Fluid Mechanics

Physics for Engineers

Mechanics: The oldest physical

science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is
also referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special Fluid mechanics deals
case of motion with zero velocity. with liquids and gases in
motion or at rest.
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1
What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid or gas phase.

Ideal fluid:
A fluid, which is incompressible and having no
viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only
an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have
some viscosity.
Real fluid:
A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real
fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids.
Example : Water, Air etc.
Newtonian fluid:
A real fluid, in which shear stress in directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity
gradient, is known as a Newtonian fluid.
Example : Water, Benzine etc.
Non Newtonian fluid:
A real fluid, in which shear stress in not directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity
gradient, is known as a Non Newtonian fluid. 4

Example : Plaster, Slurries, Pastes etc.

2
 Ideal plastic fluid:
A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield
value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of
shear strain or velocity gradient, is known as ideal
plastic fluid.
Incompressible fluid:
A fluid, in which the density of fluid does not change
which change in external force or pressure, is known
as incompressible fluid. All liquid are considered in
this category.
Compressible fluid:
A fluid, in which the density of fluid changes while
change in external force or pressure, is known as
compressible fluid. All gases are considered in this
category.
5

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent. Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
6
over a flat plate.

3
Natural (or Unforced)
versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such
as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.
In this schlieren image of a girl in a
swimming suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air
adjacent to her body indicates that humans
and warm-blooded animals are surrounded
by thermal plumes of rising warm air.
7

Steady versus Unsteady Flow

• The term steady implies no change at
a point with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady.
• The term uniform implies no change
with location over a specified region.
• The term periodic refers to the kind of
unsteady flow in which the flow
oscillates about a steady mean.
• Many devices such as turbines,
compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.

4
 Properties of Fluids
1. Density (𝜌) is defined as its mass per unit volume. It is
a measurement of how tightly matter is crammed
together.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 1
𝜌= = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑣
• ρ = density (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
• m = mass (kg, slugs)
• V = volume (m3, ft3)
• 𝑣 = specific volume (m3/kg, ft3/slug)
1 slug = 32.174 lbm = 14.594 kg
1 kg = 2.2046 lbm = 6.8521x10-2 slugs
9

Less dense fluids will float on top of more dense fluids, and
less dense solids will float on top of more dense fluids.
Less dense will float. More dense will sink.
𝜌 of water = 1000 kg/m3 =1 g/ml =1 g/cm3 = 0.036 lb/in3=62.4 lb/ft3
𝜌 of mercury = 13590 kg/m3
𝜌 of air = 1.2 kg/ m3 10

5
 Properties of Fluids
2. Specific Weight (𝜸) is defined as weight per unit
volume. Weight is a force.
𝑊 𝑚𝑔
𝛾= = = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉 𝑉
• 𝛾 = specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)
• ρ = density (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
• g = acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2)

for water: 𝛾 = 62.4 lbs/ft3 or 9.81 kN/m3

11

Properties of Fluids
3. Specific Gravity (relative density) (SG) of a material,
which is the ratio of the material's density to the density of
water.
 An object with a specific gravity less than 1 will float in
water, while a specific gravity greater than 1 means it will
sink.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑆𝐺 = 𝑆𝐺 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

SG of air = 1
SG of mercury = 13.55
12

6
 Properties of Fluids
4. Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

• Units of pressure are N/m2 or Pascals (Pa) – 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa

• Atmospheric pressure = 1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 1 x 105 N/m2

13

Properties of Fluids
5. Viscosity – the property of a fluid to resist
the force tending to cause the fluid to flow.
 Viscosity fluid deforms when acted on by
shear stress
m = 1.12 x 10-3 N-s/m2

14

7
 Properties of Fluids
6. Surface tension - forces between 2
liquids or gas and liquid - droplets on a
windshield.
The surface of a liquid at rest
is not perfectly flat; it curves
either up or down at the walls
of the container. This is the
result of surface tension,
which makes the surface
behave somewhat elastically.
15

Examples
1. The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3. The mass of 0.17
kg. What is the volume of the titanium?

𝜌=
𝑚 0.17
𝑉= =
𝜌 4507
𝑉 = 3.772 × 10 𝑚3

16

8
Q. A golden-colored cube is handed to you. The person wants you to buy it for
$100, saying that is a gold nugget. You pull out your old geology text and look
up gold in the mineral table, and read that its density is 19.3 g/cm3. You
measure the cube and find that it is 2 cm on each side, and weighs 40 g. What
is its density? Is it gold? Should you buy it?

