Embedded Systems-NOTES
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TYPES OF MICROCONTROLLERS:
Embedded Microcontrollers:
mbedded microcontrollers are integrated circuits that are designed to perform specifictasks
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withinalargersystem.TheytypicallyconsistofaCPUcore,memory,andvariousperipherals,
all on a single chip. Here are some key points about embedded microcontrollers:
1. Integration:Embeddedmicrocontrollersarehighlyintegrateddevices,meaningthatallthe
necessary components for their operationarecontainedwithinasinglechip.Thisincludes
the CPU core, memory (both RAM and ROM), input/output ports, timers, and sometimes
even analog-to-digital converters.
2. P
urpose-built: These microcontrollers are designed for specific applications ortasks.For
example, there are microcontrollers tailored for automotive applications, industrial control
systems, consumer electronics, and more.Eachtypeofmicrocontrollermayhavedifferent
features and peripherals optimized for its intended use.
3. L
ow Power Consumption: Many embedded microcontrollers are designed to operateon
low power, making them suitable for battery-powered devices or other applications where
power efficiency is critical.
4. R
eal-time Operation: Some embedded microcontrollers are designed for real-time
operation, meaning they can respond to inputs and generate outputs within strict timing
constraints. This is essential for applications such as control systems and robotics.
5. P
rogramming: Embedded microcontrollers are typically programmed using low-level
languages such as C or assembly language. Developers write code that directlyinteracts
with the microcontroller's hardware peripherals to control its behavior.
External Memory Microcontrollers:
xternal memory microcontrollers differ from embedded microcontrollers in that they rely on
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external memory modules to store program code and data. Here are some key points about
external memory microcontrollers:
1. L
imited On-chipMemory:Externalmemorymicrocontrollerstypicallyhavelimitedon-chip
memory compared to embedded microcontrollers. This limitedmemorymaybeinsufficient
to store large programs or datasets,soexternalmemorymodulesareusedtosupplement
the on-chip memory.
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2. F lexibility: Theuseofexternalmemoryallowsforgreaterflexibilityintermsoftheamount
ofmemoryavailabletothemicrocontroller.Developerscanchoosedifferenttypesandsizes
of external memory modules depending on the requirements of their application.
3. Higher Cost and Complexity: External memory microcontrollersmaybemoreexpensive
andcomplextodesigncomparedtoembeddedmicrocontrollers.Theadditionalcomponents
required for external memory interfacing, such as memory controllers and bus interfaces,
add to the cost and complexity of the system.
4. S
lower Access Speed: Accessing data from external memory typically takeslongerthan
accessing data from on-chip memory. This can impact the overall performance of the
system, especially in applications that require fast response times or real-time operation.
5. P
rogramming Considerations: When programming external memory microcontrollers,
developers need to consider the additional latency introduced by accessing external
memory. Techniques such as prefetching and caching may be employed to mitigate the
impact of slower memory access.
Processor Architectures and then move on to CISC vs. RISC.
Processor Architectures: Harvard vs. Princeton
arvard Architecture:
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- Description: InHarvardarchitecture,separatememoryspacesareusedforinstructionsand
data.
- Key Features:
- Separate Memory Spaces: Instructions and data have dedicated memory units, allowing
simultaneous access.
- Speed:Typically faster execution due to parallel access to instruction and data memory.
- Advantages:
- High Performance:Parallel access enhances speed and efficiency.
- Security:Less susceptible to certain types of attacks like buffer overflow.
- Disadvantages:
- Complexity:Requires additional hardware for separate memory units.
-Cost:Hardware complexity often leads to higher production costs.
rinceton Architecture:
P
- Description:In Princeton architecture, instructions and data share the same memory space.
- Key Features:
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- Single Memory Space:Instructions and data are stored together in a single memory unit.
- Simplicity:Simplified hardware design compared to Harvard architecture.
- Advantages:
- Cost-Effective:Requires less hardware compared to Harvard architecture.
- Ease of Implementation:Simplified design makes it easier to develop.
- Disadvantages:
- Potential Bottlenecks:Data and instruction fetches can compete for memory access.
- Security:Vulnerable to certain types of attacks like buffer overflow.
CISC vs. RISC
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing):
- Description: CISC processors have complex instruction sets, allowing singleinstructionsto
perform multiple low-level operations.
- Key Features:
- Large Instruction Set: Supports a wide range of instructions, some of which are quite
complex.
- Microcoding:Complex instructions are broken down into simpler micro-operations.
- Advantages:
- Code Density:Fewer instructions needed to perform complex tasks.
- Legacy Support:Compatible with older software written for CISC architectures.
- Disadvantages:
- Complexity: Hardware design isoftencomplex,leadingtolongerdevelopmentcyclesand
higher costs.
