CURRENT OPINION Sports Med 2002; 32 (9): 539-554

0112-1642/02/0009-0539/$25.00/0

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Performance Evaluation of Swimmers

Scientific Tools
David J. Smith,1 Stephen R. Norris1 and John M. Hogg2
1 Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary,
Alberta, Canada
2 Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Abstract The purpose of this article is to provide a critical commentary of the physio-
logical and psychological tools used in the evaluation of swimmers. The first-
level evaluation should be the competitive performance itself, since it is at this
juncture that all elements interplay and provide the ‘highest form’ of assessment.
Competition video analysis of major swimming events has progressed to the point
where it has become an indispensable tool for coaches, athletes, sport scientists,
equipment manufacturers, and even the media. The breakdown of each swimming
performance at the individual level to its constituent parts allows for comparison
with the predicted or sought after execution, as well as allowing for comparison
with identified world competition levels. The use of other ‘on-going’ monitoring
protocols to evaluate training efficacy typically involves criterion ‘effort’ swims
and specific training sets where certain aspects are scrutinised in depth. Physio-
logical parameters that are often examined alongside swimming speed and tech-
nical aspects include oxygen uptake, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, blood
lactate accumulation and clearance rates. Simple and more complex procedures
are available for in-training examination of technical issues. Strength and power
may be quantified via several modalities although, typically, tethered swimming
and dry-land isokinetic devices are used. The availability of a ‘swimming flume’
does afford coaches and sport scientists a higher degree of flexibility in the type
of monitoring and evaluation that can be undertaken.
There is convincing evidence that athletes can be distinguished on the basis
of their psychological skills and emotional competencies and that these differ-
ences become further accentuated as the athlete improves. No matter what test
format is used (physiological, biomechanical or psychological), similar criteria
of validity must be ensured so that the test provides useful and associative infor-
mation concerning current or future performance. The practical worth of any
proposed testing or monitoring protocol should be carefully evaluated. In addi-
tion, the developmental stage of the athlete(s) in question should be reflected in
the testing/monitoring programme. Finally, increasing technological innovations
will bring to the pool deck or dry-land training area simple, fast and advanced
diagnostic tools, particularly in the areas of blood-borne markers of training re-
sponse and neuromuscular excitability.
540 Smith et al.

Successful competitive swimming performance European Championship in Bonn, 1989, that per-
requires that a talented swimmer has developed formance analysis in its current form became inter-
his/her technique and physical conditioning to a national. Research in the USSR and East Germany,
high level and that the competition performance is identified through film and video analysis that
reliable (consistent high-quality swimming) through presented specific objective data of the technical
the heats, semi-finals (when necessary) and finals. components of a race was critical to coaches and
Technique and conditioning are supported by a swimmers for enhancing training and competition
strong psychological platform, appropriate tactical performance.[7]
awareness and a healthy body. The road to success
at Olympic and World level competitions may take 1.1 Methodology of Competition Analysis
between 6 to 16 years of structured training, train-
ing developed by a coach who utilises intuition, In order to perform a race analysis, video foot-
experience and scientific knowledge. The key to suc- age is recorded from several video cameras oper-
cess does not lie in training hard, but in training pur- ating from a central control panel or as separate video
posely and carefully.[1] This requires that a swim- recordings. The videotape includes encoded time
mer’s training is planned and monitored and that displayed on the video picture and the video sys-
competition performance is evaluated with respect tem is linked to the electronic timing system of the
not only to final time but also to technical compo- pool, which is activated by the starter’s signal. The
nents and strategy. Components affecting swim- first analysis, performed at the European Champi-
ming performance include basic speed, stroke me- onships in Bonn, 1989,[7] used cameras placed high
chanics, starts and turning ability; the physiological up in the stands, located at measured distances of
factors of basic and specific endurance, anaerobic 10m (start distance), 25m, 42.5m (turn distance
power and capacity, muscle power and flexibility; 7.5m in 7.5m out), 90m (finishing distance) and
and finally the psychological factors of motivation 92.5m (turn distance for an event longer than 100m).
and stress management. Evaluation of these com- On playback, when a swimmer’s head touches a
ponents together with analysed training and com- digital line superimposed on a video monitor at the
petition data should subsequently be used for im- above distances, the encoded time or frame number
proving the training prescription, the aim being is recorded in a computer. Split and final times
enhanced competitive performance. The purpose from the electronic timing system are also captured
of this article is to provide a critical commentary and incorporated into an individual swimmer’s
of scientific tools used in physiological and psy- competition analysis report. The start distance of
chological disciplines as they are utilised in the 10m and turn distance of 7.5m in and out was ini-
evaluation of swimmers. tially used based on measurements of over 400 So-
viet swimmers. The majority ended gliding at 10m
1. Competition Performance Analysis after the start and engaged in swimming motion
and similarly after a turn, had finished gliding by
Competitive swimming performances have 7.5m. However, in January 1991 La Federation Inter-
been divided into three main elements: starting, nationale de Natation (FINA: the international gov-
turning and clean swimming,[2] and finishing speed erning body for competitive swimming) adapted new
in the last 5 to 20m of a race is considered as a rules for the backstroke events allowing a swim-
fourth element. In 1988, partitioning of these tech- mer to be completely submerged during a turn and
nical elements was used to analyse the Japanese for a distance of not more than 15m after the start
Olympic Trials,[3] and stroke rate, stroke length and each turn. Thus, for the backstroke events the
and mid-pool swimming speed was analysed at the start distance for video recording increased from
Seoul Olympic Games.[4-6] The idea of competition 10 to 15m and the turn to 10m since most swim-
analysis started before 1980, but it was not until the mers emerged by that distance. The current format