Given: 𝜌 = 19.3 , 𝑠 = 2 𝑐𝑚, 𝑚 = 40𝑔 𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒; 𝑉 = 𝑠3

Req’d: 𝜌 =?

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
𝑚 40𝑔 𝑔
𝜌= 3= = 5
𝑠 2 𝑐𝑚 3 𝑐𝑚3

Since the density of the cube is far from the standard density of gold, then it is
not gold. I won’t buy it.

17

Examples
1. A piece of unknown material has an intricate shape. It has a mass
of 126 g. You submerge it to find it displaces 422 ml of water. What
is the specific gravity of the piece? Ans. 0.3

Given: m = 126 g Required: SG?

V = 422 ml

𝑚 126 𝑔
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑/𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑉 422 𝑚𝑙 = 0.3
𝑆𝐺 = = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑔/𝑚𝑙 1 𝑔/𝑚𝑙

18

9
 Examples
2. A board measures 2" x 6" x 5'. It weighs 15 lbs, 4 oz. Determine its
weight density and specific gravity. Ans. 36.6 lbs/ft3, 0.59

Given: 𝑚 = 15 𝑙𝑏𝑠, 4 𝑜𝑧 = 15 𝑙𝑏𝑠 + 4 𝑜𝑧 × = 15.25 𝑙𝑏𝑠

𝑉 = 2” × 6” × 5’ = 2 𝑖𝑛 × 6 𝑖𝑛 × 5 𝑓𝑡
= 2 𝑖𝑛 × 6 𝑖𝑛 × 5 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑓𝑡
Required: 𝜌? , SG?
𝑚 15.25 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝜌= = = 36.6 𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡
𝑉 5
𝑓𝑡
12

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑/𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 36.6 𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡

𝑆𝐺 = = = 0.59
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 62.4 lb/ft3

19

Examples
3. A rectangular block measures 2.3 x 5.1 x 7.8 centimeters. It has a
mass of 66 grams. Determine its density and specific gravity. Ans.
0.721 g/cc, 0.72
Given: 𝑚 = 66 𝑔
𝑉 = 2.3 𝑐𝑚 × 5.1 𝑐𝑚 × 7.8 𝑐𝑚 = 91.494 𝑐𝑚

Required: 𝜌? , SG?
𝑚 66 𝑔 𝑔
𝜌= = = 0.721 = 0.721𝑔/𝑐𝑐
𝑉 91.494𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑/𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 0.721 𝑔/𝑐𝑚

𝑆𝐺 = = 𝑔 = 0.721
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1
𝑐𝑚

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10
 Examples
4. A cylinder of plastic is 100 mm long, and 50 mm in diameter. It has
a mass of 1 kg. Determine its specific gravity and indicate whether
it would float or sink in water. Ans. 5.09, sink
Given: l = 100 𝑚𝑚 = 100 𝑚𝑚 × = 0.1 𝑚

𝑑𝑖𝑎 = 𝐷 = 50 𝑚𝑚 = 50 𝑚𝑚 × = 0.05 𝑚
.
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑟 = = = 0.025 m
𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔
Required: SG? Float or sink?
𝑚 𝑚
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑/𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑉 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
𝑆𝐺 = = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

. ( . ) . /
= = = 5.09
/ /
Since the specific gravity is greater than 1, then it will sink.21

Examples
5. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 1.0x105 Pa. What is
the force at sea level that air exerts on the top of a desk that is 152
cm long and 76 cm wide? Ans. 1.2 x 105 N
Given: 𝑃 = 1 × 10 𝑃𝑎
L = 152 𝑐𝑚 = 152 𝑐𝑚 × = 1.52 𝑚

𝑊 = 76 𝑐𝑚 = 76 𝑐𝑚 × = 0.76 𝑚

Required: F?
𝑃 = ⟹ 𝐹 = 𝐴𝑃
𝐹 = 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐿𝑊𝑃 = 1.52 𝑚 0.76 𝑚 1 × 10 𝑃𝑎 = 115520 𝑁 𝑜𝑟
1.2 × 10 𝑁