- Less Efficient Pipelining:Difficulty in pipelining due to variable-length instructions.
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing):
-Description:RISCprocessorshaveasimplifiedinstructionset,focusingonexecutingsimple
instructions efficiently.
- Key Features:
-SimplifiedInstructionSet:Instructionsperformbasicoperations,withafocusonsimplicity
and efficiency.
- Load/Store Architecture: Instructions mainly operate on data in registers, with separate
load and store instructions for memory access.
- Advantages:
- Simplicity:Easier to design, implement, and optimize.
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- Efficient Pipelining: Fixed-length instructions and simpler decoding facilitate efficient
pipelining.
- Disadvantages:
- Code Size:RISC instructions may require more instructions to accomplish complex tasks.
- Memory Bandwidth:Increased load/store instructions may require more memory accesses.
Microcontroller Memory Types:
● Program Memory (ROM):
escription:Programmemory,alsoknownasRead-OnlyMemory(ROM),storesthefirmware
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or program code that the microcontroller executes.
Types:
ROM:Traditional ROM chips where the program is permanently stored.
Flash Memory:Commonly used for program storage due to its ability to be reprogrammed.
Advantages:
Non-volatile:Retains data even when power is turned off.
Typically large capacity to accommodate firmware and program code.
● Data Memory (RAM):
escription: Data memory, often referred to as Random Access Memory (RAM), stores
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temporary data and variables during program execution.
Types:
Static RAM (SRAM): Fast-access, volatile memory commonly used for data storage during
runtime.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Requires periodic refreshing, often used in larger memory
configurations due to its lower cost per bit.
Advantages:
Volatile:Loses data when power is turned off, making it suitable for temporary storage.
Fast access times for efficient data manipulation during runtime.
● EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory):
escription: EEPROM is non-volatile memory that can be electrically erased and
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reprogrammed.
Usage:
Oftenusedforstoringconfigurationparameters,calibrationdata,andothernon-volatilesettings
that may need to be modified during the device's lifetime.
Advantages:
Can be modified without removing the chip from the circuit.
Suitable for storing data that may need to be updated occasionally.
● Registers:
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escription: Registers are small, high-speed memory locations within the microcontroller's
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CPU used for temporary data storage and for holding control and status information.
Usage:
Used by the CPU for arithmetic and logic operations, addressing modes, and other low-level
operations.
Advantages:
Extremely fast access times due to their proximity to the CPU.
Essential for efficient operation of the microcontroller's core.
Microcontrollers features :
1. C
locking: Microcontrollersneedaclocktokeeptrackoftimeandcoordinatetheiractions.
It's like the heartbeat of the microcontroller, making sure everything happens at the right
pace. This clock cancomefrominsidethemicrocontrolleritselforfromanexternalsource
like a crystal. The clock's speed determines how fast the microcontroller can do its job.
2. I/O Pins: These are like themicrocontroller'sarmsandears.Theyletittalktotheoutside
world by taking in information (inputs) or sending out signals (outputs). For example, an
input pin might sense if a button is pressed, while an output pin might make an LED light up.
3. Interrupts:Interruptsarelikeurgentmessagesthattellthemicrocontrollertostopwhatit's
doing and pay attention to something important right away. This could be something
happeningoutside,likeasensordetectingmotion,orinside,likeatimerreachingacertain
point. Interrupts help the microcontroller react quickly to important events without wasting
time constantly checking for them.
4. T
imers: Timers are like little clocks inside the microcontroller that can measure time or
count how many times somethinghappens.They'rehandyforthingsliketurningonalight
for a certain amount of time or keeping track of how long something takes to happen.
5. P
eripherals: These are extra tools built into the microcontroller to help it dospecificjobs
better. For example, an ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) helps the microcontroller
understand information from sensors that give analog signals, like temperature sensors.
Serial communication interfaces help themicrocontrollertalktootherdevices,likesending
data to a computer or receiving commands from a sensor.
hesefeaturesmakemicrocontrollersversatileandabletodoallsortsoftasks,fromturningon
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lightswhenitgetsdarktocontrollingrobotsorevenrunningamicrowaveoven!Understanding
them helps us use microcontrollers to their fullest potential.
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UNIT-2
IC microcontrollers are like tiny brains that can be programmed to do all sorts of tasks.
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They're made by a company called Microchip Technology, and they're used in all kinds of
electronic devices, from simple gadgets like remote controls to complex systemslikemedical
devices and industrial machinery.
Here's what you need to know about PIC microcontrollers:
1. W hat They Are: PIC stands for "Peripheral Interface Controller." Essentially, a PIC
microcontroller is a small computer chip that contains aprocessor(thebrain),memory(to
store data and instructions), and various input/output ports (to connect to the outside world).
