THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE BOOK ON

COMPUTER AWARENESS FOR COMPETITIVE

L EXAMS N
IA O
C N
R ER LY P
U C F
FO M ON R O O
R
M P M
O SE O M
C O S E
N P E R
O R O C
N U N IA
P L L
Y

EACT CLASSES

COMPUTER
AWARENESS
FOR JKSSB, BANK AND ALL OTHER COMPETETIVE
EXAMS
1ST EDITION
COMPREHENSIVE COVERAGE.

CHAPTERWISE MCQS FOR

PRACTICE

UP-TO-DATE INFO ON THE

LATEST ADVANCEMENTS IN
TECHNOLOGY.

CONCISE AND EASY-TO-

UNDERSTAND EXPLANATIONS.

PERFECT FOR VARIOUS

COMPETITIVE EXAMS,
INCLUDING JKSSB, STATE
SERVICES BANK PO, CLERK,
SSC, RAILWAY, AND MORE.

BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE NO.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 1

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER 13

INPUT / OUTPUT (I / O) UNIT OF A COMPUTER 28

COMPUTER MEMORY 56

COMPUTER SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEMS 75

COMPUTER PROGRAMMING 103

COMPUTER NETWORKING 113

INTERNET 124

COMPUTER SECURITY 138

MICROSOFT OFFICE 147

EMERGING TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY 190

NUMBER SYSTEMS 201

APPENDIX 1 213
 PREFACE
It gives me immense pleasure to present to you this comprehensive guide on
computer awareness for different competitive exams. This book is a part of our free
education campaign at EACT Classes, it aims to provide quality education to all
aspiring students who wish to excel in their exams.
In today's digital world, computer awareness has become an essential skill for every
individual. Whether you are preparing for bank PO, clerk, SSC, railway, or any other
competitive exam, having a sound knowledge of computers and technology can give
you a competitive edge over others.
This book is a compilation of inputs from multiple sources, primarily Computer
Awareness by Arihant Publications. The author or the EACT Classes intend no
monetary returns from this book and thus has been made available for the aspirants
free of cost.
We have carefully curated the content to ensure that it covers all essential topics
relevant to various competitive exams. The book covers fundamental computer
concepts, hardware, software, networking, and the latest advancements in
technology. It provides concise and easy-to-understand explanations of complex
topics, making learning effortless. The book is designed with a user-friendly layout,
engaging graphics, and illustrations to keep you motivated throughout your learning
journey.
I hope this book proves to be a valuable resource for your preparation and helps you
develop a strong foundation in computer awareness. I wish you all the best for your
exams.

Sincerely,
TAWQEER UL ISLAM
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Dear Reader,
I am thrilled to introduce you to this book on computer awareness for different
competitive exams, brought to you by EACT Classes as part of our free education
campaign. This book is a compilation of inputs from multiple sources, primarily
Computer Awareness by Arihant Publications. We have taken their work as a
foundation and added our own unique insights and perspectives to create a
comprehensive guide that is relevant to various competitive exams.
I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to all the faculty members of EACT Classes
under the leadership of Lateef sir, who have contributed to this book. Their dedication
and hard work have made this book possible.
I would like to express a special word of thanks for Ms Behjat Reyaz who helped me
in framing the multiple choice questions for this book.
I would also like to acknowledge the students of EACT Classes, who have been a
constant source of inspiration for us. Their enthusiasm and eagerness to learn have
encouraged us to create this book as part of our free education campaign.
I owe a debt of gratitude to my father, mother, sister, brother, and close friends, who
have always supported and encouraged me to pursue my passion for education. Their
unwavering faith in me has been a driving force behind this book.
This book is dedicated to all the students who are preparing for various competitive
exams. We hope this book proves to be a valuable resource for your preparation and
helps you develop a strong foundation in computer awareness. We believe that
education is a fundamental right, and it is our responsibility to ensure that every
student has access to quality education.

Sincerely,
TAWQEER UL ISLAM
FOR FREE LECTURES ON COMPUTER AWARENESS BASED ON THIS BOOK AND
OTHER SUBJECTS CHECK OUT THE

EACT CLASSES
YOUTUBE CHANNEL
https://www.youtube.com/@eactclasses

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Learning Objectives

• Definition of a Computer.

• Functioning of a Computer.

• Characteristics of a Computer.

• Classification of Computers.

• Applications of Computers.

WHAT IS A COMPUTER
•The word computer has been derived from the Latin language word ‘Computerae’ which
means to compute.

DEFINITION 1: A computer is a digital electronic machine that can be programmed to carry

out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically.

•Digital: Everything inside the computer is stored and processed in Binary.

•Electronic: Made up of Semiconductors.

•Programmed: To make the same hardware work in different ways as we want.

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DEFINITION 2: A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or data

according to the set of instructions. It takes in, stores, processes and outputs the data.
DEFINITION 3: A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations
and operations based on instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It has
the ability to accept data (input), process it, and then produce outputs.

WORKING OF A COMPUTER
A Computer performs four basic functions which are as follows:
1. Input: Information or data that is entered into a computer is called input. It sends data
and instructions to the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
2. Processing: It is the sequence of actions taken on data to convert it into information
which is meaningful to the user. It can be calculations, comparisons or decisions taken by
the computer.
3. Output: It makes processed data available to the user. It is mainly used to display the
desired result to the user as per input instructions.
4. Storage: It stores data and programs permanently. It is used to store information during
the time of program execution and possible to get any type of information from it.

FEATURES / CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

• Speed of Computer: Speed is one of the major characteristics of the computer
system. A computer works of as fast that it can process any task and provide the
output in fractions of seconds. A powerful computer can handle trillions of
instructions per second which is really incredible.
• Accuracy of Computer: Computers not only provide incredible speed, instead, they
are also capable of consistently working with accuracy. The degree of accuracy in
computers is very high; computers can perform calculations at almost 100%
accuracy. Errors may occur in a computer system, but only because of wrong
human input or inaccurate data. (Garbage in Garbage Out).