Note: the top of a desk is a rectangle so the area=length x width

22

11
 Examples
6. A lead brick, 5.0 cm × 10.0 cm × 20.0 cm, rests on the ground on
its smallest face. Lead has a density of 11.8 g/cm3. What pressure
does the brick exert on the ground? Ans. 23 kPa
Given: V = 5 𝑐𝑚 × 10 𝑐𝑚 × 20 𝑐𝑚 = 1000 𝑐𝑚
ρ = 11.8 𝑔/𝑐𝑚
Required: P?
𝑃= = = =
To get the mass, we use density formula
𝜌= ⟹ 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 11.8 × 1000𝑐𝑚 = 11800𝑔

𝑚 = 11800 𝑔 × = 11.8 𝑘𝑔

., ( . )
𝑃= = = = = = 23 128 𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 23𝑘𝑃𝑎
×

Note: the force acting on the lead brick is the weight which is equal to 23
mass x acceleration due to gravity.

Variation of pressure with

depth in a liquid
• Anybody does scuba
diving knows that the
pressure increases
as he dive to greater
depths
• The increasing water
pressure with depth
limits how deep a
submarine can go
crush depth 2200 ft
24

12
Pressure depends only on depth

25

Pressure is always perpendicular

to the surface of an object

26

13
 Pressure increases
with depth, so the
speed of water leaking
from the bottom hole is
larger than that from the
higher ones.

27

The deeper you go, the higher

the pressure

hypothetical volume
of water inside a
PTopA
larger volume.

density = mass/volume

 = mass/Vol
PBottomA W

or mass =   Vol
28

14
 Forces in a STATIC fluid (at rest)
• W is the weight = mg of this
volume
FTOP
• FTOP is the force on the top of
the volume exerted by the
H fluid above it pushing down
• FBOTTOM is the force on the
FBOTTOM W
volume due to the fluid below
it pushing up
• For this volume not to move
(Static fluid) we must have
that
FBOTTOM = FTOP + mg
29

Variation of pressure with depth

FBOTTOM - FTOP = mg = (density x Vol) x g
FBOTTOM - FTOP =  A H g rho

Since pressure is Force / area, Force = P x A

PBottom A – PTop A =  A H g, or

PBottom – PTop =  H g

The pressure below is greater

than the pressure above. 30

15
 Pressure in a fluid increases
with depth h
The pressure at the surface is
atmospheric pressure, 105 N/m2
Po = Patm

Pressure at depth h
h
P(h) = Po + gh
P(h)
 = density (kg/m3)
= 1000 kg/m3 for water

31

Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure and

Atmospheric Pressure

32

16
 Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure (Po) – is the pressure exerted by the
atmosphere.

 The atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and

altitude above sea level.
 At higher altitude, less pressure. The deeper the height
below sea level, greater pressure.
 As temperature increases, pressure increases.
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
= 14.7 lb/in2
= 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
1 bar = 1.00 × 105 N/m2 33

Gauge Pressure
Gauge Pressure (𝑷𝑮 ) is the excess pressure above atmospheric
pressure. It is measured with measuring instruments. It is above
atmospheric pressure.
• 𝑷𝑮 is negative, if the pressure is the pressure is less than
atmospheric, partial vacuum.
• 𝑷𝑮 is positive, if pressure is above atmospheric.

𝑷𝑮 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
• Vacuum pressure – it is the negative pressure or pressure
measured below atmospheric pressure.

34

17
 Absolute Pressure
• Absolute Pressure (𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 ) – is the total
pressure measured from absolute vacuum.

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑃 + 𝑷𝑮
𝒂𝒃𝒔 𝑮
𝒂𝒃𝒔 = pressure difference

35

Calculating Crush Depth of a Submarine

Q. A nuclear submarine is rated to withstand a pressure
difference of 70 𝑎𝑡𝑚 before catastrophic failure. If the
internal air pressure is maintained at 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, what is the
maximum permissible depth ?

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑃 − 𝑃0 = 70 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 7.1 × 10 𝑃𝑎 ; 𝜌 = 1 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃 − 𝑃0 7.1 × 106
ℎ= = = 720 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1 × 103 × 9.8
36

18
 Measuring atmospheric
pressure - Barometers
Inverted closed
tube filled with The column of liquid is
liquid held up by the pressure of
the liquid in the tank. Near
the surface this pressure
is atmospheric pressure, so
PATM PATM the atmosphere holds the
liquid up.