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Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 541

used by Ligue Europeenne de Natation (LEN: Eu- lated by multiplying swimming speed by stroke
ropean Swimming Federation) is a 15m start and a length. This index assumes that at a given speed,
turn distance of 5m in and 10m out and a final the swimmer who moves the greatest distance per
finish distance of 5m from the wall for all events.[8] stroke has the most effective swimming tech-
The calculation of the finish speed uses the time nique.[14] Generally, fast swimmers have a longer
difference from when the swimmers head touches stroke length and higher efficiency index, but at
the 5m superimposed line to touching the wall with the elite level there are some variations based on
a hand but is divided by 4.5m rather than 5m, be- individual technique and feel for the water. As a
cause the arm reach to the wall is estimated to be race progresses, there is a progressive reduction in
0.5m. a swimmer’s efficiency index and comparison be-
tween race efforts for an individual swimmer could
1.2 Stroke Rate, Stroke Length and be a useful marker of training effectiveness. To
Efficiency Index increase speed in the short-term (within a race) a
swimmer should strive to increase stroke rate
A swimmer’s average speed during clean swim- while maintaining stroke length and in the long-
ming (the portion of a race that excludes the start, term (over the course of a season), the swimmer
turns and 5m finish) is equal to the product of should increase stroke length while maintaining
stroke rate and length. Early investigations on the any decrease in stroke rate.[15]
relationships of these two variables in competitive
swimming[9-11] overestimated stroke length be- 1.3 Practical Use of Competition Analysis
cause it was calculated from the assumption that
stroke length equalled swimming speed divided by The information obtained in competition anal-
stroke rate, where the calculation of swimming ysis is collected in a scientific manner to reduce
speed was based on event distance divided by fin- error of measurement so that accurate data can be
ishing time. This meant that the calculation did not used by a coach within a swimming meet or be-
account for the dive start, or any variation in mid- tween numerous international events. During a
pool swimming speed and turning times.[12] How- meet, sport scientists endeavour to provide the
ever, with video and computer analysis techniques, coach with both individual results and summary
stroke rate and length are currently calculated for results from all swimmers participating in an event
every 25m section of a race up to a race distance before the next session begins (i.e. heat results be-
of 200m and every 50m for 400m upwards. The fore semi-finals/finals). An example of an individ-
clean swimming speed and subsequent stroke rate ual swimmer report is presented in table I.
and length are determined between distances after The analysis allows a coach to find weak and
a 15m start, mid-pool, and pre- and post-turn (ei- strong points in the temporal aspects of a race and
ther 5 or 10m) and a finish distance from the wall check that race strategy and target stroke rates
of 5m. Stroke rate is measured as the number of were executed according to a race plan. It also per-
seconds or frames required to complete 1 or 2 mits comparison with performance variables of
stroke cycles and stroke length is calculated using opponents so that the information can be applied
the formula: stroke length (m) = swimming speed to developing technical improvements in training.
(m/sec) divided by stroke rate (cycles/sec). Swim- A history of the best technical components (start,
mers normally increase their swimming speed by turn, clean swimming speeds and finishing time)
a combination of increasing stroke length and/or achieved in recent international competitions can
stroke rate. Of these two speed components, it has be found at www.swim.ee, the website of Dr R.
been concluded that stroke length is the most crit- Haljand,[16] and an example of a comparison be-
ical factor in achieving success in competi- tween swimmers is given in table II. The winner of
tion.[5,10,13] A stroke efficiency index can be calcu- any swimming race is not necessarily the swimmer

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542 Smith et al.