2. How They Work: Just like your brain tells your body what to do, programmers tell PIC
microcontrollerswhattodobywritingcode.Thiscodeiswritteninaspeciallanguagecalled
"assembly language" or more commonly, "C language," which the microcontroller can
understand.Oncethecodeiswritten,it'suploadedtothemicrocontroller,anditstartsdoing
whatever it's programmed to do.
3. What They Can Do: PIC microcontrollers can do all sorts of things, depending on how
they'reprogrammed.Theycancontrolmotors,turnonandofflights,readdatafromsensors
like temperature or humidity sensors, communicate with other devices, and much more.
Their versatility makes them popular for a wide range of applications.
4. Why They're Popular: PIC microcontrollers are popular for several reasons. They're
relativelyinexpensive,easytouse,andcomeinavarietyofsizesandconfigurationstosuit
different needs. Microchip also provides a lot of resources, like software tools and
development kits, to help people get started with PIC microcontrollers.
5. Where You'llFindThem:You'llfindPICmicrocontrollersinallkindsofelectronicdevices,
from everyday gadgets like alarm clocks and TVremotestomorespecializedapplications
like automotive systems, medical devices, and industrial control systems.
verall,PICmicrocontrollersarepowerfullittlechipsthatplayabigroleinmoderntechnology.
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Learninghowtoprogramthemopensupaworldofpossibilitiesforcreatingyourownelectronic
projects and inventions.
Architecture:
hearchitectureofamicrocontrollerreferstoitsinternalstructureandorganization,includingits
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various components and how they interact with each other to execute instructions. Here's a
simplified overview:
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1. C PU (Central Processing Unit): The CPU is like the brain of the microcontroller. It's
responsible for executing instructions, performing calculations, and controlling the overall
operation of the microcontroller.
2. Memory:Microcontrollers have different types of memory for storing data and instructions:
3. ProgramMemory:Storestheprogramcodethatthemicrocontrollerexecutes.Thiscanbe
ROM (Read-Only Memory) or Flash memory.
4. DataMemory:Storestemporarydataandvariablesusedbytheprogramduringexecution.
This can be RAM (Random Access Memory).
5. I/OPorts:Input/Output(I/O)portsallowthemicrocontrollertocommunicatewiththeoutside
world by connecting to external devices such as sensors, actuators, and displays.
6. Peripherals:Theseareadditionalhardwarecomponentsintegratedintothemicrocontroller
toprovidespecificfunctionalitiesbeyondbasicprocessing.Examplesincludetimers,UART
(Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter) for serial communication, ADC
(Analog-to-DigitalConverter)forconvertinganalogsignalstodigital,andPWM(PulseWidth
Modulation) for controlling motors and LEDs.
Pipelining:
ipeliningisatechniqueusedtoimprovetheperformanceofamicrocontrollerbyoverlapping
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the execution of multiple instructions. It breaks down the instruction execution process into
smaller stages and allows different stages of multiple instructions to be executed concurrently.
Here's how pipelining works:
. Instruction Fetch (IF):The microcontroller fetches the next instruction from memory.
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2. Instruction Decode (ID):Thefetchedinstructionisdecodedtodeterminetheoperationto
be performed.
3. Execute (EX):The microcontroller executes the operation specified by the instruction.
4. Memory Access (MEM):If necessary, data is read from or written to memory.
5. Write Back (WB):The results of the operation are written back to registers or memory.
Inpipelining,whileoneinstructionisbeingexecutedinonestage,thenextinstructionisfetched
in the next stage, and so on. This allows multiple instructions to be in different stages of
execution simultaneously, improving overall throughput and efficiency.
owever, pipelining introduces challenges such as data hazards and control hazards, which
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need to be managed to ensure correct program execution. Techniques like forwarding and
branch prediction are used to mitigate these hazards and optimize pipelined microcontroller
architectures for performance.
henconsideringprogrammemoryinmicrocontrollers,thereareseveralimportantfactors
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to keep in mind:
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.Size:Thesizeoftheprogrammemorydetermineshowmuchcodeyourmicrocontrollercan
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store and execute. Make sure to choose a microcontroller withsufficientprogrammemoryfor
your application'srequirements.Ifyourcodeexceedstheavailableprogrammemory,youmay
need to optimize it or select a microcontroller with larger memory capacity.
. Type of Memory: Microcontrollers typically use non-volatile memory for program storage,
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such as ROM (Read-Only Memory) or Flash memory. ROM is fixed and cannot be modified
after manufacturing, whileFlashmemoryallowsforreprogramming,makingitmoreflexiblefor
development and updates.