Pliquid 37

Barometric pressure
Atmospheric pressure
can support a column
of water 10.3 m high,
or a column of
mercury (which is
13.6 times as dense
as water) 30 inches
high  the mercury
barometer
Today’s weather
38

19
 Measuring Pressure
Q. What is height of mercury (Hg)
at 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ?

𝜌 = 13.6 𝑔/𝑐𝑚

𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ → ℎ =
𝜌𝑔
1 × 105
ℎ= = 0.75 𝑚
1.36 × 104 × 9.8

Atmospheric pressure can support a 10 meters high

column of water. Moving to higher density fluids 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ39
allows a table top barometer to be easily constructed.

Examples
1. Water stands 12.0 m deep in a storage tank whose top is open to the
atmosphere. What are the absolute and gauge pressures at the bottom of the
tank? Ans. 31.8 lb/in.2, 17.1 lb/in.2
Given: ℎ = 12 𝑚

Required: 𝑃 ?, 𝑃 ?

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ=1000 9.8 12 𝑚 = 117600 𝑃𝑎

.
𝑃 = 117600 𝑃𝑎 × = 17.065 = 17.1
1.013× Pa

𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 = 14.7 + 17.1 = 31.8

40

20
 Examples
2. A mercury barometer reads 747.0 mm Hg on the roof of a building and 760.0
mm Hg on the ground. Assuming a constant value of 1.29 kg/m3 for the
density of air, determine the height of the building. Ans. 137.1 m
Given: 𝑃 − 𝑃 = 760 𝑚𝑚 − 747 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 13 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
𝜌 = 1.29

Required: F?
1.013 x 105 Pa
×
ℎ= =
. .
ℎ = 137.06 𝑚 ≈ 137.1 𝑚

41

Examples
3. A manometer tube is partially filled
with water. Oil is poured into the left
arm of the tube until the oil-water
interface is at the midpoint of the tube.
Both arms of the tube are open to the
air. Find the height of the oil if the
height of water is 12 cm. density of oil
is 850 kg/m3. Ans. 0.14m

42

21
 Examples

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔𝑯𝟐𝑶
12 cm
𝑃 + 𝑷𝑮𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝑃 + 𝑷𝑮𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝑷𝑮𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝑷𝑮𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝝆𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒈𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝝆𝑯𝟐𝑶 𝒈𝒉𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝝆𝑯𝟐𝑶 𝒈𝒉𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒍 =
𝝆𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒈
𝝆𝑯𝟐𝑶 𝒉𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒍 =
𝝆𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 𝟏𝟐 𝒄𝒎
𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒍 =
𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 14 cm

43

Examples
4. A barrel contains a 0.120-m layer of oil floating on water
that is 0.250 m deep. The density of the oil is 600 kg/m3(a) What is the gauge
pressure at the oil–water interface? (b) What is the gauge pressure at the
bottom of the barrel? 705.6 Pa, 3155.6 Pa
𝑃 =𝑃
= 𝜌 𝑔ℎ
ℎ = 0.120 𝑚
= 600 9.8 0.12 𝑚
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
= 705.6 𝑃𝑎
ℎ = 0.250 𝑚

𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃
= 705.6 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔ℎ
= 705.6 𝑃𝑎 + 1000 9.8 0.25 𝑚
= 3155.6 𝑃𝑎

Note: Since the barrel is closed it is not 44

exposed to atmospheric pressure 𝑃 .

22
 Examples
5. The atmospheric pressure above a swimming pool changes
from 755 to 765 mm of mercury. The bottom of them pool is
a rectangle 12m x 24 m. By how much does the force on the
bottom of the pool increase?Ans. 3.8 x 105 N
Given: A = 12 𝑚 × 24 𝑚 = 288 𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝑃 ⟹ 𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃 = 765 𝑚𝑚 − 755 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 10 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
1.013 x 105 Pa
𝑃 = 10 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 × = 1332.895 𝑃𝑎

Required: F?
𝑃 = ⟹ 𝐹 = 𝐴𝑃
𝐹 = 𝐴𝑃 = 288 𝑚 1332.895 𝑃𝑎 = 383873.76 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 3.83 × 10 𝑁

45

Pascal’s Principle
• If you apply pressure
to an enclosed fluid,
that pressure is
transmitted equally to
all parts of the fluid
• If I exert extra
pressure on the fluid
with a piston, the
pressure in the fluid
increases everywhere
by that amount

46

23
 Pascal’s principle
An external pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
transmitted to every point within the fluid.