Table I. An example of a swimmer summary compiled after competition video analysis in the 100m freestyle final (John Doe: World Team,
lane 4, 1st finisher)a
Distance Time Lap time Clean speed Stroke Turn time Turn speed
(m) (sec) (sec) (m/sec) rate (cycle/min) length (m) index (m • m/s) (15 m) [sec] (m/sec)
25 10.83 2.06 49.3 2.45 5.06
50 23.86 23.86 1.98 48.0 2.48 4.91 7.20 2.08
75 35.93 1.93 46.2 2.51 4.84
100 49.19 25.33 1.89 49.3 2.30 4.34

Mean 24.59 1.97 48.2 2.43 4.79

a The time and speed for result, first half, second half and 15m start were 49.19 sec, 2.03 m/sec; 23.86 sec, 2.10 m/sec; 25.33 sec, 1.97
m/sec; 5.87 sec, 1.74 m/sec, respectively.

with the fastest clean swimming speed, but the one the progress and capability of their athletes.[24,25]
who executes all technical components well and However, this ‘enthusiasm’ for data collection
swims fast enough. should be tempered by the realisation that ‘testing’
in and of itself is no guarantee of future improved
2. Monitoring of Training and performance and that it is critical that the practical
Performance Potential Via worth (i.e. the association with performance and
Specific Protocols the relationship with other relevant factors) of any
proposed testing or monitoring protocol is care-
The accurate analysis and assessment of various fully evaluated to avoid the potential situation of
components of performance within the training gathering data that has little ‘real world’ use. In
context is an important process for coaches and addition, it should also be understood that the test-
sport scientists to include as an integral aspect of ing/monitoring programme may well need to re-
the training and competition programme of a swim- flect the differences in requirements between fledg-
mer.[17-21] Training and performance diagnostic pro- ling, accomplished and elite performers and their
tocols should provide the basis for an ability to: (i) respective future performance goals.
analyse the effects and trends brought about through Aside from the use of actual race performance
training; (ii) assess the quality, structure and pre- data (arguably the ‘highest forms’ of training and
paredness for competition; (iii) predict future com-
monitoring), maximal effort swims (‘in training’
petitive performance; and (iv) provide recommen-
time trials) may be used to establish benchmark com-
dations for continued directional training.[17,22,23]
parison points. In addition to direct cross-reference
In addition, the primary areas of interest are likely
to competition speed, it is also possible to derive
to be: (i) highest short-duration speed attainable
an individualised swimming speed versus time per-
(i.e. 25m); (ii) the speed at maximal aerobic power;
(iii) the speed at ‘physiological steady state’; (iv) formance ‘curve’ based upon a series of criterion
swimming economy; and (v) anaerobic capacity. As- efforts as shown in figure 1.[3,26,27]
pects of physiology and biomechanics are bound A few prominent research groups have built
together in close concert when dealing with sport per- upon the ‘critical power’ concept described by
formance and, therefore, these two elements should Monod and Scherrer[28] to establish protocols to
be combined when examining the information examine current training status and potential per-
gained from particular sport-specific monitoring formance capability, as well as recommendations
protocols. Furthermore, swim coaches, in keeping for training design, via various linear and non-linear
with other coaches, often have a battery or reper- methodologies.[3,26,27,29-31] The review by Hill[32]
toire of sport-specific ‘sets’ that they employ at provides a complete synopsis of the mathematical
particular times during the training format to gauge models applicable to this concept. In general, al-

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Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 543

though few world class swimmers actually ‘swim 2000 and 3000m swims require the stated distance
the curve’ in terms of events, a basic goal for a to be completed in the shortest possible time. De-
swimmer is to move his/her global swimming speed spite the view that such tests give an indication of
versus time performance curve upwards and to the an extended performance capability/endurance ca-
right as shown in figure 2. An interpretation of this pacity (at least beyond competitive pool swim-
shift is unlikely to be definitive without other in- ming events, i.e. 1500m), typical average speeds
formation to include or exclude possible contribu- (m/sec) resulting from these tests are unlikely to
tors (biomechanical, physiological and psycholog- be uniform, thereby reflecting different levels of
ical). However, the overall result is an improved physiological intensity. That is, world class swim-
ability to sustain a particular (attainable) swim- mers would cover the 2000m with the fastest aver-
ming speed. age speed, the 3000m and the T30 with a somewhat
Several other non-invasive swimming tests similar speed and the T60 with the slowest average
have been discussed in the literature such as the speed when comparing these tasks with each other.
30- and 60-minute swim tests (T30 and T60)[33,34] Such tests are based upon the interrelation-
.
and the 2000[35] and 3000m swim tests,[36] all of ship between oxygen consumption (VO2), blood
which supposedly give some representation of aer- lactate concentration (B[La–]), and swimming
obic endurance capacity. The T30 and T60 tests speed (see figure 3) and, in particular, the exten-
require the swimmer to cover the greatest distance sive body of work commenting upon the use of
that they can in the set time allowed, whereas the B[La–] as an indicator of the degree of effort by, or