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• Diligence of Computer: Unlike a human, the computer doesn’t get tired or lacks its
concentration. Due to this characteristic, it overpowers human being in most of the
regular tasks. It can work for hours without any fault. This means that if millions of
calculations are to be done, a computer will perform every calculation and provide
all the results with the same accuracy.
• Versatility of Computer: Versatility is one of the most wonderful features of
computers. This means that the computer has the ability to perform completely
different kinds of works with the same accuracy and efficiency at the same time. It
is not just a calculating machine anymore. Forexample: for one moment it can be
used to create invoices or bills, and the next moment it can be used for inventory
management or any multimedia task, etc.
• Reliability of Computer: The results obtained by the computer are very reliable. But
this is true only when the data given to the computer or program is correct and
reliable.
• Consistency of Computer: The computer is so consistent that it can perform trillions
of processes without errors for several hours. This means that we can use a
computer 24 hours a day or 365 days a year continuously. Furthermore, it provides
consistent results for the same set of data, that is, if it is given the same set of data
multiple times, it will give the same result each time.
• Memory of Computer: A computer has a built-in memory, where it can store instant
data immediately. Here, we are referring to random access memory (primary
memory) that holds data as long as the computer is connected to a power source.
Data is erased from memory after shutting down the computer. In addition, the
computer includes ROM (read-only memory), the cache memory of different levels,
virtual memory, etc., thereby speeding up performance.
• Storage Capacity of Computer: Computers can store vast amounts of data. Today's
computers have increased storage capacity compared to earlier days. Besides, we
also have the option to store data in secondary devices such as external drives, or
floppies, etc. These secondary devices can be kept separate from the computer or
attached to other computers.
• Remembrance Power of Computer: The computer has the power to store any data
or information for as long as we like. Data can also be recalled easily if needed. It
is our choice to decide how much data we want to store on the computer and when
to recall or erase these data.
• Automation in Computer: Computers can also be used to automate routine tasks
with the help of a task scheduler such as launching a specific application or
software, sending an email, scanning for viruses, and many other maintenance
tasks. Besides, computer scan also be programmed to perform many complex
tasks. For example, the computer can start daily maintenance tasks automatically
when it is in an ideal state. This includes tasks such as software updates, security
scanning, and system diagnostics, etc.
• NOIQ

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• No Feelings

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

I. BASED ON SIZE
On the basis of size, computers are categorized as follows:
1. Microcomputers: These types of computers are the least powerful, yet the most
widely used and are also called portable computers. Its CPU is a Microprocessor.
Some types of micro-computer are as follows
(a) Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC): These are small, relatively
economical computers. These are based on the microprocessor technology
(Integrated Circuit-IC).
(b) Workstation Computer: These are computers dedicated to a user or group of
users engaged in business or professional work. It includes one or more high
resolution displays and a faster processor than a Personal Computer (PC).

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(c) Laptop: These computers are also known as ultra-book or notebook. These
are portable and light-
weight. They include rechargeable battery, so these can work anywhere.
(d) Handheld or Palmtop Computer: These are the smallest and are designed to
fit into the palm. So, these are also known as Palmtop. They are practical for certain
functions such as phone books and calendars. They use the pen for input instead of
keyboard. e.g. PDA (Personal Digital Assistant), tablets, etc.
(e) Tablet Computer: They have key features of the notebook computer, but these
can accept input from a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse.

2. Minicomputers: These are smaller in size, faster and cost lower than mainframe
computers but more powerful than the micro-computers. Initially, the minicomputer
was designed to carry out some specific tasks, like engineering and Computer Aided
Design (CAD) calculations. But now, they are being used as central computer which
is known as Server. Some minicomputers are IBM-17, DEC PDP-11, HP-9000, etc.

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3. Mainframe Computers: These types of computers having

larger internal memory and storage, more computational power
and comprehensive range of software than the mini computers.
It is considered as the heart of a network of computers or
terminals that allow a large number of people to work at the
same time. Some mainframe computers are IBM-370, IBM-S/390,
UNIVAC-1110, etc.

4. Supercomputers: These are the fastest and most expensive

machines. Supercomputers are most powerful, large in size and
memory, compared to all other computers. The speed of supercomputers are
measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per Second). Supercomputers are
used for highly calculation intensive tasks, such as global weather forecasting,
nuclear research, military agencies and scientific research laboratories.
(i) CRAY-1 was the world’s first supercomputer introduced by Seymour Roger
CRAY (called as "the father of supercomputing") in 1976.
(ii) PARAM 8000 was the first supercomputer developed in India (by CDAC) in
1990.
Dr Vijay P Bhatkar is one of the internationally acknowledged scientist and IT
leader of India. He is known as the man behind India's first supercomputer.
(iii) PARAM SIDHI AI is the latest machine in the series of PARAM. PARAM Siddhi-
AI is a high- performance computing-artificial intelligence (HPC-AI) and by
far the fastest supercomputer developed in India.
(iv) The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) and IIT
Gandhinagar unveil Param Ananta, India's latest supercomputer.
(v) Two supercomputers from India — PARAM Siddhi-AI and Mihir — have made
it to the TOP500 list of the world's most powerful supercomputers.
(vi) The two systems have been ranked 63rd and 146th,
respectively, and remain the only two supercomputers from India
in the latest list of TOP500 released on November 18 2020.

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(vii) Earlier, the fastest supercomputer on the TOP500 supercomputer list was
Fugaku, in Japan, with a LINPACK benchmark score of 415 PFLOPS, followed
by Summit (USA), by around 266.7 PFLOPS.
(viii) The US's Frontier system is now the fastest supercomputer in the world. (May
2022).
WHAT IS PFLOPS?
In computing, floating point operations per second (FLOPS, flops) is a measure of computer
performance, useful in fields of scientific computations that require floating-point
calculations. 1 petaFLOPS = 1015 FLOPS

SIZE COMPARISION
Micro-Computers < Mini Computers < Mainframe Computers < Super Computers

COMPUTATIONAL POWER COMPARISION

Micro-Computers < Mini Computers < Mainframe Computers < Super Computers

II. BASED ON WORK

On the basis of work, computers are categorized as follows
1. Analog Computer: These computers carry out arithmetic and logical operations by
manipulating and processing of data. e.g., Speedometers, seismograph, etc. Analog
computer can perform several mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses
continuous variables for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or
electrical energy.
2. Digital Computer: These do work by calculating the binary digits. A digital computer,
not only performs mathematical calculations, but also combines the bytes to
produce desired graphics, sounds. e.g., Desktop (PC).

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3. Hybrid Computer: These are the combination of analog and digital computers.
Machines used in hospitals like ECG and DIALYSIS are the commonly used hybrid
computers.

III. BASED ON PURPOSE

On the basis of purpose, computers are categorized as follows
1. General Purpose Computer: General purpose computers are those computers,
which are used to solve variety of problems by changing the program or
instructions. e.g. To make small database, calculations, accounting, etc. Personal
computers, including desktops, notebooks, smartphones and tablets, are all
examples of general-purpose computers.

2. Special Purpose Computer: Special purpose computers are those computers which
are used to solve a single and dedicated types of problem. e.g., Traffic Light Control
System, Automatic aircraft landing, multimedia computer, etc.