.AccessSpeed:Considertheaccessspeedoftheprogrammemory,asitaffectstheoverall
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performance of your application. Faster access speed allows for quicker execution of
instructions, which is especially important for time-critical tasks.
. Endurance: For microcontrollers with Flash memory, endurance refers to the number of
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times the memory can be erased and reprogrammed before it wears out. Choose a
microcontroller with sufficient endurance for your application's expected lifetime and update
requirements.
. Programming and Debugging: Consider the ease of programming and debugging the
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microcontroller'sprogrammemory.Lookfordevelopmenttools,suchasintegrateddevelopment
environments(IDEs)andin-circuitemulators,thatsupportefficientprogramminganddebugging
workflows.
.Security:Dependingonyourapplication'srequirements,youmayneedtoconsidersecurity
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features for the program memory. Some microcontrollers offer features like code protection,
encryption,andsecurebootmechanismstopreventunauthorizedaccessandtamperingofthe
program code.
.Cost:Programmemorysizeandtypecansignificantlyimpactthecostofthemicrocontroller.
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Balanceyourapplication'srequirementswithcostconsiderationstoselectamicrocontrollerthat
meets your needs within your budget.
ycarefullyconsideringthesefactors,youcanchoosetherightprogrammemoryconfiguration
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for your microcontroller-based project, ensuring optimal performance, reliability, and scalability
Addressing modes
ddressingmodesinmicrocontrollersdeterminehowtheprocessoraccessesoperands(data)
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to perform operations specified by instructions. Here's a simplified overview of common
addressing modes:
1. Immediate Addressing:
- In immediate addressing, the operand is directly specified within the instruction itself.
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- Example: `MOV A, #25` (Move the immediate value 25 into register A).
2. Direct Addressing:
- In direct addressing, the operand's address is specified directly in the instruction.
-Example:̀MOVA,0x1234`(Movethevaluestoredatmemoryaddress0x1234intoregister
A).
3. Indirect Addressing:
-Inindirectaddressing,theinstructioncontainstheaddressofamemorylocationwherethe
actual address of the operand is stored.
- Example: ̀MOV A, @R0` (Move the value stored at the memory location pointed to by
register R0 into register A).
4. Register Addressing:
- In register addressing, the operand is located in a register specified by the instruction.
- Example: `ADD A, B` (Add the value in register B to the value in register A).
5. Indexed Addressing:
-Indexedaddressinginvolvesaddinganoffsettoabaseaddressspecifiedintheinstructionto
access the operand.
- Example: ̀MOVA,0x1000+R1`(Movethevaluestoredatmemoryaddress0x1000plus
the value in register R1 into register A).
6. Relative Addressing:
-Relativeaddressinginvolvesspecifyinganoffsetrelativetothecurrentinstruction'saddress
to access the operand.
- Example: `JMP 0x10` (Jump to the address 0x10 bytes ahead of the current instruction).
7. Stack Addressing:
- Stack addressing involves pushing operands onto or popping operands off a stack data
structure.
- Example: `PUSH A` (Push the value in register A onto the stack).
ach addressing mode has its advantages and use cases depending on the specific
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requirements of the program and the microcontroller's architecture. Understanding and
effectivelyutilizingaddressingmodesiscrucialforefficientandoptimizedcodedevelopmentin
microcontroller programming.
CPU Registers:
PUregistersaresmall,high-speedstoragelocationsinsidetheCPU(CentralProcessingUnit)
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thatholddatatemporarilyduringprogramexecution.Theyplayacrucialroleintheexecutionof
instructions and data manipulation. Here are some common types of CPU registers found in
microcontrollers:
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.General-PurposeRegisters:Usedforstoringdatatemporarilyduringarithmeticandlogical
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operations. Examples include accumulator (A), B register, and general-purpose registers
(R0-R7).
. Index Registers: Used for storing memory addresses or offsets. Examples include index
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registers (X, Y) and stack pointer (SP).
. Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory address of the next instruction to be
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fetched and executed.
. Status Register (Flags): Stores flags indicating the outcome of arithmetic and logical
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operations, such as zero flag (Z), carry flag (C), overflow flag (OV), and others.
Instruction Set:
heinstructionsetofamicrocontrollerdefinesthesetofoperationsorcommandsthattheCPU
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can execute. Each instruction performs a specific task, such as arithmetic operations, data
movement, control flow, and I/O operations. The instruction set architecture (ISA) determines
the formatandencodingofinstructions.Commontypesofinstructionsfoundinmicrocontroller
instruction sets include:
. Data Movement Instructions: Move data between registers, memory, and I/O ports.
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Examples include load (MOV), store (MOV), push (PUSH), and pop (POP) instructions.
. Arithmetic and Logic Instructions: Perform arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction,
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multiplication, division) and logical operations (AND, OR, XOR, NOT) on data in registers.