Hydraulic lift

F1 / A1 = P = F2 / A2

Assume fluid is “incompressible” 47

Pascal’s principle

Hydraulic lift

F1 / A1 = P = F2 / A2

Are we getting “something for nothing”?

Assume fluid is “incompressible”

48
so Work in = Work out!

24
 Example
1. A hydraulic system is used to lift a 2000-kg vehicle in an
auto garage. If the vehicle sits on a piston of area 0.5
square meter, and a force is applied to a piston of area
0.03 square meters, what is the minimum force that must
be applied to lift the vehicle?

49

Example
The barber raises his customer’s
chair by applying a force of 150N to a
hydraulic piston of area 0.01 m2. If the
chair is attached to a piston of area
0.1 m2, how massive a customer can
the chair raise? Assume the chair
itself has a mass of 5 kg. ans. 1500
N, 148 kg

50

25
 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛 = 153 − 5 = 148 𝑘𝑔

51

Buoyancy

A fluid exerts a net upward force on any object it

surrounds, called the buoyant force.
This force is due to the
increased pressure at the
bottom of the object
compared to the top.

Consider a cube
with sides = L

52

26
 Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ Principle: An object completely immersed
in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal in
magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.

Buoyant Force When a Volume V is

Submerged in a Fluid of Density ρfluid
Fb = ρfluid gV

Q: Does buoyant force

depend on depth?
a) yes
b) no

53

Will it float?
• The object will float if the buoyant force is
enough to support the object’s weight
• The object will displace just enough water
so that the buoyant force = its weight
• If it displaces as much water as possible
and this does not match its weight, it will
sink.
• Objects that have a density less than
water will always float.
54

27
 Floating objects

lighter object heavier object

55

Apparent weight: the weight of a body as

affected by the buoyance of a fluid in which
it is immersed.
𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑊 −𝐹
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
True weight: is the actual weight of a body

56

28
 Examples
1. A balloon having a volume of 5.000 L is placed on a sensitive balance
which registers a weight of 2.833 g. What is the "true weight" of the
balloon if the density of the air is 1.294 g L–1? 9.303 g
Given: 𝑉 =5𝐿
𝑚 = 2.833 𝑔 𝜌 = 1.294

Required: 𝑚 ?,

𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑊 −𝐹 =𝑊 − 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑊 + 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝑚 𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑔 + 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝑚 =𝑚 + 𝜌𝑉
𝑚 = 2.833 𝑔 + 1.294 5𝐿
𝑚 = 9.303 g

57

Examples
2. A wooden raft has a density of 0.500 × 10 kg/m3 and dimensions of
3.05m x 6.1m x 0.305m. How deep does it sink into the water when
unloaded? What is the maximum number of 70 kg people can the raft
carry before it sinks? Ans. 0.153 m, 40 people.

58

29
 Given: 𝑉 = 3.05m x 6.1m x 0.305m = 5.675 𝑚
𝜌 = 0.500 × 10 kg/m3

Required: ℎ ?,

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = ⟹𝑚 =𝜌 𝑉 = 0.5 × 10 × 5.675 𝑚 = 2837.5 𝑘𝑔
𝑉 𝑚

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝑊 =𝜌 𝑔𝑉
𝑚 𝑔=𝜌 𝑔𝐴ℎ
𝑚 =𝜌 𝐴ℎ

2837.5𝑘𝑔 = 1000 𝑘𝑔 3.05 𝑚 × 6.1𝑚 ℎ

.
ℎ=
. × .

ℎ = 0.153 m

59

Given: 𝑉 = 3.05m x 6.1m x 0.305m = 5.675 𝑚

𝜌 = 0.500 × 10 kg/m3

Required:𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛?,

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = ⟹𝑚 =𝜌 𝑉 = 0.5 × 10 × 5.675 𝑚 = 2837.5 𝑘𝑔
𝑉 𝑚

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝑊 =𝜌 𝑔𝑉
𝑚 =𝜌 𝑉
𝑚 +𝑚 𝑛=𝜌 𝑉
2837.5𝑘𝑔 + 70 𝑘𝑔 𝑛 = 1000 𝑘𝑔 5.675 𝑚
5.675 .
𝑛=

𝑛 = 40.54 ≈ 40 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠

Note: if we choose 41 persons, then the 60

raft will sink already.