IV. MISCELLANEOUS TYPES

1. Nano Computer: Nano computer is a general team used to describe a
computer smaller than a microcomputer, usually about the size of a credit
card. e.g. Raspberry Pi which could be used in schools to teach science to
children.

2. Quantum Computer: Quantum computer uses the principles of quantum

physics like, Quantum superposition and Quantum Entanglement. David
Deutsch, father of quantum computing. Data unit used is called qubit
(quantum bit). Alan Turing is known as the father of the modern computer.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
Some of the areas where computers are being used are as follows
1. Banking.

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2. Education
3. Science
4. Government Areas
5. Medical
6. Arts
7. Safety and Security
8. Communication
9. Weather Forecasting
10. Advertisement
11. Business

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

Subject 1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation 4th generation 5th generation

Period 1940-1956 1956-1963 1964-1971 1971-present present &

beyond

Circuitry Vacuum tube Transistor Integrated Microprocesso ULSI (Ultra

chips (IC) r (VLSI) Large Scale
Integration)
technology

Memory 20 KB 128KB 1MB Semiconductor VLSI and ULSI

Capacity type and very
high

Processing 300 IPS inst. 300 IPS 1MIPS(1 Faster than 3rd Very fast
Speed Per sec. generation
million inst.
Per sec.)

Programming Assembly High level C,C++ C,C++,Java All the Higher

Language Language language level
(FORTRAN, languages,

COBOL, Neural
ALGOL) networks,

Example of UNIVAC, IBM 1401, IBM IBM 360 series, Pentium series Artificial
computers EDVAC 7094, CDC Multimedia, Intelligence,
3600,D UNIVAC 1900 series Stimulation Robotics
1108

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HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

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EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
• Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding machine in 1642.
• Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first calculator for multiplication in 1671.
• Keyboard machines originated in the United States around 1880.
• Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards that were
extensively used as input media until late 1970s.
• Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of digital computers.
• He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822.
• He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in 1842 for performing basic arithmetic
functions.
• His efforts established a number of principles that are fundamental to the design of any
digital Computer.

SOME WELL KNOWN EARLY COMPUTERS

• The Mark I Computer (1937-44): Automatic Sequence Controlled Computer. Built by
Harvard and IBM in collab. Electromechanical.
• The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42): Also called ABC. Used Vacuum Tubes and
Capacitors.
• The ENIAC (1943-46): Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator. First Electronic
Computer. Built at University of Pennsylvania. Programs were wired on boards.
• The EDVAC (1946-52): Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer. Based on Von
Neuman’s Stored program concept.
• The EDSAC (1947-49): Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator. Built at Cambridge
University.
• Manchester Mark I (1948): Small experimental machine with storage capacity of 32 words,
each word of 31 binary digits.
• The UNIVAC I (1951): Universal Automatic Computer. First computer which was not ‘one of
a kind’. First general-purpose electronic computer.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The speed of a supercomputer is (D) TLOPS

generally measured in ______. 2. What is the full form of FLOPS in the
(A) FLOPS context of speed of supercomputer?
(B) BLOPS (A) Floating Point Operations Per Second
(C) ELOPS (B) Fix Point Operations Per Second

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(C) Float Point Operations Per Second (C) Mainframes

(D) Feet Point Operations Per Second (D) Embedded computers
3. _________ aims to design intelligent
machines that can help and assist 9. Computers don't understand words or
humans and develops machines that can numbers the way humans do and
substitute for humans and replicate everything is represented by a _________
human actions. electrical signal that registers.
(A) Robotics (A) Processing
(B) Computer forensics (B) Kilobyte
(C) Animations (C) Binary
(D) Forecasting (D) Representational

4. Between receiving input and providing 10. What was used in second generation
output, your computer will perform computers?
logical operation called ___________. (A) Vacuum Tubes
(A) Memory Management (B) Microprocessors
(B) Programming (C) Integrated Circuits
(C) Processing (D) Transistors
(D) Storing
11. Punch cards were used as _______.
5. Each CPU has a built in ability to (A) Control Unit
perform a set of machine instructions (B) ALU
called its………….. (C) Output device
(A) Instruction Cycle (D) Input device
(B) Instruction Set
(C) Instruction Length 12. ______ is processed, manipulated and
(D) Instruction Speed interpreted
(A) Facts
6. When the computer restarts or when (B) Information
reset button is pressed, it is called: (C) Data
(A) Normal Booting (D) Knowledge
(B) Warm Booting
(C) Reset Booting
(D) Cold Booting 13. What is the full form of CAM?
(A) Computer Add Manufacturing
7. _________ is a small amount of memory (B) Computer Aided Mining
on a computer motherboard that stores (C) Computer Add Mining
the BIOS settings. (D) Computer Aided Manufacturing
(A) CMOS
(B) NIC 14. Notebook computer, desktop
(C) UEFI computer, handheld computer is the
(D) POST example of which type of computer?
(A) Minicomputer
8. ________ is a computer, that is (B) Microcomputer
integrated into devices and is dedicated to (C) Mainframe
the functions of a specific device. (D) Supercomputer
(A) Servers
(B) Robotic computers

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15. Which of the given options is NOT the

basic/major function of Computer
System?
A. A computer displays the processed
data in the form of output
B. A computer accepts the input from the
user
C. A computer scours the Internet for
content
D. A computer processes the data given
by the user

16. 1 TFLOPS = ______FLOPS.

(A) 10 12
(B) 10 15
(C) 10 6
(D) 10 9

17. What is the full form of FDM in 3D

printing?
(A) Fused Direct Making
(B) Fused Deposition Modeling
(C) Fused Deposition Making
(D) Fused Direct Modeling

18. Second generation computer uses

______.
(A) integrated circuit
(B) transistor
(C) vacuum tubes
(D) resistor

19. Which is the correct meaning of

UNIVAC?
A. Unvalued Automatic computer
B. Unique Automatic Computer
C. Universal Array Computer
D. Universal Automatic Computer

1. A 2. A 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. D 7. A 8. D 9. C 10. D
11. D 12. B 13. D 14. B 15. C 16. A 17. B 18. B 19. D

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Chapter 2
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

Learning Objectives

• Overview of Computer Architecture.

• Components of Computer:

• Input Unit

• Output Unit

• Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Memory Unit

• Motherboard and it components.

• Instruction Cycle and Instruction Format.

• Registers.

• Microprocessors.

WHAT IS COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE?

• The architecture of a computer system refers to its
structure in terms of separately specified components of that
system and their interrelationships.
• Computer architectures represent the means of interconnectivity
for a computer's hardware components as well as the mode of data transfer and
processing exhibited.

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• Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design, and later it was known
as the Von- Neumann Architecture or stored program architecture.