Examples include add (ADD), subtract (SUB), increment (INC), and decrement (DEC)
instructions.
.ControlFlowInstructions:Controltheflowofprogramexecutionbyalteringthesequence
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ofinstructions.Examplesincludejump(JMP),branchifzero(JZ),branchifnotzero(JNZ),and
subroutine call (CALL) instructions.
.BitManipulationInstructions:Manipulateindividualbitswithinregisters.Examplesinclude
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set bit (SETB), clear bit (CLR), and toggle bit (CPL) instructions.
. I/O Instructions: Communicate with peripheral devices such as sensors, displays, and
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communicationinterfaces.Examplesincludeinput(IN),output(OUT),andserialcommunication
(UART, SPI, I2C) instructions.
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Simple Operations:
ere are some simple operations commonly performed in microcontroller programming using
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the instruction set:
. Load and Store Data: Transfer data between registers and memory locations using load
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(MOV) and store (MOV) instructions.
. Arithmetic Operations: Perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
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multiplication,anddivisionusingarithmeticinstructionslikeadd(ADD),subtract(SUB),multiply
(MUL), and divide (DIV).
.LogicalOperations:PerformlogicaloperationssuchasAND,OR,XOR,andNOTonbinary
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data using logical instructions like AND, OR, XOR, and NOT.
. Control Flow: Control the flow of program execution by branching to differentpartsofthe
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code using jump (JMP) and branch (JZ, JNZ) instructions.
. Bit Manipulation: Manipulate individual bits within registers using bit manipulation
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instructions like set bit (SETB), clear bit (CLR), and toggle bit (CPL).
hesesimpleoperationsformthebuildingblocksofmicrocontrollerprogrammingandareused
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extensively in developing embedded software for various applications. Understanding CPU
registers,theinstructionset,andhowtoperformbasicoperationsisessentialforwritingefficient
and optimized code for microcontrollers.
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UNIT-3
8051 microcontroller:
. Architecture:
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The 8051 microcontroller is an 8-bit microcontroller with Harvard architecture, meaning ithas
separate memory spaces for program and data. It features a single-chip design with a CPU,
RAM,ROM,I/Oports,timers/counters,andserialcommunicationportsintegratedontoasingle
chip.
. Pin Diagram:
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The8051microcontrollertypicallycomesina40-pinDualIn-LinePackage(DIP).Thepinsare
divided into four ports: Port 0 (P0), Port 1(P1),Port2(P2),andPort3(P3).Eachporthas8
bidirectional I/O pins. Additionally, it has pins for power supply, ground, crystal oscillator
connections, and serial communication (RXD, TXD).
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. I/O Ports:
3
Eachofthefourports(P0,P1,P2,P3)inthe8051microcontrollercanbeindividuallyconfigured
as input or output ports. They can interface with external devices such as LEDs, switches,
sensors, and displays.
. Internal RAM and Registers:
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The8051microcontrollerhas128bytesofinternalRAM,dividedintofourbanks:RegisterBank
0 (R0-R7), Register Bank 1 (R8-R15), Register Bank 2 (R16-R23), and Register Bank 3
(R24-R31). It alsoincludesspecialfunctionregisters(SFRs)forcontrollingon-chipperipherals
and functions.
. Interrupts:
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The 8051 microcontroller supports both hardware and software interrupts. Ithasfiveinterrupt
sources: External Interrupt 0 (INT0), External Interrupt 1 (INT1), Timer 0 Overflow, Timer 1
Overflow, and Serial Communication Interrupt. Interrupts can be enabled or disabled using
interrupt control bits in special function registers.
. Addressing Modes:
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The 8051 microcontroller supports various addressing modes, including immediate, direct,
indirect, register, and indexed addressing modes. These modes allow flexible access to
operands in memory and registers during instruction execution.
. Memory Organization and External Addressing:
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The 8051 microcontroller has a 16-bit address bus, allowing it to address up to 64 KB of
externalmemory.Itusesabank-switchingmechanismtoaccessexternalmemorybeyondits8
KB internal program memory. The memory organization typically includes program memory
(ROM), data memory (RAM), and special function registers (SFRs).
. Instruction Set:
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The instruction setofthe8051microcontrollerconsistsofover100instructions,includingdata
transfer,arithmetic,logical,controltransfer,andI/Oinstructions.Theseinstructionsareencoded
in one to three bytes and support addressing modes for flexible operand access.
. Assembly Language Programming:
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Assembly language programming for the 8051 microcontroller involves writing instructions in
mnemonic form and assembling them into machine code using an assembler. Assembly
language provides low-level controloverthemicrocontroller'shardwareandisusedforwriting
efficient and optimized code for embedded systems.