Table II. An example of a comparison of swimmers: European Championships 2000, women’s 100m breaststroke (reproduced from
Haljand,[16] with permission)
Parameter World best Kovacs Gerasch Bondarenko
Result (min:sec) 1:06.99 1:08.38 1:09.28 1:09.81
Start time 15m (sec) 7.69 8.28 8.48 8.50
Start speed 15m (m/sec) 1.95 1.81 1.77 1.76
Lap time (sec)
25m 14.48 15.12 15.64 15.84
75m 48.92 50.02 51.10 51.82
Swim speed (m/sec)
1st 25m 1.58 1.46 1.40 1.36
2nd 25m 1.46 1.46 1.40 1.36
3rd 25m 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.36
last 25m 1.36 1.34 1.35 1.35
Frequency (cycles/min)
1st 50m 49 47 52 37
2nd 50m 47 46 53 50
Stroke length (m)
1st 50m 1.78 1.87 1.62 2.20
2nd 50m 1.75 1.74 1.54 1.62
Turn time 5m in + 10m out (sec) 9.86 10.36 10.36 10.28
Turn speed 5m in + 10m out (m/sec) 1.52 1.45 1.45 1.46
Finishing time last 5m (sec) 3.34 3.42 3.40 3.21
Finishing speed last 5m (m/sec) 1.35 1.32 1.32 1.40
Average swimming speed (m/sec) 1.45 1.41 1.38 1.36
Average frequency (cycles/min) 48 46 52 43
Average stroke length (m) 1.77 1.80 1.58 1.91

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
544 Smith et al.

myriad of underlying limitations. Aspects such as

25m the temporal component, site of collection, and
Swimming speed (m/sec)

50m
type of blood sample taken may all influence the
100m
200m
resulting numeral representation, even before the
400m ‘blood’ is presented for analysis by a particular in-
800m strument, which itself may also introduce another
1500m
3000m level of variability.[38,42-46] Further complications
arise when one considers that factors such as an
athlete’s nutritional status (i.e. degree of glycogen
Time (sec) availability or dehydration) and the prevailing en-
vironmental conditions (i.e. hypoxia/altitude or
Fig. 1. Generic swimming speed versus time relationship. high temperature/high humidity) may also have
profound effects on the B[La–] results.[38,45,47]
Despite the extensive list of potentially con-
impact upon, a swimmer during training and com- founding factors, the use of blood lactate measures
petition.[17,21,33,34,37] in training and competition situations continues to
Various methodologies have evolved to exam- be undertaken and promoted as a ‘routine’ proce-
ine B[La–] each with their own strengths, weaknesses dure. The basic premise is that, as intensity of effort
and requirement for some degree of ‘expert’ inter- increases (i.e. power output or swimming speed),
pretation that goes beyond purely the obvious right- the B[La–] rises as a reflection of the systems in-
ward shift of the B[La–]/speed relationship. Usu- volved in the production of energy required to per-
form the task and is further modulated by the un-
ally some rationale is cited that suggests the ability
derlying mechanisms involved in dealing with
to provide information on preferred training inten-
lactate turnover. Therefore, the rate of accumula-
sity(ies), endurance performance prediction and
tion of B[La–] depends upon the intensity level of
adaptation to training.[38-41] Although B[La–] test-
the swim, while the magnitude of the B[La–] is
ing protocols have been used in athletic settings for
determined by the duration of the event.
several decades, it is important for all those con-
A clear example of a swimming-specific meth-
templating incorporating such methods and/or eval-
odology using B[La –]/speed is illustrated in the
uating the results from such tests to understand that 2 × 400m ‘2-speed test’[48] and subsequent cross-
this is a highly controversial area, both at the basic reference to longer duration swimming (e.g. the
and applied levels. T30 and T60 protocols) and race performance.[34]
Although there is a large body of peer-reviewed It is important to realise that a mosaic of informa-
literature available concerning blood lactate and tion may be gleaned from such a format of moni-
related topics, even a cursory examination of some toring. In the case of the B[La–], particularly using
of this material will reveal not only a significant methodologies such as Mader et al.,[48] Olbrecht et
number of cited testing methodologies, but also an al.[34] and Pansold and Zinner,[17] information may
over-abundance of terminology and jargon that be gathered concerning abilities to perform at par-
may or may not be used interchangeably, and/or ticular swimming speeds (or variable B[La–] lev-
refer even to similar physiological occurrences. It els), fixed B[La–] (or variable swimming speeds),
should be apparent that the use of a single blood- maximum swimming speed and peak B[La–]. This
borne parameter (in this case B[La–]) as a ‘stable’ information may then be used to more accurately
indicator of events taking place at the muscle level evaluate current performance capacities and de-
under all conditions and possible methodologies sign and control training programmes, as well as to
should be viewed with a critical appreciation of the predict future competitive performance outcome.