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COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
A computer consists of following three main components:
1. Input/Output (I/O)
2. Central Processing Unit
3. Memory Unit

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1. INPUT UNIT
The computer accepts coded information through input unit by the user. It is a device that
is used to give required information to the computer. e.g. Keyboard, mouse, microphone,
etc.
An input unit performs the following functions
• It accepts the instructions and data from the user.
• It converts these instructions and data in computer in acceptable format.
• It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system (CPU via
RAM) for further processing.

2. OUTPUT UNIT
This unit sends the processed results to the user. It is mainly used to present the desired
result to the user as per input instruction. e.g., Monitor, printer, plotter, etc. The following
functions are performed by an output unit
• It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence
cannot be easily understood by user.
• It converts these coded results to human acceptable form.
• It supplies the converted results to the user.

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3. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

• Location: On Motherboard inside the System Unit.
• It is an Integrated Chip (IC).
• Components: ALU, CU and Registers.
Central Processing Unit is often called the brain of computer. The CPU is fabricated as a
single Integrated Circuit (IC) and is also known a microprocessor. A CPU controls all the
internal and external devices and performs arithmetic and logic operations.
A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor or just
processor, is the electronic circuitry (a chip) that executes instructions comprising a
computer program. It consists a set of registers, arithmetic logic unit and control unit,
which together interpret and execute instructions in assembly language.
The primary functions of the CPU are as follows
• The CPU transfers instructions and input data from main memory to registers, i.e.
internal memory.
• The CPU executes the instructions in the stored sequence.
• When necessary, CPU transfers output data from registers to main memory.

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COMPONENTS OF A CPU
The CPU consists of following main sub-systems:
1. ALU 2. CU 3. Register Set

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and logical operations on
the available data. ALU uses registers to hold the data that is being processed. Most ALUs
can perform the following operations
i. Logical operations (AND, NOT, OR, XOR).
ii. Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division).
iii. Bit-shifting operations (shifting or rotating a word by a specified number of
bit to the left or right with or without sign extension).
iv. Comparison operations (=, <, < =, >, > =).

2. Control Unit (CU)

CU coordinates with the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the computer to
carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the registers.
It organizes the processing of data and instructions. The basic function of control unit is to
fetch the instruction stored in the main memory, identify the operations and the devices
involved in it and accordingly generate control signals. Acts as the central nervous system
of a computer system. Selects and interprets program instructions, and coordinates
execution. It has some special purpose registers and a decoder to perform these activities.

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WHAT IS A MICROPROCESSOR?
A microprocessor is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip
containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes
that work together. Chips are manufactured from the wafers using a process called
photolithography. Through this photographic process, transistors and circuit and signal
pathways are created in semiconductors by depositing different layers of various
materials on the chip, one after the other. Intel 4004 was the first microprocessor made
by Intel in 1971 by scientist Ted Hoff and engineer Frederico Faggin. Some of the popular
microprocessors are Intel, Intel core i7, AMD Ryzen 5, Pentium IV, etc.

3. MEMORY UNIT (REGISTER SET)

This unit is responsible to store programs or data on a temporary or permanent basis. It
has primary memory (main memory) and secondary memory (auxiliary memory). Data and
instructions required for processing (received from input devices) Intermediate results of
processing Final results of processing, before they are released to an output device.

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1. Primary Memory (RAM):

• Used to hold running program instructions.
• Used to hold data, intermediate results, and results of ongoing processing of job(s)
• Fast in operation
• Small Capacity
• Expensive
2. Secondary Memory:
• This unit is used to permanently store data, programs and output.
• This unit does not deal directly with CPU.
• Used to hold stored program instructions.
• Used to hold data and information of stored jobs.
• Slower than primary storage.
• Large Capacity. Lot cheaper that primary storage.

MOTHERBOARD
The main circuit board contained in any computer is called a motherboard. It is also known
as the main board or logic board or system board or planar board. All the other electronic
devices and circuits of computer system are attached to this board like, CPU, ROM, RAM,
expansion slots, PCI slots and USB ports. It also includes controllers for devices like the
hard drive, DVD drive, keyboard and mouse. In other words, motherboard makes
everything in a computer work together.

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COMPONENTS ON MOTHERBOARD
Various components on motherboard are as follows
i. CMOS Battery
ii. BIOS Chip
iii. Fan
iv. Expansion Slot
v. SMPS (Switched-Mode Power Supply)
vi. PCI Slot (Peripheral Component Interface)
vii. Processor Chip
viii. Buses

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INTERCONNECTION OF UNITS
CPU sends data, instructions and information to the components inside the computer as
well as to the peripheral devices attached to it. A bus is a set of wires used for
interconnection, where each wire can carry one bit of data. In other words, bus is a set of
electronic signal pathways that allows information and signals to travel between
components inside or outside of a computer.
A computer bus can be divided into two types
1. Internal Bus: The internal bus connects components inside the motherboard like
CPU and system memory. It is also called the system bus.
Internal bus includes following buses:
a. The command to access the memory or the I/O devices is carried by the
control bus.
b. The address of I/O devices or memory is carried by the address bus. The
data to be transferred is carried by the data bus.
2. External Bus: It connects the different external devices; peripherals, expansion
slots, I/O ports and drive connections to the rest of computer. It is also referred to
as the expansion bus.

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INSTRUCTION CYCLE
It represents the sequence of events that takes place as an instruction is read from
memory and executed.
A simple instruction cycle consists of the following steps:
1. Fetching the instruction from the memory.
2. Decoding the instruction for operation.
3. Executing the instruction.
4. Storing in memory.
In above steps, step 1 and 2 instructions are same and known as fetch cycle and step 3
and 4 instructions are different and known as execute cycle.

INSTRUCTION FORMAT
Computer understands instructions only in terms of 0’s and 1’s, which is called the machine
language. A computer program is a set of instructions that describes the steps to be
performed for carrying out a computational task. The processor must have two inputs;
instructions and data. The instructions tell the processor what actions are needed to be
performed on the data. An instruction is further divided into two parts; operation (op-code)
and operand. The op-code represents action that the processor must execute and operand
defines the parameters of the action and depends on the operation.

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MISCELLANEOUS TERMS
DATA VS COMMAND VS INSTRUCTION
• Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized
manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by
human or electronic machine. Data is represented with the help of characters such as
alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters (+, -, /, *, <,>, = etc.)
• Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
• Command is a specific order from a user to the computer's operating system or to an
application to perform a service, such as "Show me all my files" or "Run this program for
me."
• An instruction is a set of primary/basic operations that the computer processor can
execute, like Add, Subtract, Left Shift, etc. These are also called as micro-instructions. The
instruction is usually a code in 1s and 0s, or machine language. Every processor/ machine
has its own set of specific instructions called the Instruction Set.

