length of 10 mm. The notch
in the middle has a V-shaped geometry (in special cases also U-shaped). The notch provides a defined
predetermined breaking point, which generates a triaxial stress state in the notch base. The notched
specimen is placed into the support of a pendulum impact testing machine.

A deflected pendulum hammer is then released from a certain height. At the lowest point of the
circular trajectory, the striker of the hammer hits the opposite notch-facing side of the specimen (impact
velocity usually between 5.0 and 5.5 m/s). The sample is fractured by the striker and absorbs part of the
kinetic energy of the hammer. With the remaining residual energy, the hammer swings out to a certain
height. Due to the absorbed kinetic energy through the sample, however, it does not reach its initial
height again.

55 mm

10 mm
45°

2 mm
R=0.25mm
V notch

Charpy (Simple-Beam) Impact Test Specimens, V-Notch and U-Notch

Very brittle specimens, on the other hand, break almost without deformation and therefore
require only a low deformation energy. The pendulum hammer swings almost at the initial level. Such a
comparison between a tough and brittle fracture behavior is only possible if identical specimen
geometries are used.
 The deformation energy required for fracturing the specimen is called notch impact energy :
specimens with V-notch. The notch impact energy can therefore be determined from the difference
between the potential energy of the pendulum hammer at the beginning and the potential energy at
the end.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ)

Where:
m = mass of the pendulum hammer (kg)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
H=initial height (m) = 𝑆(1 − cos 𝛽)
h = final height (m) = 𝑆(1 − sin 𝛼)
S = length of the pendulum distance to the center of strike,m,
β = angle of fall,
α = angle of rise.

impact velocity, 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ

The notch impact energy indicates the energy required to fracture a specimen and is therefore a
measure of the toughness of a test specimen! Tough samples have higher notch impact energy values
than brittle samples!

2. Izod Impact test

The Izod impact test is similar to the Charpy test in that a weighted pendulum hammer strikes a
test specimen containing a V-shaped notch. An Izod impact testing apparatus — which is essentially
identical to a Charpy impact testing machine — is used to determine Izod impact strength. The primary
differences between the Izod and Charpy impact tests are the size of the test specimen, how it is
restrained, and which side is struck by the pendulum hammer. The test specimen in the Izod test is fixed
vertically on only one end, and the surface facing the notched surface is the surface struck by the
hammer, in contrast to the Charpy test, for which the specimen is fixed at both ends and is struck on the
side away from the notched surface. The test procedure for the Izod test is otherwise identical to the
Charpy test. The test specimen is first prepared and mounted into the machine. Then, the pendulum is
raised to a specified height and released to strike the upper tip of the specimen.

75 mm

10 mm
45°
28 mm

2 mm
R=0.25mm 8 mm
V notch

Izod (Cantilever-Beam) Impact Test Specimens, V-Notch

 NOTE 1—All dimensional tolerances shall be ±.05 mm unless otherwise specified.
NOTE 2—The clamping surfaces of A and B shall be flat and parallel within 0.025 mm.
NOTE 3— Surface finish on striker and vise shall be 2 µm (Ra).
NOTE 4—Striker width must be greater than that of the specimen being tested.
FIG. A1.4 Izod (Cantilever-Beam) Impact Test

The Izod test, governed by ASTM D256, is most commonly used for thermoplastics. However, it
can also be used for metals. Like the Charpy test, the Izod test is used to determine a material’s
toughness and its ductile-to-brittle transition temperature.

Cast Iron Specimen Steel Specimen

Aluminum Alloy Specimen
 METHODS OF DETERMINING YIELD STRENGTH

Offset Method—To determine the yield strength by the offset method, it is necessary to secure data (autographic
or numerical) from which a stress-strain diagram may be drawn.

n
YS offset=%
r
Stress

0m=Specified offset
0 m Strain

Fig. 1. Offset Method 1

• Then on the stress-strain diagram (Fig. A) lay off Om equal to the specified value of the offset,
• draw mn parallel to OA, and thus locate r, the intersection of mn with the stress-strain diagram
(Note 36).
• In reporting values of yield strength obtained by this method, the specified value of offset used
should be stated in parentheses after the term yield strength.