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 545

Overall, figure 4 illustrates the normal ‘desired’ this relationship may be used indirectly to quantify
training response of this measure, that is, a shift this economy and may further serve to indicate
down and to the right of the B[La–]/speed relation- states of transient or longer lasting fatigue, as well
ship.[1,17,21] as optimal states of preparedness (figure 5). In ad-
The kinetics of B[La–] may also be warranted dition, even without attaining maximum heart rate,
for examination under conditions where a pre- a prediction of the speed that a swimmer first at-
viously established high B[La–] is then assessed tains maximum heart rate may be identified which
during either static or low-intensity dynamic re- may itself be used to approximate the swimming
. .
covery. This form of examination may provide spe- speed at maximal VO2 (VO2max). Such tests may
cific information concerning the ability of a swim- also be combined with other simultaneous meas-
mer to ‘clear’ or remove lactate, something that has ures such as B[La–] evaluation.[1]
obvious benefits for endurance performance.[1,49,50]
As with any measurement tool, the process of under- 3. Oxygen Update and
taking the protocol and the conditions surrounding Swimming Economy
it must be carefully controlled, together with a thor-
ough understanding of potentially confounding is- Some investigators have examined swimming
.
sues. As Goldsmith[51] remarked: “Physiological economy based on the relationship between VO2
.
variables, biomechanical variables, state of rela- and swimming speed.[53,54] VO2 measures during
tive rest/fatigue, nutrition status, state of dehydra- swimming date back to 1920,[55,56] and as research
tion/rehydration will all need to be determined and progressed, significant differences in the energy
accurately measured to ensure a reliable test is car- cost of swimming at various speeds between un-
ried out”. Recently, Olbrecht[1] has produced a com- trained, competitive and elite swimmers was re-
prehensive review of the training and performance ported by Holmer[57] and the regression slopes be-
.
literature to illustrate the potential use of examin- tween VO2 and swimming speed were also shown
ing B[La–] and heart responses in swimmers in re- to be different for untrained, recreational and com-
lation to swimming speed. petitive swimmers.[53] A flatter economy slope
The technical limitations of the routine meas- could mean that swimmers have better physiolog-
.
urement of VO2 in the majority of swimming train-
ing situations has led to the development and evo-
Swimmer A
lution of a number of ‘field’ tests where heart rate
Swimmer B
is determined at particular swimming speeds thereby Pre-training
Swimming speed (m/sec)

providing coaches with a more easily obtained

physiological/performance relationship (figure 5).
This use of simple heart rate versus swimming speed-
based protocols has widespread use in swimming
programmes based on Treffene[52] with the Cana-
dian 5 × 200m ‘descending’ set (Johnson D, per-
sonal communication) and the Australian 7 × 200m
test[21] being prime examples. These tests are basi-
cally identical and allow the coach and sport sci- Time (sec)
entist to examine a number of variables and con-
structs. The overall relationship may be used as an Fig. 2. Fundamental desire involves shifting the ‘curve’ up and
indirect marker of the economy of the swimmer’s to the right. The figure illustrates the potential for the relationship
between swimming speed and time to be improved over a time
ability to effectively use his/her usable heart rate period and reflect the possible bias of training and the plasticity
range as swimming speed increases. The ‘slope’ of of a given swimmer’s adaptability.

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
546 Smith et al.

B[La−] peak*
a greater distance per stroke at a given speed than
• poorer swimmers. Thus, it is suggested that the
VO2max

•
swimmer who covers a greater distance per stroke
B[La−] at MSS**

VO2 (L/min)
VO2 at MSS**

•
at a given speed, spends less metabolic power in giv-
B[La−]