PROCESSOR SPEED
Computer has a built-in system clock that emits millions of regularly spaced electric
pulses per second (known as clock cycles). It takes one cycle to perform a basic operation,
such as moving a byte of data from one memory location to another. Hence, shorter the
clock cycle, faster the processor. Clock speed (number of clock cycles per second) is
measured in Megahertz (106 cycles/sec) or Gigahertz (109 cycles/sec).
TYPES OF PROCESSORS

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REGISTERS
Special memory units, called registers, are used to hold information on a temporary basis
as the instructions are interpreted and executed by the CPU. These are used to quickly
accept, store and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately by the
CPU. These registers are the top of the memory hierarchy and are the fastest way for the
system to manipulate data. Registers are part of the CPU (not main memory) of a
computer. The length of a register, sometimes called its word size, equals the number of
bits it can store. With all other parameters being the same, a CPU with 32- bit registers
can process data twice larger than one with 16-bit registers.

IMPORTANT REGISTERS
Some Important Registers are:
1. MAR Register: The full form of MAR is the memory address register. It holds the memory
addresses.
2. MDR: The full form of MDR register is a memory data register also called Memory Buffer
Register. The memory data register is used to store the data that will be stored or will be
fetched from the computer memory i.e., Random-access Memory (RAM).
3. PC: The full form of PC is the program counter register. The other name for the program
counter register is instruction address register (IAR) or IC (instruction counter). The
program counter is used to indicate the current position of program sequence in a
computer system.
4. Accumulator: The accumulator is another type of central processing unit register that is
widely used for storing the logic or intermediate results.
5. Instruction Register: The instruction register is another type of central processing unit
register that is used to store the instruction that is currently executed or that will be
decoded.

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INSTRUCTION SET
CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine instructions, called its
instruction set. Most CPUs have 200 or more instructions (such as add, subtract, compare,
etc.) in their instruction set.

UPS
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency
power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails.

BUFFER
Buffer is a region of a physical memory storage used to temporarily store.

DMA
DMA (Direct Memory Access) is a method that allows an input/output device to send or
receive data directly to or from the main memory, bypassing the CPU to speed up memory
operations.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. What is the full form of CPU, a key (B) Multiprocessing
component in computer system? (C) Multithreading
(A) Central Processes Unit (D) Multimedia
(B) Central Processing Unit
(C) Control Processing Unit 7. The software and hardware of a
(D) Connection Processing Unit computer get instructions for processing
a task which are generated or produced
by a complex and heavy set of electronics
2. Which part of computer performs all devices which bare embedded on a
major calculation and comparison and platform which is known as:
also activates and controls the operations A. HDD
of other units of the computer system? B. SMPS
(A) Memory Unit C. Motherboard
(B) Input Unit D. RAM
(C) Output Unit
(D) CPU 8. __________ are the ability to get a system
up and running in the event of a system
3. What are the components of CPU? crash or failure.
(A) External storage devices such as (A) Backup and Reset
floppy and pen drive (B) Restart and Format
(B) Input devices such as keyboard and (C) Reset and Flash
mouse (D) Backup and Recovery
(C) Output devices such as monitor and
printer 9. ________ is handled by the BIOS, to
(D) Control Unit and ALU initialize very specific peripheral devices,
notably for video and SCSI initialization.
4. Which part of the computer stores (A) Integrity Test
information? (B) Reliability Test
(A) Scanner (C) Correct Functioning Test
(B) Monitor (D) Power On Self Test
(C) CPU
(D) Disk Drive 10. What is the term for a temporary
storage area that compensates for
5. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is the common differences in data rate and data flow
motherboard interface for personal between devices?
computers' graphics cards, hard disk (A) Bus
drive host adapters, SSDs, Wi Fi and (B) Buffer
Ethernet hardware connections. (C) USB
(A) ASP (D) Channel
(B) AGP
(C) GUI 11. The CPU and memory are located on
(D) PCI the ___________ of the computer.
(A) Mother Board
6. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is the use of two or (B) Storage Device
more central processing units (CPUs) (C) Ouput Device
within a single computer system. (D) Expansion Board
(A) Multicomputing

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12. …………. is a firmware used to perform

hardware initialization during the booting 17. When entire CPU (both CU and ALU) is
process and to provide runtime service contained on a single tiny silicon chip it is
for operating system and programs? known as ______.
(A) BASIC (A) macroprocessor
(B) BIOS (B) middle processor
(C) MSDOS (C) miniprocessor
(D) POST (D) microprocessor

13. Control unit and arithmetic logic unit of 18. Which of the following is a logical
a computer system are together known order of system architecture?
as (A) Hardware, application software,
(A) Memory Unit system software, user
(B) Input Unit (B) Hardware, user, system software,
(C) Output Unit application software
(D) Central Processing Unit (C) Hardware, system software,
application software, user
14. ______ refers to the physical devices of (D) Hardware, user, application software,
a computer system software
(A) Adware
(B) Hardware 19. ______ provides backup power and
(C) Firmware saves the computer from turning off when
(D) Software there is a power failure.
(A) USB
15. ______ is a software for (B) UPS
(A) Firmware (C) PPT
(B) Middleware (D) SMPS
(C) Adware
(D) Spyware 20. The action of a computer to load an
operating system into the computer's
16. BIOS Is used for: main memory or random-access memory
A. Updating network (RAM) is called __________
B. To take input from monitor A. Login
C. Loading operating system B. Booting
D. To take inputs from keyboard and C. Storing
mouse D. Loading

1. B 2. D 3. D 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. C 8. D 9. D 10. B
11. A 12. B 13. D 14. B 15. A 16. C 17. D 18. C 19. B 20. B

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Chapter 3
INPUT / OUTPUT (I / O) UNIT OF A COMPUTER

Learning Objectives

• Introduction to Computer Hardware.

• Input Devices:
Keyboard, mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen, touch screen,
barcode reader, OMR, OCR, MICR, Digitizer, smart card reader, biometric sensor,
scanner, Mic, web cam, PC card, etc.
• Output Devices:
Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker,
• Both Input-Output Devices:
Modems, Network cards, Touch screen, Headsets, Facsimile (FAX), Audio
cards/sound cards, etc.
• Input/Output (I/O) Ports.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
• Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer that can be seen
and touched (tangible) by the user. E.g., central processing unit (CPU), monitor, mouse,
keyboard, storage devices, graphics card, sound card, speakers and motherboard.
• Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or instruction.
• Hardware is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to changes, whereas
software is "soft" because it is easy to change.
• A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, although
other systems exist with only hardware.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER HARDWARE

Hardware devices can be classified into four distinct categories:
1. Input devices: For raw data input. For instance, a mouse, keyboard, joystick, etc.
2. Processing devices: To process raw data instructions into information. E.g., CPU, GPU.
3. Output devices: To disseminate data and information to the user. E.g., Monitor, printer,
etc.
4. Memory devices: For data and information retention. E.g., RAM, ROM, Hard Disk, CD/DVD,
etc.

INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) DEVICES

• I/O devices provide means of communication between a computer and outer world.
• Also known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and memory of a
computer system.
• Input devices are used to enter data from the outside world into primary storage or
control its operation.
• Output devices supply results of processing from primary storage to users.

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INPUT DEVICES
An input device can be defined as a device that allows the user to feed data into the
computer for processing and storage and to give commands to the computer.
• The data is entered into the main memory through the input devices.
• They accept commands/instructions from the user and convert the accepted instructions
into the machine language.
• Some of the commonly used input devices are
• Keyboard
• Point-and-draw devices - mouse, track ball, joy stick, light pen, and touch screen
• Data scanning devices – Scanner, Plotter.
• Digitizer.
• Electronic cards-based devices – Smart Cards.
• Speech recognition devices - Mic.
• Vision based devices – Webcam.

1. KEYBOARD
• Christopher Latham Sholes was an American inventor who invented the QWERTY
keyboard, and, along with Samuel W.
• It is one of the most common input devices.

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• The user can type text and command using this device.
• Keyboard is used to enter data or information in a computer system, which may be in
numeric form or alphabetic form (alphanumeric).
• The layout of the keyboard was borrowed from the regular typewriter with some
additional keys.
• There are different types of keyboards such as QWERTY, DVORAK, JUCKEN and AZERTY.

KEYBOARD CONTROLLER
• In computing, a keyboard controller is a device that interfaces a keyboard to a computer.
• Its main function is to inform the computer when a key is pressed or released.
• When data from the keyboard arrives, the controller raises an interrupt (a keyboard
interrupt) to allow the CPU to handle the input.
• When key is pressed, keyboard interacts with a keyboard controller and keyboard buffer.
• Keyboard controller stores the code of pressed key in keyboard buffer.

*** An interrupt is a signal from a device attached to a computer or from a program within
the computer that requires the operating system to stop and figure out what to do next.
TYPES OF KEYS ON A KEYBOARD
The keys are categorized under the following groups
1. Alphanumeric Keys include the alphabet keys (A, B, C, ..., Z) and number keys (0, 1, 2, 3,
..., 9).
2. Numeric Keys are located at the right hand side of the keyboard. They consist of digits
and mathematical operators. Also called as Numpad. Not present in smaller keyboards.
3. Function Keys are the programmable keys, i.e. the programs can assign some specific
actions. They are numbered from F1 to F12.
4. Cursor Control Keys include four directional (left, right, up, down) arrow keys that are
arranged in an inverted T formation between the alphanumeric and numeric keypad.

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Above the arrow keys there are four more keys to control the cursor. These are as follows
(i) Home It is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line or the beginning of a
document.
(ii) End It moves the cursor to the end of line.
(iii) Page Up When it is pressed, the page view will be moved up one page and cursor goes
to the back page.
(iv) Page Down When it is pressed, the page view will be moved down one page and cursor
goes to the next page.
5. Other Keys A keyboard contains some other keys such as follows
(i) Control Key: It performs a special operation with the combination of other keys.
(ii) Alt Key: “Alt” is an abbreviation for the word "alternate.” If you press this key
simultaneously with another key, the operating system ignores the basic function of the
other key and lets you access an alternative command instead.
(iii) Shift Key: Some keys on the keyboard like numeric keys have a symbol printed on their
upper portion. Shift key is used to print these symbols. This key is also called combination
key.
(iv) Enter Key: It is used to finish an entry and begin the new entry in a document. Enter
key is an alternative to press ok button. Also known as the Return Key.
(v) Escape Key (Esc): It allows a user to cancel or abort operations, which are executing
at present.
(vi) Backspace Key: It is used to erase text to the left of the cursor.
(vii) Delete Key: It is used to erase text to the Right of the cursor and to erase information
from the computer’s memory.
(viii) Caps Lock Key Caps Lock is a button on a computer keyboard that causes all letters
of bicameral scripts to be generated in capital letters. It is a toggle key: each press
reverses the previous action. Used to toggle between UPPER CASE and lower case.
(ix) Num Lock Key It is used to enable and disable the numeric keypad. (Toggle Key)
(x) Windows Key It is used to open the Start menu and is used in other combinations.
(xi) Spacebar Key It provides a space between two words. It is the longest key on the
keyboard.
(xii) Tab Key It is used to move the cursor over to the right to next Tab stop (usually equal
to 4 spaces).
In Word document, tab is used to indent a paragraph.

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MORE ABOUT KEYBOARD

• QWERTY keyboard usually contains total 101 keys. (Some have 87)
• Caps Lock and Num Lock keys are called as ‘toggle keys’ because when pressed, they
toggle or change their status from one state to another.
• Shift, Ctrl and Alt keys are also known as modifier keys - temporarily modifies the normal
action of another key when pressed together. By themselves, modifier keys usually do
nothing; that is, pressing any of the Shift, Alt and Ctrl keys alone does not (generally)
trigger any action from the computer.

POINTING DEVICES
• A pointing device is used to communicate with the
computer by pointing to the locations on the monitor.
• A pointing device is a human interface device that
allows a user to input spatial data to a computer.
• Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the
screen by movements of the pointer.
•Some commonly used pointing devices are mouse,
trackball, joystick, light pen, touch screen, etc.

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2. MOUSE
• It is a small handheld device having two buttons on its upper side and also has a small
wheel between these buttons.
• It is a pointing device which provides a means to input commands in graphic form by
selecting through moving an arrow called pointer on monitor.
• The mouse may be used to position the cursor on screen, move an object by dragging or
select an object by clicking. Mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart at Stanford
Research Center in 1963.
Types of mice are as follows
(i) Wireless mouse and Wired mouse
(ii) Mechanical mouse and Optical mouse
There are four actions of mouse as follows
1. Click or Left Click It selects an item on the screen.
2. Double Click It is used to open a document or program.
3. Right Click It displays a list of commands on the screen. Right clicking is used to access
the properties of selected object.
4. Drag and Drop It is used to move an item on the screen.