Ex: Yield strength (offset 0.2%)= 360 MPa [52000 psi]

7.7.2 Extension-Under-Load (EUL) Method—Yield strength by the extension-under-load method may be

determined by:

(1) using autographic or numerical devices to secure stress-strain data, and then analyzing this data (graphically or
using automated methods) to determine the stress value at the specified value of extension, or

(2) using devices that indicate when the specified extension occurs, so that the stress the occurring may be
ascertained (Note 34). Any of these devices may be automatic. This method is illustrated in Fig. 22. The stress at the
specified extension shall be reported as follows:

Yield strength (EUL= 0.5%)= 52000 psi

n
YS (EUL= 0m%
r
Stress

0m=Specified Extension Under the Load

0 Strain m

Fig. 2. Extension under the Load 1

 UYS

Stress

0 Strain

FIG. 3 Stress-Strain Diagram Showing Upper Yield Strength

Corresponding with Top of Knee

YPE

UYS
Stress

LYS

0 Strain

FIG. 4. Stress-Strain Diagram Showing Yield Point Elongation

(YPE) and Upper (UYS) and Lower (LYS) Yield Strengths

7.8 Yield Point Elongation—Calculate the yield point elongation from the stress-strain diagram or data by
determining the difference in strain between the upper yield strength (first zero slope) and the onset of uniform
strain hardening

Fmax = UYS
Stress

0 Strain

FIG. 6. Stress-Strain Diagram in Which the Upper Yield Strength

is the Maximum Stress Recorded Method
 YS

Stress
inflection

0 Strain

FIG. 25 Stress-Strain Diagram With an Inflection, but No YPE

Non-Ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous metals are metals or alloys that do
not contain iron in appreciable amounts.
Generally more costly than ferrous metals, non-
ferrous metals are used because of desirable
properties such as
• low weight (e.g. aluminium),
• higher conductivity (e.g. copper),
• non-magnetic properties or resistance to
corrosion (e.g. zinc).
Important non-ferrous metals include
• aluminium, copper, lead, tin, titanium, and zinc, and alloys such
as brass.
• Precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum
• rare metals such as
mercury, tungsten, beryllium, bismuth, cerium, cadmium,
niobium, indium, gallium, germanium, lithium, selenium, tan
talum, tellurium, vanadium, and zirconium are also non
ferrous.
• Non-ferrous metals are usually refined through electrolysis.
 Ferrous vs. Non-Ferrous
Differences in properties from ferrous metals:
• Properties are less affected by heat treatments
• More corrosion resistant
• Lower modulus of elasticity
• Lower fatigue strength
• Mostly used in alloy form
 Common Non-Ferrous Metals
1. Copper –
• High electric conductivity
• Soft and ductile
• High resistance to atmospheric corrosion
• Can be work hardened
Copper alloys:
• Brass – 65%-70% copper, 35-30% zinc; higher tensile strength and hardness
with little reduction in ductility.
usage: plumbing
• Bronze - <20% tin, > 80% copper; slightly higher tensile strength and
hardnerss
 Common Non-Ferrous Metals
Aluminum Bronze- 5-10% aluminum, 90% copper, some iron
• High tensile strength and hardness
• Low ductility
Usage: condenser tubing
Beryllium Copper – 2% Beryllium, 98% Copper
• Most effective alloy of copper
• Great strength while retaining the desirable properties of copper
usage: springs
 Common Non-Ferrous Metals
2. Aluminum –
• Soft and ductile
• High electrical conductivity
• Low density (2.7 g/cm3) compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for iron
• High resistance to atmospheric corrosion
Alloy: 2014 4.5% Cu, some silicon, magnesium and manganese
3. Lead –
• High specific gravity (11.36)
• Malleable
• Low endurance limit
• Good corrosion and acid resistance
Usage: Solder – 95%Pb, 3% Sn, 32% Ag
Ball bearing – 85% Cu, 5% Sn, 5% Zn, 5% Pb
 Common Non-Ferrous Metals
4. Zinc –
• Brittle at room temp.
• Can be work hardened
• Resistant to corrosion in moist air
usage: galvanizing of steel
5. Nickel
• High strength and ductility
• Resistant to corrosion at elevated temp.
Monel metal – 66% nickel, 28% copper, small amounts of iron,
manganese and aluminum
• Very ductile and tough
• High tensile strength at low and high temp.
• High resistance to corrosive liquids
 Alloying Elements of Steel
• Chromium- combines with carbon and iron to form double carbide.
Corrosion resistant
e.g. low chromium alloy – 1-2% Cr. 1% C
stainless steel – 10-27% Cr.
• Nickel – adds strength with little loss in ductility. High resistance to
corrosion at high temp.
e.g. high temp. alloy – 25-35% N
• Tungsten – forms hard stable carbide
- increases strength at high temp.
- too brittle for structural purposes
e.g. cutting tool
 Alloying Elements of Steel
• Molybdenum- hardening agent in steel; increases tensile strength at
high temp.
• Silicon- combines with carbon to form hard carbide. Increases elastic
strength without loss in ductility.
• Manganese – combines with carbon to form Mn3C; increases
hardness and resistance to abrasion without loss of ductility; helps to
eliminate harmful components in the production of steel.
 Alloy Steel
SAE Classification System
Carbon Steels 1xxx
Nickel Steels 2xxx
Nickel-Chromium Steels 3xxx
Molybdenum 4xxx
Chromium Steels 5xxx
Chromium-Vanadium Steels 6xxx
Tungsten Steel 7xxx
Tripple Alloy Steels 8xxx
Silicon-Manganese Steels 9xxx
 Aluminum-Copper Phase Diagram
• useful for precipitation strengthening in Al-Cu alloys.
• The amount of copper present in an alloy is plotted on the x-
axis. The phase fields of interest are the Al, θ, and Al+θ phase
fields on the left hand side.
• For precipitation strengthening an Al-Cu alloy, this phase
diagram indicates the minimum temperature to which an alloy
must be heated to put all the copper in solution.
• The maximum amount of copper that can contribute to
precipitation strengthening is (5.45 %) that can go into solid
solution in the aluminum.
Aluminum-Copper Phase Diagram
Silver-Copper Phase Diagram
 Corrosion of Metals
Disintegration of metals by surrounding media such as acids, bases,
brines, oxygen.
• Direct chemical reaction
!
1. Rusting: !" + $" + %" & → !" &% "
"
→ !"& + %" O
2. Corrosion by acids or alkalines
!" + 2%*+ → !"*+" + %"
 Corrosion of Metals
• Electrolytic (or galvanic) corrosion
Simple Galvanic corrosion reaction