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icrocontrollers are widely used in various real-time applications due to their versatility and
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ability to interface withdifferentperipherals.Herearesomeexamplesofreal-timeapplications
andhowmicrocontrollerscaninterfacewithLCDs,ADCs,DACs,steppermotors,keyboards,
and sensors:
. Interfacing with LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):
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Microcontrollers can interface with LCDs to display information in real-time.Thisiscommonly
used in applications such as digital clocks, thermometers, and instrumentation displays. The
microcontroller sends commands and data to the LCD via parallel or serial communication
protocols such as HD44780 or SPI.
. Interfacing with ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter):
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ADCs are used to convert analog signals from sensors or other analog sources into digital
values that can be processed by the microcontroller. Microcontrollers interface with ADCs
through parallel or serial communication interfaces such as SPI or I2C to acquire real-time
sensor data for applications such as temperature monitoring, voltage measurement, and
environmental sensing.
. Interfacing with DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter):
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DACs are used to convert digital signals from the microcontroller into analog voltages or
currents. Microcontrollers interface with DACs through parallel or serial communication
interfaces to generate real-time analog waveforms for applications such as audio synthesis,
motor control, and signal generation.
. Interfacing with Stepper Motor:
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Microcontrollers can control stepper motors toachieveprecisepositioningormotioncontrolin
real-timeapplicationssuchasroboticsystems,CNCmachines,and3Dprinters.Theygenerate
control signals for the stepper motor driver circuitry to drive the motor in specific steps or
sequences, controlling its rotation and speed.
. Interfacing with Keyboard:
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Microcontrollers can interface with keyboards using scanning techniques or matrix
configurationstodetectkeypressesinreal-time.Thisiscommonlyusedinapplicationssuchas
keypadentrysystems,electroniclocks,andindustrialcontrolpanels.Themicrocontrollerscans
the keyboard matrix and detects key presses to perform corresponding actions or input data.
. Interfacing with Sensors:
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Microcontrollersinterfacewithvarioussensorssuchastemperaturesensors,humiditysensors,
motion sensors, and proximity sensors to acquire real-time data for monitoring and control
applications.Theyreadsensoroutputsusinganalogordigitalinterfacesandprocessthedatato
make real-time decisions or trigger actions based on sensor inputs.
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UNIT-4
Embedded systems
ertainly! Let's cover the basics of embedded systems, including their introduction,
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classification, processors, and hardware units:
. Introduction to Embedded Systems:
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● Embedded systems are specialized computingsystemsdesignedtoperformspecifictasks
within a larger system or product. They are embedded into devices and machinery to
control, monitor, or interact with the physical world.
● Unlike general-purpose computers, embedded systems are typically dedicated to a single
function and optimized for performance, power consumption, size, and cost.
● Embedded systems are found in a wide range of applications, including consumer
electronics, automotive systems, industrial automation, medicaldevices,smartappliances,
and IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
2. Classification of Embedded Systems:
Embedded systems can be classified based on various criteria:
● Performance: From simple microcontrollers with limited processing power to complex
systems-on-chip (SoCs) with powerful CPUs and multiple peripherals.
● Application Domain: Such as automotive, industrial, consumer electronics, medical,
aerospace, and military.
● Real-Time Requirements: Real-time embedded systems are designed to respond to
eventswithinstricttimingconstraints,whilenon-real-timesystemshavemorerelaxedtiming
requirements.
● Size and Complexity: Ranging from small, single-function devices to large, complex
systems with multiple interconnected components.
3. Processors in Embedded Systems:
Processorsusedinembeddedsystemsvarydependingontheapplicationrequirements
and constraints:
● Microcontrollers:Integratedmicroprocessor,memory,andI/Operipheralsonasinglechip.
Commonly used in low-power, cost-sensitive applications with moderate processing
requirements.
● Microprocessors: Standalone CPUs without integrated peripherals.Theyrequireexternal
support chips for memory, I/O, and other functions. Suitable for applications with higher
processing power and flexibility.
● System-on-Chip (SoC): Integrated circuits that combine a microprocessor or
microcontroller core with other components such as memory, GPU, DSP, and various
peripherals on a single chip. Used in high-performance, multimedia, and IoT applications.
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. Hardware Units in Embedded Systems:
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Embedded systems consist of various hardware units that perform specific functions:
● CPU (Central Processing Unit):Executes instructions and performs calculations.
● Memory: Stores program code, data, and system parameters. Includes ROM(Read-Only
Memory), RAM (Random Access Memory), Flash memory, and non-volatile memory.