30
 Fluid Flow and Continuity
Continuity tells us that whatever the mass of fluid in a
pipe passing a particular point per second, the same mass
must pass every other point in a second. The fluid is not
accumulating or vanishing along the way.

Volume per
unit time

This means that where the pipe is

narrower, the fluid is flowing faster
61

CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE
→ the rate of flow into an area must equal the rate of flow out of

an area.

RATE OF FLOW
Volume Flow Rate – is a measure of the volume of fluid
passing a point in the system per unit time. The volumetric
flow rate can be calculated as the product of the cross
sectional area (A) for flow and the average flow velocity (c).

𝑉̇ =volume flow rate (m3/s) 𝑉𝑖𝑛̇ = 𝑉̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡

A=cross sectional area (m2) 𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝜌𝐴2𝑣2
v=velocity of the fluid (m/s)
62

31
Mass Flow Rate – is a measure of the mass
of fluid passing a point in the system per unit
time. The mass flow rate is related to the
volumetric flow rate.
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇ 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜌𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝜌𝐴2𝑣2 :for compressible fluid
𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝜌𝐴2𝑣2 :for incompressible fluid

• 𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

• ρ = density
• 𝑉̇ = volume flow rate 63

Example
1. A pipe with an inner diameter of 4 inches contains water
that flows at an average velocity of 14 feet per second.
Calculate the volumetric flow rate of water in the pipe.
Ans. 1.22 ft3/sec.

64

32
 Example
2. The water in the pipe had a density of 62.44 lbm/ft3 and
a diameter of 4 inches. Calculate the mass flow rate. 76.18
lbm/s

65

Example
1. Water enters a typical garden hose
of diameter 1.6 cm with a velocity of 3
m/s. Calculate the exit velocity of water
from the garden hose when a nozzle of
diameter 0.5 cm is attached to the end
of the hose.

66

33
 67

Example
2. A piping system has a “Y”
configuration for separating
the flow. The diameter of the
inlet leg is 12 in, and the
diameters of the outlet legs
are 8 and 10 in. The velocity
in the 10 in. leg is 10 ft/sec.
The flow through the main
portion is 500 lbm/sec. The
density of water is 62.4
lbm/ft3. What is the velocity
out of the 8 in. pipe section?
Ans. 7.33 ft/sec. 68

34
 69

Example
3. A water hose 2.5 cm in diameter is used by a gardener
to fill a 30 L bucket. The gardener notes that it takes 1.00
min to fill the bucket. A nozzle with an opening of cross-
sectional area 0.5 cm2 is then attached to the hose. The
nozzle is held so that water is projected horizontally from a
distant point 1.00 m above the ground. Over what
horizontal distance can the water be projected?

70

35
 𝐴 1 𝑣1 = 𝐴 2 𝑣2
𝐴1𝑣1 (0.5 𝑐𝑚3/𝑠) 𝑐𝑚
𝑣2 = = = 1000 = 10 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2 0.5 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠

10 4.52

71

Conservation of Mass: The Continuity

Eqn.
Q. A river is 40m wide, 2.2m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s. It passes
through a 3.7-m wide gorge, where the flow rate increases to 6.0
m/s. How deep is the gorge?

𝐴2 = 𝑤2𝑑2
𝐴1 = 𝑤1𝑑1

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2 → 𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 = 𝑤2𝑑2𝑣2

𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 40 × 2.2 × 4.5
𝑑2 = = = 18 𝑚 72
𝑤2𝑣2 3.7 × 6.0

36
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s Principle states that fluids moving at
higher velocities lead to lower pressures, and fluids
moving at lower velocities result in higher pressures.

Where fluid moves faster, pressure is lower 73

Bernoulli’s Equation
When a fluid moves from a wider area of a pipe to a narrower
one, its speed increases; therefore, work has been done on it.

The kinetic energy of a fluid element is:

Equating the work done to the increase in

kinetic energy gives:
74

37
 Bernoulli’s Equation

The general case, where both height and speed

may change, is described by Bernoulli’s equation:

ℎ1 ℎ2

This equation is essentially a statement of

conservation of energy in a fluid.

75

Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

If a hole is punched in the side of an open
container, the outside of the hole and the top of
the fluid are both at atmospheric pressure.

Since the fluid inside

the container at the
level of the hole is at
higher pressure, the
fluid has a horizontal
velocity as it exits.