ing masses of water kinetic energy change (wasted

power) and more into overcoming drag (useful
power).[61] To increase maximal swimming speed
and stroke length, swimmers must: (i) maximise
Swimming speed (m/sec)
propulsion and propelling efficiency; and (ii) re-
duce active drag from the water.[62] With this in
Fig. 3. Swimming versus blood lactate concentration (B[La–]
. .
mind, training studies have demonstrated improve-
mmol/L) and oxygen consumption (V O2). VO2max = maximal ox- ment in technical proficiency and a consequent re-
ygen uptake; * peak typically seen post-200m race perfor-
mance; ** some arbitrarily defined maximal steady state (MSS). duction in metabolic cost of swimming at a given
speed after training.[63] Furthermore, the slope of
the swimming economy regression equation has
been shown to decrease significantly following
ical adaptation, or that they have lower active training.[64]
.
drag.[58] However, since VO2 is linearly related to
.
the intensity of effort at less than 100% VO2max,[59] 4. Anaerobic Power and
estimates of energy expenditure apply only to Strength Evaluation
slower swimming than competition speeds. Thus,
. The effective assessment of anaerobic perfor-
there is doubt that measurements of VO2 have any
relevance to economy during competition.[14] Nev- mance from both a power and capacity point of
view is another important aspect of a swimmer’s
ertheless, these estimates may provide an evalua-
evaluation. However, tests examining anaerobic
tion of improvements in swimming technique and
capabilities are not as well developed as those for
assessment of aerobic power.
supposed aerobic qualities and may require spe-
Propelling efficiency in front crawl swimming is
cialist equipment (i.e. metabolic measurement ap-
related to the amount of mechanical power parti-
paratus) and involved protocols. An example of
tioned into overcoming drag forces.[54] Furthermore,
which is the anaerobic capacity method of Medbø
metabolic power output in front crawl swimming
et al.,[65] based on the theory behind an accumu-
is related to speed cubed.[54] Significant positive
. lated oxygen deficit. Currently, the use of explo-
correlations have been reported between VO2 and
. sive tests or short-duration sprints serve to provide
swimming speed cubed (r = 0.96 to 0.99) and VO2 some information regarding anaerobic power and
and stroke rate (r = 0.92 to 0.99).[59] Furthermore, peak B[La–] levels post-race may also aid the
it was found that the slopes of the regression lines
. coach with regard to anaerobic capacity assess-
between VO2 and swimming speed cubed and be- ment dependent upon interpretation. These tests
tween oxygen demand and stroke rate were signif- need relatively little equipment other than a swim-
icantly negatively related to swimming perfor- ming pool, stopwatch, and relatively inexpensive
.
mance (speed at 100% peak VO2). Better performers micro-sample blood lactate analysers. In fact, the
.
were highlighted with lower VO2–stroke-rate slope knowledgeable design of specific swimming sets
values and attained a significantly lower stroke rate and subsequent execution can provide a great deal
and longer stroke length at specified speeds.[59] of appropriate information regarding anaerobic
The finding supported previous results by Costill performance concerning power, capacity, and the
et al.,[60] and Craig and Pendergast[10] who demon- physiological/psychological mix of dealing with
strated that advanced swimmers were able to swim an encroaching transient metabolic acidosis (lac-

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 547

tate tolerance). A key aspect to bear in mind with a Cybex™ ergometer. A recent study examined the
such tests (indeed with any test) is the extent to relationship between swimming power, intra-cy-
which it is actually correlated with performance. clic linear body speed fluctuations and sprint
Although muscular performance is determined breaststroke performance using an adapted Cybex™
principally by the amount of energy made avail- dynamometer to measure swimming power.[71]
able for muscular activity, and the rate with which The correlation between swim power and breast-
energy can be used, sprinting speed cannot be traced stroke sprinting speed was r = 0.64 (p = 0.11) and
back to a shortage of energy. In most cases it is 0.87 (p < 0.05) for males and females, respectively.
attributed to strength, coordination and technique.[1] However, the correlation between swimming power
Various scientific methods have been developed to and breaststroke performance for 91.4 and 365.8m
assess muscular power for starting and turning, and was r = 0.91 and r = 0.86, respectively (p < 0.05).
predict sprinting performance based on either The study illustrated that the ability to effectively
strength in dry-land conditions or swimming speed generate power during a partially tethered sprint
under tethered conditions. A close association has was a predictor of both sprint and endurance
been typically accepted between sprint swimming breaststroke performance.
performance and vertical jumping height, and leg
extension power measured under isokinetic condi- 5. Psychological Tests in
tions has been correlated with diving distance (r = Competitive Swimming
0.76).[66] Force and power production that simulate
There is convincing evidence that athletes can
actions used in butterfly and freestyle swimming
be distinguished on the basis of psychological
may be measured by the Biokinetic™1 swim bench
skills and emotional competencies. These differ-
(Isokinetics, Richmond, California, USA). Although
ences become obvious as the athlete improves.
it cannot duplicate the arm and hand action used in
Successful performance is governed by core psy-
the water, it does allow the swimmer to incorporate
chological factors that can positively or negatively
in one motion most of the muscle groups and me-
affect outcomes, notably, anxiety, confidence, con-
chanics required during sprint swimming.[14]
Early studies demonstrated a strong relation-
Pre-training
ship between upper body strength and sprint swim- Post-training
ming (r = 0.93)[67] and sprint time for 25 yards in Progression in swimming speed
at two example B[La−]s
swimmers less than 16 years old.[68] However, since
the best swimmers do not necessarily produce the B[La−] peak*
highest swim bench scores, it has been suggested
that maximal swimming speed and tethered swim-
ming force could be used to evaluate the balance
B[La−]

