Power Plant Design

Generator Grounding

The principle objective of grounding synchronous generator system is the

protection of the generator and associated equipment against damage
caused by abnormal electrical conditions.

The main objectives of protection of generator are as follows:

1. Minimizing damage for internal ground fault.
2. Limiting mechanical stress in the generator for external faults.
3. Limiting temporary over voltage and transient over voltage on the
generator insulation.
4. Providing a means of generator system ground fault detection.
5. Coordinate the protection of generator with the requirements of other
equipment connected at generator voltage level.

A system is said to be grounded if intentionally one point is connected to

ground. Typically a neutral of a generator or transformer is grounded either
directly or through an impedance of suitable value. Even a system is
ungrounded, that means there is no intentional connection to ground.

A system is furthermore solidly grounded if no intentional impedance is

inserted between the neutral and ground.

Equipment grounding and system grounding

There is distinction between equipment grounding and system grounding.

A. Equipment grounding means how the frame or enclosure of

electrical equipment is connected to earth. (Detail not covered here).
B. System grounding means how the electric neutral is connected to
earth.

Methods of system neutral grounding to achieve the above objectives can

broadly be categorized as follows:
1. Ungrounded
2. Solidly grounded
3. Low reactance grounded

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 4. Resonant (Arc suppression coil) grounding.
5. Low resistance grounded
6. High resistance grounded/Transformer grounding.

1. Ungrounded systems

As mentioned earlier, a system is ungrounded when there is no intentional

connection to ground. Nevertheless, the term ungrounded is a little
misleading as there is a connection to ground through the distributed
capacitances of the equipment connected cables, transformers, generators,
and so on.

In a balanced three-phase system, the vector sum of the capacitive phase

currents will be equal to zero, and the vector sum of the phase voltages will
also be zero, and thus the neutral will be held at approximately ground
potential.

If one phase of the system (phase ‘B’) becomes connected to ground due to
a fault, then that phase and the ground will have the same potential. The
voltages in the two healthy phases will then rise to the system phase to
phase voltage. The fault current is restricted by the system (healthy lines)
capacitance to ground current.

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In reality a fault is seldom solid, but often intermittent in nature (arcing or
re-striking) and there is a danger of transient over voltage. The transient
voltage can reach very high levels (~ six times) the normal phase-to-phase
voltages, which can give cause to insulation failure of one of the healthy
phases. This results in the form of short circuiting. There is also a danger of
a resonance condition if the fault path includes an inductive reactance
equal, or approximately equal, to the capacitive reactance to ground.

Advantages:
 Low fault current limited by the system’s capacitance to ground.
 The system can be operated, at least for a limited period of time, with
one ground fault present if correctly designed, providing high service
continuity.
 Economic earthing scheme.

Disadvantages:
 In case of fault, voltages on the healthy phases are equal to line-to-
line voltages, thereby affecting the rating of the surge protective
devices.
 Danger of very high over voltages with an intermittent fault. Transient
voltage not controlled.
 Difficult to achieve selective ground fault protection.
 A second ground fault in another phase would result to phase to phase
short circuit.

2. Solidly grounded systems

A solidly grounded system is a system where the neutral of a power source

is connected directly to ground without any intentional impedance. This
method seems appropriate in low voltage system and extra high voltage
system. For low voltage, the fault current will also small. For extra high
voltage (above 66 kV) system, the significant capacitive current of healthy
phases would offset the load current via neutral. In reference to figure
below,
𝐼𝑁 = ⃑⃑𝐼𝑓 − (𝐼⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐶𝑌 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵 )

Solid grounding of medium voltage (>1000 V) generator systems are

generally not recommended due to the fact that for generators, the zero
sequence reactance (Xo) is much less than the positive sequence sub-
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transient reactance (X”d). Xo is typically half of the X”d value, which
means that the ground fault current exceeds the value of a three-phase short
circuit current by two times.

As the fault current is high, ranging from hundreds of ampere up to tens of

kilo ampere, the application of protective devices and the detection of fault
currents are relatively straightforward, and ordinary over current sensing
devices (fuses, relays) can be applied.

Advantages:

 The neutral is effectively held at earth potential. Good control of over

voltage, both transient and temporary.
 Allows the application of lower rated surge protective equipment
(surge arrestors or capacitors).
 Easy and selective fault detection possible. Permits the easy operation
of earth fault relay.

Disadvantages:
 Very high and potentially destructive fault currents for internal faults.
Complete interruption and possibility of equipment damage. May
cause greater interference with neighboring communication lines.
 May cause voltage gradient problems.
 Single phase fault escalation to 3-phase fault.
 May cause 3rd harmonic voltage1 circulation problems.

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The voltage of generators has a low content of 3rd harmonic voltage due to the uneven physical distribution of stator-
windings in the generator, which do not produce a fully sinusoidal voltage. The generators should be designed for
minimized 3rd harmonic voltage content by utilizing a 2/3 winding pitch. On the other hand, this usually means over
sizing of the generator and potentially reduced efficiency.