anode
Acidic

cathode
solution

Zn Cu

• At the anode
,- → 2" + ,-## (/$"0 1-2$ 0$+321$-)
2%" 0 → 2&%$ + 2%#
,-## + 2&%$ → ,- &% "
 Corrosion of Metals
At the cathode:
#
1
2% + &" + 2" → %" &
2
General Rule:
When two metals are in contact with each other, the more active
metal will tend to corrode.
Measurement of reaction potentials

Metals Au Pt Cu Sn Ni Fe Zn Ca
Potentials +1.5 +1.2 +0.34 -0.14 -0.24 -0.44 -0.76 -2.84
Comp. to
hydrogen
More Noble More Active
 Brass rivet
steel

Steel becomes anode

Brass becomes cathode
 Corrosion protection
• Passivation-using the corroded metal as a protective shield against further
corrosion
e.g. aluminum aluminum oxide
chromium chromium oxide
• Organic coating – using paints or varnishes as protective layer
• Metallic coating – coating with a thin layer of stable metal or metal used as
sacrificial anode
e.g. galvanized steel
• Use an active metal bar as a sacrificial anode
e.g. zinc bar in steel storage tank
• Use inhibitor in the electrolyte (liquid)
• Use metals which are close in reaction potentials
• Use noble metals
• Provide insulation between different metals
ESC 36 Testing of Materials 1st Semester SY: 2023-2024
Section:________
Group:_____________

Laboratory No.4
Tension Testing of Structural Reinforcing Bars
Scope

These test methods cover the tension testing of metallic materials in any form at room
temperature, specifically, the methods of determination of yield strength, yield point elongation, tensile
strength, elongation, and reduction of area.

The gauge lengths for most round specimens are required to be 5D for E8M. Room temperature
shall be considered to be 10 to 38°C unless otherwise specified.

Tension tests provide information on the strength and ductility of materials under uniaxial
tensile stresses. This information may be useful in comparisons of materials, alloy development, quality
control, and design under certain circumstances.

Terminology

discontinuous yielding —in a uniaxial test, a hesitation or fluctuation of force observed at the onset of
plastic deformation, due to localized yielding.

elongation after fracture —the elongation measured by fitting the two halves of the broken specimen
together.

elongation at fracture—the elongation measured just prior to the sudden decrease in force associated
with fracture.

lower yield strength, LYS —in a uniaxial test, the minimum stress recorded during discontinuous yielding,
ignoring transient effects.

reduction of area—the difference between the original cross-sectional area of a tension test specimen
and the area of its smallest cross section.

tensile strength—the maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of sustaining.