76

38
 Torricelli’s theorem

Torricelli’s law, Torricelli’s principle, or Torricelli’s

equation:
”statement that the speed, v, of a liquid flowing
under the force of gravity out of an opening in a tank is
proportional jointly to the square root of the vertical
distance, h, between the liquid surface and the centre of
the opening and to the square root of twice the acceleration
caused by gravity, 2g".

𝐯 = 𝟐𝐠𝐡

77

Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli’s

Eqn.
Q. Find the velocity of water leaving a tank through a hole in the
side 1 metre below the water level.

𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 𝑚

𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑣 =? , 𝑦 = 0 𝑚

𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣2

𝑣= 2𝑔𝑦 = 2 × 9.8 × 1 = 4.4 𝑚/𝑠

78

39
 Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli’s
Eqn.
Q. A tube with the height of 100 cm filled with water. A hole Q located
at 10 cm above the ground. Find the speed of the water at the hole?

Distance between hole and the surface of

the water (h) = 100 cm – 10 cm = 90 cm
= 0.9 m

𝑣= 2𝑔ℎ
= 2 9.8 (0.9 𝑚)
𝑣 = 4.2 𝑚/𝑠

79

Example
1. Water enters a house through
a pipe with an inside
diameter of 2.0 cm at an
absolute pressure of 4.0 x 105
Pa. (about 4 atm). A 1.0-cm-
diameter pipe leads to the
second-floor bathroom 5.0 m
above. When the flow speed at
the inlet pipe is 1.5 m/s, find the
flow speed, pressure, and
volume flow rate in the
bathroom.
80

40
 81

𝑉̇
𝑉̇

82

41
 Example
2. Water at a gauge pressure of 3.8 atm at street level
flows in to an office building at a speed of 0.6 m/s through a
pipe 5.0 cm in diameter. The pipes taper down to 2.6 cm in
diameter by the top floor, 20 m above. Calculate the flow
velocity and the gauge pressure in such a pipe on the top
floor. Assume no branch pipe and ignore viscosity. Ans.
2.22 m/s, 1.9 x 105 Pa
Given: Req’d:
𝑃1 = 3.8 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃2 =?
𝑣1 = 0.6 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣2 =?
𝑑1 = 5 𝑐𝑚 𝑑2 = 2.6 𝑐𝑚
ℎ=0 ℎ = 20 𝑚
83

𝜋𝑑
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 =
4
𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2
𝐴1𝑣1
= 𝑣2
𝐴2
𝜋𝑑12
𝐴1𝑣1 𝑣1
𝑣2 = = 4 2
𝐴2 𝜋𝑑2
4
2
𝑑1 𝑣1 𝑑1
𝑣2 = 2
= 𝑣1
𝑑2 𝑑2
𝑑1
𝑣2 = 𝑣1
𝑑2
5
𝑣2 = 0.6
2.6
𝑣2 = 2.22 𝑚/𝑠
84

42
 1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2 2
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 − 𝜌𝑣22 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑃2
2 2
1 1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 − 𝜌𝑣22 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2
2 2
1 1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 − 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2 2
1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌 𝑣12 − 𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2)
2
1.013 × 10 𝑃𝑎 1
𝑃2 = 3.8𝑎𝑡𝑚 × + 1000 0.62 − 2.222 + 1000(9.8)(0 − 20)
1𝑎𝑡𝑚 2
𝑃2 = 190669.8 Pa
𝑃2 = 1.9 × 10 Pa

85

Example
3. A nearsighted sheriff fires a cattle rustler
with his trusty six-shooter. Fortunately for the
cattle rustler, the bullet misses him and
penetrates the town water tank and causes a
leak. If the top of the tank is open to the
atmosphere, determine the speed at which the
water leaves at the hole when the water level
is 0.5 m above the hole. If the head of the
cattle rustler is 3m below the level of the hole
in the tank, where must he stand to get doused
with water? 3.13 m/s, 2.45 m/s from the water
tank
86

43
 𝑣 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣 = 2(9.8)(0.6)
𝑣 = 3.13 𝑚/𝑠
3m
𝑣𝑥 = 3.13 𝑚/𝑠
x 𝑣𝑦 = 0

1
𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡
2
1
3 = 0 𝑡 + (9.8)𝑡
2
3 = 4.9𝑡
3
𝑑 𝑡=
𝑣= 4.9
𝑡
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑡 = 0.782 𝑠
𝑑 = 3.13 0.782
𝑑 = 2.45 𝑚

87

44