● Peripherals: Interface with external devices such as sensors, actuators, displays, and
communication interfaces. Examples include ADCs (Analog-to-Digital Converters), DACs
(Digital-to-Analog Converters), timers/counters, UARTs (Universal Asynchronous
Receiver-Transmitters), SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), and I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit).
● Power Management Units: Regulate power supply, manage energy consumption, and
control sleep modes to optimize power efficiency.
● Input/Output(I/O)Units:Handledatainputandoutputbetweentheembeddedsystemand
theexternalworld.IncludesGPIO(General-PurposeInput/Output)pins,serialports,analog
inputs, and digital interfaces.
nderstandingthebasicsofembeddedsystems,theirclassification,processors,andhardware
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units is essential for designing, developing, and programming embedded systems for various
applications.
1. Software Embedded into Systems:
mbedded systems rely on software to control and manage hardware components, perform
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specific tasks, and interact with the external environment.
he software embedded into embedded systems can be categorized into two main types:
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Firmware:Low-levelsoftwarethatispermanentlystoredinnon-volatilememory(e.g.,ROMor
Flash memory) and executed by theembeddedsystem'sprocessoruponpower-up.Firmware
typically includes the operating system (if applicable), device drivers, and application code.
Application Software: Higher-level software that runsontopofthefirmwareandimplements
specific functionalities or features required by the embedded system'sapplication.Application
software can range from simple control algorithms to complex software applications with
graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and networking capabilities.
2. Applications of Embedded Systems:
mbedded systems are used in a wide range of applications across various industries,
E
including:
● Consumer Electronics: Smartphones, digital cameras, home appliances (e.g., washing
machines, refrigerators), multimedia devices (e.g., smart TVs, media players), gaming
consoles, wearable devices.
● A
utomotiveSystems:Enginecontrolunits(ECUs),anti-lockbrakingsystems(ABS),airbag
control units, infotainment systems, navigation systems, advanced driver-assistance
systems (ADAS), electric vehicle (EV) control systems.
16
● IndustrialAutomation:Programmablelogiccontrollers(PLCs),distributedcontrolsystems
(DCS),supervisorycontrolanddataacquisition(SCADA)systems,roboticcontrolsystems,
process control systems, industrial IoT (IIoT) devices.
● M
edical Devices: Patient monitoring systems, infusion pumps, defibrillators, medical
imaging devices (e.g., MRI, CT scanners), implantable medical devices, diagnostic
equipment.
● A
erospace and Defense:Flightcontrolsystems,avionics,navigationsystems,unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs), missile guidance systems, military communication systems, radar
systems.
● IoT (Internet of Things): Smart home devices, wearable fitness trackers, environmental
monitoring systems, asset tracking devices, smartagriculturesystems,industrialIoT(IIoT)
devices, smart city infrastructure.
● T
elecommunications: Network routers, switches, base stations, mobile phones, satellite
communication systems, VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) phones, network security
appliances.
3. Products of Embedded Systems:
mbedded systems are integral components o
E f various products designed for specific
applications and use cases. Some examples of products leveraging embedded systems
technology include:
● S
martphonesandTablets:Incorporateembeddedsystemsforprocessing,communication,
multimedia playback, and sensor integration.
● H
ome Automation Systems: Smart thermostats, smart lighting systems, home security
systems, smart locks, and surveillance cameras.
● A
utomotive Electronics: Engine control modules, infotainment systems, navigation
systems, driver assistance systems, and telematics units.
● W
earable Devices: Fitness trackers, smartwatches, augmented reality (AR) glasses, and
health monitoring devices.
● Industrial Equipment: CNC machines, 3D printers, industrial robots, programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), and human-machine interface (HMI) panels.
● M
edical Devices: Patient monitoring systems, infusion pumps, medical imaging devices,
diagnostic equipment, and implantable medical devices.
17
● C onsumer Electronics: Digital cameras, MP3 players, e-bookreaders,gamingconsoles,
and smart home appliances.
● Communication Systems: Network routers, switches, base stations, mobile phones,
satellite communication systems, and VoIP phones.
mbeddedsystemsenablethedevelopmentofinnovativeproductsacrossvariousindustriesby
E
providing efficient, reliable, and cost-effective solutions for controlling, monitoring, and
automating processes and tasks. They play a crucial role in advancing technology and
enhancing the functionality and usability of modern products and systems.
1. Structural Units in Processors:
● C entral Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of the computer and executes
instructions. It consists of several key units:
● Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):Performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.
● Control Unit (CU): ControlstheflowofdataandinstructionswithintheCPUandbetween
the CPU and other components.
● Registers: Temporary storage locations inside the CPU used for holding data and
instructions during processing. Registers include the program counter (PC), instruction
register (IR), and general-purpose registers.
2. Memory Devices:
● R andomAccessMemory(RAM):Volatilememoryusedfortemporarystorageofdataand
program instructions. RAM is fast but loses its contents when power is removed.