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3. TRACKBALL
• It is another pointing device which is an alternative to a mouse.
• A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a
ball held by a socket containing sensors to
detect a rotation of the ball about two axes—like
an upside-down ball mouse with an exposed
protruding ball.
• Users roll the ball to position the on-screen
pointer, using their thumb, fingers, or the palm
of the hand, while using the fingertips to press
the buttons.
• Trackball is also used to control cursor
movements and actions on a computer screen.
• Trackball is used on CAD/CAM workstations and sometimes seen on computerized
special purpose workstations such as radar consoles in an air-traffic control room and
sonar equipment on a ship or submarine.
• A normal mouse relies on your hand to move a sensor over a stationary surface like a
desk or mousepad. A trackball mouse relies on your fingers to move a ball over a
stationary sensor.

4. JOYSTICK
• A joystick, sometimes called a flight stick or control column, is
an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and
reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling.
• It is a device that moves in all directions and controls the
movement of the cursor.
• Joysticks are used in gaming, flight simulators, CAD/ CAM
system, etc.
• A joystick is similar to a mouse except that the
movement of cursor on screen stops working as soon
as user stop moving the mouse.
• But with a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the
previously pointing direction.
• Joystick allows movements in all directions (360°).

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5. LIGHT PEN
• It is a handheld electro-optical pointing device, which is used for making drawings,
graphics and for menu selection on a CRT Screen.
• Used to directly point with it on the screen to select menu
items or icons or directly draw graphics on the screen.
• Can write with it on a special pad for direct input of written
information to a system.
• The pen contains a photocell in a small tube.
•It senses the light from the screen when it becomes closer
and generates a pulse.
• It is used to especially in Personal Digital Assistants (PDA).
6. POINTING STICK
• A pointing stick (or TrackPoint or nub or nipple) is a
small stick (looks like a button) used as a pointing device
typically mounted centrally in a computer keyboard.
• Like other pointing devices such as mice, touchpads or
trackballs, it is used to move the cursor.
• Unlike other pointing devices, it reacts to sustained
force or strain rather than to gross movement, so it is
called an "isometric” pointing device.
7. TOUCH SCREEN
• A touchscreen or touch screen is the assembly
of both an input ('touch panel') and output
('display') device. The touch panel is normally
layered on the top of an electronic visual display
of an information processing system.
• The display is often an LCD, AMOLED or OLED
display while the system is usually a laptop,
tablet, or smartphone.
• It is an input device that accepts input when the
user places a fingertip on the computer screen.
• Touch screens have an infrared beam that crisscross the surface of screen.
• The ability to interact directly with a display typically indicates the presence of a touch
screen.

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• Most preferred human-computer interface used in information kiosks (unattended

interactive information systems such as automatic teller machine or ATM).
** LCD: Liquid Crystal Display
** OLED: Organic Light Emitting Diode
** AMOLED: Active - Matrix Light Emitting Diode

8. TOUCHPAD / TRACKPAD
• A touchpad or trackpad is a pointing device
featuring a specialized surface that can
translate the motion and position of a user's
fingers to a relative position on the operating
system that is made output to the screen.
• Touchpads are a common feature of laptop
computers as opposed to using a mouse on a
desktop, and are also used as a substitute for
a mouse where desk space is scarce.
• Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants (PDAs)
and some portable media players.

9. DIGITIZER / GRAPHICS TABLET

• Input device used for converting (digitizing)
pictures, maps and drawings and other hand-
drawn images into digital form for storage in
computers.
• Images are usually drawn onto a flat surface
with a stylus and then appear on a computer
monitor or screen.
• Commonly used in the area of Computer Aided
Design (CAD) by architects and engineers to
design cars, buildings medical devices, robots, mechanical parts, etc.
* Stylus (or stylus pen) is a small pen-shaped instrument which is used to precisely draw
and make selections on a touch screen, digitizer, etc.

************END OF POINTING DEVICES ***********

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10. BARCODE READER

• It is an input device used for reading printed barcodes (Universal
Product Code) available on product to be sold.
• A barcode reader emits a beam of light which reflects off the
barcode image.
• A light sensitive detector in the barcode reader identifies the
barcode image by recognizing special bars at both the ends of the
image.
• A perfect example of a barcode reader, use in a supermarket
where barcode scanner reads the price of a product.
• A barcode is a machine-readable representation of information
in the form of stripes of dark and light ink.
• Universal Product Code (UPC) is the most widely known bar
coding system.

11. OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR)

• OMR is also known as Optical Mark Recognition.
• It is the process of detecting the presence of intended marked
responses.
• OMR is mainly used to detect marks on a paper.
• It uses a beam of light that is reflected on the paper with marks,
to capture presence and absence of
data (marks).
• The OMR interprets the pattern of
marks into a data record and sends
this to the computer for storage,
analysis and reporting.
• OMR is widely used to read the
answer of objective type tests, voting
applications and other evaluation
studies.

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12. OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR)

• Scanner equipped with a character recognition software
(called OCR software) that converts the images of
characters to equivalent ASCII codes.
• Enables word processing of input text and also requires
less storage for storing the document as text rather than an
image.
• OCR software is extremely complex because it is difficult
to make a computer recognize an unlimited number of
typefaces and fonts
• Two standard OCR fonts are OCR-A (American standard)
and OCR-B (European standard).
• OCR technology is being developed for greater accurate
recognition and is also known as Intelligent Character Recognition (ICR).

13. MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR)

• MICR reads the characters by examining their shapes in
a matrix form and the information is then passed on to
the computer.
• The characters are printed using a special ink, which
contains iron particles that can be magnetized.
• It is generally used in banks to process the cheques for
recognizing the magnetic encoding numbers printed at
the bottom of a cheque.
• It consists of numerals 0 to 9 and four special
characters.
• MICR is not adopted by other industries because it
supports only 14 symbols.

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14. SMART CARD READER

• It is a device which is used to access the
microprocessor of a smart card.
• There are two kinds of smart cards; Memory cards
and Microcontroller cards.
• Memory cards are the cards which contain only non-
volatile memory storage components and some
specific security logic.
• Microcontroller cards contain volatile memory and
microprocessor components.
• The card is made-up of plastic generally PVC.
• Smart cards are used in large companies and organizations for stronger security
authentication.
• They connect to a reader either by direct physical contact (also known as chip and dip) or
through a short-range wireless connectivity standard such as Radio-Frequency
Identification (RFID) or Near-Field Communication (NFC).
RFID
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) refers to a wireless system comprised of two
components: tags and readers.
• The reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive
signals back from the RFID tag.
• Tags, which use radio waves to communicate their identity and other information to
nearby readers, can be passive or active.
• Passive RFID tags are powered by the reader and do not have a battery.
• Active RFID tags are powered by batteries.

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15. BIOMETRIC SENSOR

• It is a device which recognizes unique physical or behavioural characteristics of the
individual.
• Biometric sensors are used for marking attendance of employees/students in
organisations/institutions.
• As biometric sensors are working with accuracy, so these are widely used in security
purpose also.