between the technical performance and the swim- B[La−] at MSS**

mer’s capacity for muscular production in the wa-
ter.[69] Adaptation of a Biokinetic™ system for
tethered swimming at cable velocities of 0.8 m/sec
for female and 1.0 m/sec for males up to a maxi- Pre-MSS Post-MSS
mum distance of 12 to 15m away from the appara- Pre-peak Post-peak
tus have been developed.[70] Further modifications Swimming speed (m/sec)
have been made to use the control mechanism from Fig. 4. Swimming speed versus blood lactate concentration
(B[La–] mmol/L) before and after a specific training phase. *
1 Use of tradenames is for product identification only and Peak typically seen post-200m race performance; ** some ar-
does not imply endorsement. bitrarily defined maximal steady state (MSS).

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
548 Smith et al.

* Denotes example 'slope' parameter first, for example, competitive trait anxiety,[74] be-
range under various conditions
Test 1 fore intruding with state measures reflecting con-
Test 2 ditions immediately before competition, for exam-
HRmax
ple, competitive state anxiety.[75] State measures
Test 1 Test 2
* can be taken once the practitioner is familiar with
Heart rate (beats/min)

the swimmers and has been unreservedly accepted

HRsubmax by them. Tests can be used to tease out personality
*
characteristics and dispositions, to create personal
profiles, to assess current psychological states and
cognitive coping skills, to identify problems and
appropriate interventions.
Psychometric tests require a quantitative ap-
Ssubmax 1 Ssubmax 2
proach to analyse the data accurately and the resul-
Smax 1 Smax 2
tant statistics require meaningful interpretation.
Swimming speed (m/sec)
Repeated measures should be taken over time with
Fig. 5. Swimming speed versus heart rate. HRmax = maximal the swimmer. Hannin[76] suggested that scores be re-
heart rate; HRsubmax = submaximal heart rate; Smax = speed at
maximal heart rate ; Ssubmax = speed at a given submaximal
corded in conjunction with performance results to
heart rate. identify an optimal zone of functioning (IZOF). With
the careful collection of state scores patterns of be-
haviour may emerge that can be adjusted or changed
centration and motivation.[72] The use of valid and to produce best performances. Popular tests have
reliable psychometric tests is one way to identify a addressed personality factors, the measurement of
swimmer’s mental strengths and weaknesses and select constructs, mood disturbances, sport orien-
the information can be used to better understand, tations, team cohesion, and so on, and generally as
monitor, and develop efficient training and competi- a construct emerges from the psychology literature
tive protocols to ensure successful performance. Col- that has practical application in the sport-specific
lecting psychometric data is not without contro- context it will be utilised. Personology tests that
versy and applied sport psychologists have generally aim to establish a relationship between personality
found that athletes dislike taking trait and state traits and performance outcome have enjoyed be-
tests primarily because they are viewed with mis- lievers as well as sceptics.[77] However, only those
trust and test results alone have never proved to be versatile tests whose items are relevant to the sport
accurate predictors of success. However, it is im- will yield useful information. Table III provides a
portant to recognise that scientific knowledge can selection of inventories that have been used with
be based on valid and reliable tests as well as on competitive swimmers. A resource of tests/inter-
observational approaches provided certain precau- ventions has been compiled by Ostrow.[78]
tions are in place. State measures can be difficult to obtain but
Psychometric tests are derived in the first in- where there are shortened versions of tests that re-
stance from the general field of psychology, and quire minimal time and intrusion, then these might
should be systematically developed for validity be more apt, for example, the Mental Readiness Form
and reliability, before being adapted to suit specific (MRF) and Profile of Mood States (POMS). Opti-
sport environments, levels of ability and age groups. mal mood profiles need to be sport specific.[104]
The selected constructs should bear direct rele- Multidimensional constructs of importance to a
vance to the sport, for example, anxiety and com- competitive swimmer’s performance have been
petitive swimming.[73] It is likely best to collect addressed elsewhere,[88,105] and research has been
trait measures reflecting personality tendencies conducted that supports the usefulness of specific

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 549

measures to create meaningful psychological pro- fectionism, and learning styles; however, Jones and
files and helpful strategies.[106-109] There are new Swain,[110,111] in relation to anxiety, have pointed
areas of research focus, such as body image, per- to the increasing need to examine the intensity and