● Read-OnlyMemory(ROM):Non-volatilememorythatstoresfirmwareandessentialsystem
instructions. ROM retains its contents even when power is off.
● FlashMemory:Non-volatilememoryusedforstoringfirmware,BIOS,anduserdata.Flash
memory allows for both reading and writing data and is commonly used in embedded
systems.
● Cache Memory: High-speed memory located betweentheCPUandmainmemory(RAM)
that stores frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up processing.
3. I/O Devices:
● InputDevices:Devicesthatallowuserstoinputdataintothecomputersystem.Examples
include keyboards, mice, touchscreens, scanners, and sensors.
● OutputDevices:Devicesthatdisplayoroutputprocesseddatafromthecomputersystem.
Examples include monitors, printers, speakers, and actuators.
● Storage Devices: Devices used for long-term storage of data and programs. Examples
include hard diskdrives(HDDs),solid-statedrives(SSDs),opticaldrives(CD/DVDdrives),
and USB flash drives.
18
● C
ommunication Devices: Devices that enable communication between the computer
systemandexternaldevicesornetworks.Examplesincludenetworkinterfacecards(NICs),
modems, Bluetooth adapters, and wireless routers.
achofthesestructuralunitsplaysavitalroleintheoverallfunctioningofacomputersystem.
E
Processors execute instructions, memory devices storedataandinstructions,andI/Odevices
facilitate interaction between thecomputersystemanditsusers,aswellaswithotherdevices
andnetworks.Understandingtherolesandinteractionsoftheseunitsisessentialfordesigning
and developing efficient and reliable computer systems.
1. Buses:
uses are communication pathways that allow data to be transferred between different
B
components of a computer system.
Types of buses include:
● A ddress Bus: Transmits memory addresses from the CPU to memory devices and I/O
devices.
● Data Bus: Bi-directionalbusthatcarriesdatabetweentheCPU,memorydevices,andI/O
devices.
● ControlBus:Carriescontrolsignalssuchasread,write,andinterruptsignalsbetweenthe
CPU and other components.
uses are characterized by their width, which determines the number of bits that can be
B
transferred simultaneously, and their speed, which affects the rate of data transfer.
2. Interfacing of Processor, Memory, and I/O Devices:
rocessor-Memory Interface:
P
The processor communicates with memory devices (RAM, ROM, Flash) through the memory
bus.
The processor generates memory addresses on the address bus to read from or write to
specific memory locations.
Data is transferred between the processor and memory devices via the data bus.
Processor-I/O Interface:
●
The processor communicates with I/O devices through the I/O bus.
I/O devices are assigned specific addresses in the memory address space.
The processor uses special I/O instructions to read from or write to I/O devices.
● Memory-I/O Interface:
I/O devices can access memory for data storage or retrieval.
19
emory-mappedI/OassignsmemoryaddressestoI/Odevices,allowingthemtobeaccessed
M
using memory read and write operations.
irect memory access (DMA) allows I/O devices totransferdatadirectlytoandfrommemory
D
without CPU intervention, improving system performance.
3. Case Study of an Embedded System for a Smart Card:
mart cards areembeddedsystemsusedforstoringandprocessingdatasecurely,commonly
S
used in applications such as payment systems, access control, and identification.
Components of a smart card embedded system include:
● M icrocontroller:Theheartofthesmartcard,responsibleforprocessingdataandexecuting
cryptographic algorithms.
● Memory:Stores data such as user credentials, account information, and transaction logs.
● I/O Interface:Allows communication with card readers for data exchange.
● Security Features: Includes encryption algorithms, secure storage mechanisms, and
tamper-resistant packaging to protect sensitive data.
● Interfacing:
Themicrocontrollerinterfaceswithmemorytoreadandwriteuserdataandcryptographickeys
securely.
It communicates with card readers using a standardized protocol such as ISO 7816 or NFC
(Near Field Communication) for contact or contactless transactions.
ecurityfeaturesareimplementedatthehardwareandsoftwarelevelstopreventunauthorized
S
access and protect data integrity.
Applications:
● P ayment Systems: Smart cards are used for contact or contactless payments in public
transportation, retail, and banking.
● Access Control: Smart cards provide secure access tobuildings,facilities,andcomputer
networks.
● Identification: Smart cards store personal information for identification purposes in
government, healthcare, and educational institutions.
In summary,busesfacilitatecommunicationbetweencomponentsinacomputersystem,while
interfacingenablestheprocessortointeractwithmemoryandI/Odevices.Thecasestudyofa
smart card embedded system illustrates how these concepts are applied in the design and
implementation of real-world embedded systems for specific applications.
20
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