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 3. Low reactance grounded systems

Low reactance grounded systems are made by intentionally inserting an

inductance between the neutral and ground. In power generation, such
systems, are almost exclusively used when there is a need to provide
generation directly to medium voltage distribution, and where the loads are
single phase and grounded. There are many concerns related to the
application of generation grounding for low reactance grounded systems.
The choice of having the transformers solidly grounded in the distribution
system, also limits the choice of methods for the generation system
grounding. The generators must be grounded with a system that provides
similar characteristics as the distribution system.

Typically, medium voltage generators are grounded using low inductance

to limit fault current. Because of direct feeding to the distribution network,
the generators are exposed to the capacitance of the system, and thus there
is also a risk of voltage resonance.

Advantages:
 Limits transient and temporary over voltage to values close to those of
a solidly grounded system. Allows the use of lower rated surge
protective equipment.
 Lower ground fault current compared to solidly grounded systems.

Disadvantages:
 Ground fault current levels, while limited, are still high, with
potentially destructive fault currents.
 Low reactance systems may experience circulation of a 3rd harmonic
current.
 Resonance conditions might occur. Need of surge protection.
 Care should be exercised in rating neutral point equipment
 Relatively expensive neutral point equipment.

4. Resonance (Peterson coil) Grounding

It operates on the principle that if an inductance of appropriate value is

connected in parallel to the capacitance, the fault current can be reduced
significantly if operates at resonance. Hence the inductance required
depends on capacitive current to ground. The arc suppression coil is an iron
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core tapped reactor connected to neutral to ground connection. The tap
setting should be such that it should be tuned to system capacitance. To
some extent, it acts same as ungrounded system.

At resonance, IN = IC
But IN = Vph/XL & IC = 3Vph/XC as illustrated below.

The resultant of ICR and ICY is IC.

From the phasor diagram

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If IC is equal to IN there will be no current through the ground, and there
will be no tendency of the arcing grounds to occur.

Advantages
 There are advantages of ungrounded neutral system.
 It is completely effective in preventing any damage by an arcing
ground.
Disadvantages
 Due to varying operational conditions, the capacitance of the network
changes from time to time. Therefore, inductance L of Peterson coil
requires readjustment.

5. Low resistance grounded systems.

Low resistance grounding is carried out by inserting a low resistance

between the equipment neutral and ground. Although the resistance value
can have various values, it is often chosen to restrict the ground fault
current to a value of 50-1000 A. The advantage of low resistance grounding
versus solidly grounded systems is the limitation of ground fault current,
from several kA to values lower than one kA, while providing good control
of temporary and transient over voltage. Still during a fault, it is a high
level of current and it might cause considerable damage.

This method of grounding is generally used where two or more generators

are bussed at generator voltage and connected to a system through one step
up transformer or where the generator is connected directly to a distribution
system.

Advantages:
 Lower ground fault current compared to solidly grounded systems.
 Good control of temporary and transient over voltages.
 Easy and selective fault detection.

Disadvantages:
 Ground fault current are still at a comparably high level to cause
possible damage.
 Care should be exercised in the selection of surge protective
equipment. Low impedance systems may experience the circulation of
a 3rd harmonic current.
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  Relatively expensive neutral point equipment. Costlier than solidly
grounded system.

Chilime HPP, Trishuli HPP, Kulekhani II have used such grounding.

6. High resistance grounding

High resistance grounding is carried out by inserting a high resistance

between the equipment neutral and ground. The absolute resistance value
can differ from case to case but is often chosen to restrict the ground fault
current to a value of 5-10 A. The main advantage of high resistance
grounding, versus low impedance and solidly grounded systems, is the
limitation of ground fault current while still providing good control of
temporary and transient over voltage. In order to dampen the temporary and
transient over voltage to acceptable levels, the resistance value of the
neutral grounding resistor has to be chosen carefully. A value of the
resistive current equal to or slightly higher than the system capacitive
current to ground should be chosen. This condition is met when the ohmic
value of the resistance (Rn) is equal to or slightly lower than, the three-
phase capacitive reactance to ground (Xcg).

Fig. 1 Transient Voltage in percent of Rated Peak Line to Ground

Voltage

Advantages:
 Limits transient and temporary over voltage to safe values if correctly
designed.

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  Ground fault currents limited to low values, with lower potential
damage for an earth fault.
 High enough resistance to inhibit circulation of a 3rd harmonic
current. Relatively inexpensive neutral point equipment.
 Easy and selective fault detection with modern relays.

Disadvantages:
 May not be applicable to all systems, as the ground fault current
maybe too low to be detected by older types of relays. The equipment
installed in an existing system (e.g. surge arrestors) may also have
voltage ratings that are too low.