Table III. Summary of select psychological inventories and tests used in competitive swimming
Constructs to be measured Test (acronym) Reference
Anxiety
Competitive trait anxiety The Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) 74
Competitive state anxiety (cognitive anxiety; somatic The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI2) 75
anxiety; confidence)
Competitive trait anxiety (cognitive anxiety; somatic The Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) 79
anxiety and concentration)
Stress/recovery Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (REST-Q) 80
Attention Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) 81
Mood states
mood states (tension; depression; anger; vigour; fatigue; Profile of Mood States (POMS) 82
confusion)
Mood states (tension; depression; anger; vigour; fatigue; Modified POMS 83
confusion and confidence)
mental health (swimmers) [emotional stability; 84
self-confidence; dominance; self-knowledge; affiliation]
Sport confidence The Strait-State Confidence Inventory (TSCI) 85
Sources of confidence Sources of Sport-confidence Questionnaire (SSCQ) 86
Mental coping skills
Mental coping skills (concentration; anxiety; The Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI) 79
management; mental preparation; motivation; team The Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport (PSIS) 87
emphasis)
Mental skills The Mental Skills for Swimmers Questionnaire 88
Coping strategies Controlling emotions; Organizing input; Planning the 89
subsequent response; and Executing the appropriate actions
(COPE)
Mental readiness The Mental Readiness Form (MRF) 90
Performance evaluation Mental States of Readiness and Satisfaction (MSRS) 91
Evaluation of strategies The Self-regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) 92
Attribution The Sport Attributional Style Scale (SASS) 93
Motivation
approach-avoidance Approach-avoidance Motivation Scale for Sports (AMSS) 94
task-ego orientation Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) 95
assessment Motives for Competition Scale (MCS) 96
Specialisation Sport Socialisation Questionnaire (SSQ) 97
Distractions/demands Daily Analyses of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) 98
Team cohesion The Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) 99
Sport orientation (competitiveness; desire to win; desire to The Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) 100
fulfil personal goals)
Personality (extraversion; agreeableness; neuroticism; The Neuroticism, Extraversion and Openness (NEO) 101
conscientiousness; openness to experience) Personality Inventory (NEO-PI)
Self-concept The General Sports Orientation Questionnaire (CSOQ) 102
Perfectionism The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) 103

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
550 Smith et al.

direction of competitive state anxiety, while Vealey than to unreservedly embrace suspect results and
et al.[86] suggested that examining self-confidence make false promises. Finally, there is always the
in athletes should include a closer look at the spe- x-factor or compensatory competencies or alterna-
cific causes and consequences. tive hypotheses in performance to consider. Tests
An alternative methodology to measurement in are not a means to identifying elite performers, but
swimming is a qualitative approach that seeks to can help provide additional knowledge to enhance
establish the experiences of the swimmer in deter- swimming performance provided these insights
mining his or her mental competencies, response are used in an ethical fashion.
patterns and immediate needs in order to cope with
anxieties, losses of concentration, confidence and 6. Conclusion
motivation. This information is more specific and In summary, competition video analysis pro-
encourages the swimmer to make intra-individual vides the most comprehensive evaluation of a
comparisons rather than against established norms, swimmer’s true state of preparedness. The factors
that is, how the swimmer is feeling relative to how of technique, conditioning, motivation and stress
he or she normally feels in this situation. Butler management together with tactics and health are
and Hardy[112] introduced performance profiling integrated into a single measurable performance.
which has been used in many sports including Teasing out of the factors by separate evaluation
swimming,[105] and other approaches include self- tools is necessary to analyse these underlying com-
recording, check listing,[108,113] assessing mental ponents to assess the strengths and weakness of the
skill abilities,[88] self-reflective exercises that eval- swimming performance and identify that the com-
uate performance states of readiness and satisfac- ponents are at a level that they are assumed to be.
tion,[91,114] monitoring tools for stress-recovery,[114] Since some evaluation protocols are more practical
and the consistency of coping responses of young than others, the timing and selection of tests should
swimmers in competition and training.[115] Moti- always be considered. It should be clearly recognised
vational interviewing can identify specific compet- by all concerned (coaches, swimmers and sport sci-
itive preparations[116] as well as monitor and assess entists) that for monitoring or evaluative protocols
the effectiveness of cognitive techniques, for exam- to be effective, they must be incorporated into the
ple, goal setting[117] or problem solving on issues training and competition programme in an inte-
that are dysfunctional to performance. grated and seamless manner.
The American Psychological Association,[118] The future for on-going monitoring in swim-
as well as applied sport psychologists,[119,120] have ming, indeed with all human performance endeav-
pointed to the need to safeguard ethical principles ours, is an exciting one as increases in technology
(notably privacy and confidentiality) and to follow and the migration of equipment and techniques
an established code of conduct when using inven- from research and the medical sciences bring to the
tories. Practitioners need to be aware of any methodo- pool deck or dry-land training area simple, fast and
logical shortcomings of tests, to follow procedures advanced diagnostic tools, particularly in the areas
accurately, to recognise any personal limitations in of blood-borne markers of training intensity and
test administration or interpretation and to be con- neuromuscular excitability.
servative in their feedback with the athletes. The
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