Discussion—Tensile strength is calculated from the maximum force during a tension test carried to
rupture and the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.

uniform elongation—the elongation determined at the maximum force sustained by the test piece just
prior to necking or fracture, or both. Uniform elongation includes both elastic and plastic elongation.

upper yield strength—in a uniaxial test, the first stress maximum (stress at first zero slope) associated
with discontinuous yielding at or near the onset of plastic deformation.

yield point elongation—in a uniaxial test, the strain (expressed in percent) separating the stress-strain
curve’s first point of zero slope from the point of transition from discontinuous yielding to uniform strain
hardening. If the transition occurs over a range of strain, the YPE end point is the intersection between

(a) a horizontal line drawn tangent to the curve at the last zero slope and
ESC 36 Testing of Materials 1st Semester SY: 2023-2024
Section:________
Group:_____________
(b) a line drawn tangent to the strain hardening portion of the stress-strain curve at the point of
inflection. If there is no point at or near the onset of yielding at which the slope reaches zero, the
material has 0 % YPE.

yield strength, YS or Sy [FL–2], n—the engineering stress at which, by convention, it is considered that
plastic elongation of the material has commenced. This stress may be specified in terms of
(a) a specified deviation from a linear stress-strain relationship,
(b) a specified total extension attained, or
(c) maximum or minimum engineering stresses measured during discontinuous yielding.

Apparatus

Testing Machines—Machines used for tension testing shall conform to the requirements of
Practices E4. The forces used in determining tensile strength and yield strength shall be within the
verified force application range of the testing machine as defined in Practices E4.

Test Specimens

For round bar, test specimens having the full cross-sectional area of the bar shall be used
wherever practicable. When testing bar having a diameter of 4 mm or larger, a gauge length equal to five
times the diameter shall be used when following E8M unless otherwise specified. The total length of the
specimens shall be at least equal to the gauge length plus the length of material required for the full use
of the grips employed.

Dimensions [mm] of Test Specimens

Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3
G-Gauge length 62.5 62.5 62.5
D-Diameter 6.0 12.5 12.5
R-Radius of fillet 10 10 10
A-Length of reduced section 75 75 75
L-Overall length 225 225 225
B-Length of end section 75 75 75
C-Diameter of end section 10 16 20

Procedures

1. Preparation of the Test Machine—Upon startup, or following a prolonged period of machine

inactivity, the test machine should be exercised or warmed up to normal operating temperatures to
minimize errors that may result from transient conditions.
ESC 36 Testing of Materials 1st Semester SY: 2023-2024
Section:________
Group:_____________
2. To determine the cross-sectional area of a test specimen, measure the dimensions of the cross
section at the center of the reduced section. For referee testing of specimens less than 5 mm [0.188 in.]
in their least dimension, measure the dimensions where the least cross-sectional area is found.

2. Measure and record the cross-sectional dimensions of tension test specimens nearest 0.02
mm.

3. The gauge length for the determination of elongation shall be in accordance with the product
specifications for the material being tested. Gauge marks shall be stamped lightly with a punch, scribed
lightly with dividers or drawn with ink as preferred. For material that is sensitive to the effect of slight
notches and for small specimens, the use of layout ink will aid in locating the original gauge marks after
fracture.

4. For materials where the specified elongation is 3 % or less, measure the original gauge length
to the nearest 0.05 mm prior to testing.

5. For specimens with reduced sections, gripping of the specimen shall be restricted to the grip
section, because gripping in the reduced section or in the fillet can significantly affect test results.

6. The testing machine shall be operated such that the rate of stress application in the linear
elastic region is between 1.15 and 11.5 MPa/s [10 000 and 100 000 psi/min]. The speed of the testing
machine shall not be increased in order to maintain a stressing rate when the specimen begins to yield.

Observations:

Specimen Bar Size Length Diameter Gauge Loading at Loading at Elongation Red.
Length YP (kN) Fracture (mm) Area

Calculations: For each specimen calculate the

1. Stress at YP (indicate the method of determining the YP)

2. Stress at TS for each specimen
3. Moduli of Elasticity

Remarks:

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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Recommendation:

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