Distribution Transformer for Grounding

High Resistance Grounding normally takes the form of a low ohmic value
resistor connected to the secondary of a distribution transformer with the
primary winding of the transformer connected from the generator neutral to
ground. The advantage of the distribution transformer resistor combination
is that the resistor used in the secondary of the distribution transformer is of
comparatively low ohmic value and of rugged construction as compared to
obtaining the same result by installing a high ohmic, low current resistor
directly in the generator neutral.

The primary voltage rating of the distribution transformer in the generator

neutral should be equal to or slightly greater than the generator phase to
neutral voltage. In general, a voltage rating of the nearest standard value
below the generator line to line voltage is used.

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 Fig. Resistance grounding with Distribution Transformer

Utilities generally prefer solidly grounded systems for voltage levels from
69 kV upwards, for their transmission and sub-transmission systems. This
is primarily due to the control of Transient Over Voltages permitting the
use of lower rated insulation and surge protection. At 3.3-33 kV, practices
differ, even between utilities in the same country. Consideration has to be
given to a variety of factors; economics, loads (three-phase or single phase),
service continuity, control of over voltage, and even environmental
considerations. Industrial systems are often resistance grounded - high or
low resistance, or ungrounded for very critical processes. The primary goal
here is service continuity and equipment damage control.

Marsyandi HEP, KaliGandaki HEP use DT Resistance Grounding.

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Calculation of Neutral Resistor:

Taking the reference of 13MVA, 11kV Synchronous Generator in Chilime

Hydro- power Plant,

Capacitance at Terminals of Generator with respect to Ground (Co) = 0.135

µF
Capacitance of Surge Capacitor w.r.t. ground (Cs) = 0.25 µF

And the Capacitance of Cable from generator terminal to CB, Unit Aux.
Transformer, and Generator Transformers can be neglected since they are
in the range of Pico Farad.
Cg = Co + Cs
= 0.385 µF
Xco = 1/ (2πfCg) = 8267.8 Ω

The Capacitive Reactance to Ground (Xcg) seem at the neutral is equal to

the parallel combination of the capacitive reactances to ground of all three
phases.
Xcg = Xco/ 3 = 2756.0 Ω

As Shown in Fig. 1, for the Restriking voltage not to exceed 2.5 times the
rated voltage, Rn should be around Xcg.

Hence,
Rn = Xcg = 2756.0 Ω

The value of Neutral Resistor calculated is in the range of High resistance

grounding. So a distribution transformer is also to be selected.

If we select a distribution transformer of ratio 11/ 3 : 0.240 kV,

Transformation Ratio (n) = 26.46
The neutral Resistor now to be inserted in secondary of the Distribution
Transformer so that the equivalent value reflected in the primary side will
be as calculated above.
R’n = Rn/n2 = 2756.0 / (26.46)2 = 3.94 Ω

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Rating of Distribution Transformer:

During a sustained ground fault, current will flow in the secondary resistor.
The maximum neutral voltage is assumed to be phase to ground voltage.
Isec max = Vsec max / Rsec = 240/3.94 = 61.0 A

Since the Current rating of the calculated Grounding Resistor is high, it can
be significantly reduced by selecting the voltage ratio of the distribution
transformer high i.e. 11/ 3 : 0.480 kV

Transformation Ratio (n) = 13.23

The neutral Resistor now to be inserted in secondary of the Distribution

Transformer so that the equivalent value reflected in the primary side will
be as calculated above.
R’n = Rn/n2 = 2756.0 / (13.23)2 = 15.74 Ω

Rating of Distribution Transformer

During a sustained ground fault, current will flow in the secondary resistor.
The maximum neutral voltage is assumed to be phase to ground voltage.
Isec, max = Vsec max / Rsec = 480/15.74 = 30.5 A

This value is the current through the neutral device during a ground fault
condition. Grounding resistor must be rated to withstand the full thermal
current.

The thermal rating of the transformer is calculated using full transformer

voltage and the following equation:
kVA = Esec rated * Isec max = 14.64 kVA

Grounding transformer can be rated on a short time basis as in Table 1. The

table presents Permissible Short Time Overload Factors for Distribution
Transformers Used for Neutral Grounding.

Table 1. Permissible Short-Time Overload Factors for Distribution

Transformers Used for Neutral Grounding

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 Duration of Overload Multiple of Rated kVA

10 Sec 10.5
60 Sec 4.7
10 min 2.6
20 min 1.9
2 hr 1.4

Considering 10 minute Duration, Overload factor following no load is 2.6

(from Table.1)
14.64/ 2.6 = 5.63 kVA
But the cost difference between the 5 kVA and 15 kVA is not so higher, it
is better to select the continuous rating rather than short time rating. Hence,
15 kVA, Dry type transformer is selected.

Now, the thermal rating of the resistor can be calculated with the
assumption:
if a solid fault occurs so Rfault=0, the power dissipated in the grounding
resistor, Pr, will be:
Pr = E2L-N / Rn = (11000/ 3 ) 2 / 2756.0 = 14.64 kW.

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