16. SCANNER
• An image scanner (Scanner) is a device that optically scans images, printed text,
handwriting or an object and converts it to a digital image.
• It is used to convert the data and image on paper into the digital form.
• Scanner is an optical input device and uses light to convert a physical document into an
electronic form that can be stored on the computer that can be modified and manipulated
later on.
• Scanner stores images in both grayscale and colour mode.
• Modern scanners typically use a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a contact image sensor
(CIS) as the image sensor, whereas drum scanners, developed earlier and still used for
the highest possible image quality, use a photomultiplier tube (PMT) as the image sensor.

• The most common types of scanners are as follows

(i) Handheld Scanners: They are very small in size which can be held in a hand. These are
less expensive and less wide. Hence, in order to scan a single page image, multiple passes
are required. But their handiness is a major advantage of handheld scanner.
(ii) Flatbed Scanners: They are large and more expensive scanners that create high quality
images. Flatbed scanners have a flat surface on which the printed image to be scanned, is
placed. These scanners can scan a page in a single pass.

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(iii) Drum Scanners: They are medium size scanners with a rolling drum. The sheet is fed
through the scanners so that the drum rolls over the entire sheet to be scanned (just as
the sheets are fed in a fax machine).

• Planetary scanners essentially photograph delicate books and documents.

• 3D scanners produce information on the three-dimensional structure of solid objects.

SCAN QUALITY
• Colour depth or bit depth, is either the number of bits used to indicate the colour of a
single pixel. Higher the colour depth better is the picture quality. It is usually at least 24
bits.
2 bits – 00, 01, 10 and 01
3 bits – 000, 001, 010, 011,100,101,110 and 111.
With n bits we can represent 2n distinct colours.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

• Image resolution is the detail an image holds. It measured in pixels per inch (PPI),
sometimes more accurately referred to as Samples Per Inch (SPI).
• The third important parameter for a scanner is its density range (Dynamic Range) or
Drange. A high-density range means that the scanner is able to record shadow details
and brightness details in one scan.

17. MICROPHONE (MIC)

• A microphone, a mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical
signal.
• We can send voice input to the computer through a special manual input device called
microphone or mic.
• A mic converts the received sound into computer’s format, which is called Digitized
Sound or Digital Audio.
• To convert a voice into digital form, you need an additional hardware known as Sound
Card.
•Now-a-days, microphones
are also being used with
speech recognition
software.
• This means that we do not
have to type, rather just
have to speak and the
spoken words appear in our
document.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

18. WEBCAM
• It is a video / Image capturing device.
• Webcam is a digital camera attached to computers
and can be used for video conferencing, online
chatting, etc.
• A camera connected to a computer allows anyone,
those are connected to the Internet, to view either a
still picture or motion video of a user or other object.
• Now-a-days, Webcams are either embedded into
the display with laptop computers or connected via
USB or firewire port or Wi-Fi to the computer.
• DSLR: Digital Single Lens Reflex.

OUTPUT DEVICES
• An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the
results of data processing carried out by an information processing to the outside world.
• Some of the commonly used output devices are monitor, printers, plotter, speaker,
headphones, projector etc.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

TYPES OF OUTPUT
1. Soft-copy output
• Not produced on a paper or some material that can be touched and carried for being
shown to others
• Temporary in nature.
• Examples are output displayed on a terminal screen (Monitor) or spoken out by a voice
response system (Speaker).
2. Hard-copy output
• Produced on a paper or some material that can be touched and carried for being shown
to others.
• Permanent in nature and can be kept in paper files or can be looked at a later time
when the person is not using the computer.
• Examples are output produced by printers or plotters on paper.

1. MONITOR
• A computer monitor (Visual Display Unit (VDU)) is an output device that displays
information in pictorial or text form.
• Monitors are connected to the computer via VGA, Digital Visual Interface (DVI), HDMI,
DisplayPort, USB-C, Low-voltage Differential Signalling (LVDS) or other proprietary
connectors and signals.
• The first computer monitors used cathode-ray tubes (CRTs).
• TFT-LCD (thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal
display) is a variant of LCD which is now the
dominant technology used for computer
monitors.
• Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) monitors
provide higher contrast, better colour
reproduction and viewing angles than LCDs but
they require more power.
• A monitor is of two kinds; monochrome display
monitor and colour display monitor.
• A monochrome display monitor uses only one
colour to display text and colour display monitor
can display 256 colours at a time.
• An image on the monitor is created by a configuration of dots, also known as pixels.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

• The clarity of image depends on three factors which are as follows

1. Resolution of Screen: Resolution refers to the number of pixels in horizontal and vertical
directions. The resolution of monitor is higher when the pixels are closer together. 1280 x
1024
2. Dot Pitch: It refers to the diagonal distance between two coloured pixels. The smaller
the dot pitch, the better the resolution. The diagonal dot pitch, which measures pixel-to-
pixel distance diagonally, and a horizontal dot pitch, which measures horizontally
3. Refresh Rate: The refresh rate of your display refers to how many times per second the
display is able to draw a new image. The refresh rate of monitor is measured in Hertz (Hz).
The popular types of monitors are as follows
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): It is a typical
rectangular shaped monitor that you see on a
desktop computer. The CRT works in a same way
as a television. CRT has a vacuum tube. CRT
works by moving an electron beam back and
forth across the back of the screen. A screen
covered with a fine layer of phosphorescent
elements, called phosphorus.
2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): These screens are used in laptops and notebook sized PCs.
A special type of liquid is sandwiched between two plates. It is a thin, flat and light weight
screen.
3. Light Emitted Diode (LED) Display: LED is an electronic device that emits light when
electrical current is passed through it. LEDs usually produce red light, but today’s LEDs
can produce RGB (Red, Green and Blue) light, and white light as well.
4. 3-D Monitor: It is a television that conveys depth perception to the viewer. 3-D describes
an image that provides the perception of length. When 3-D images are made interactive
then user feels involved with the scene and this experience is called virtual reality.

LCD: Liquid Crystal Display, OLED: Organic Light Emitting Diode, AMOLED: Active-Matrix
Light Emitting Diode

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

PERFORMANCE OF A MONITOR
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following parameters:
1. Display geometry:
• Viewable image size - is usually measured diagonally. E.g., 13 inches, 15 inches.
• Aspect ratio - is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length. Monitors usually
have the aspect ratio 4:3, 5:4, 16:10 or 16:9.
• Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed.
• Dot pitch or pixel pitch represents the size of the primary elements of the display. In LCDs
it is the distance between the center of two adjacent pixels. Dot pitch is the reciprocal of
pixel density. The diagonal dot pitch, which measures pixel-to-pixel distance diagonally,
and a horizontal dot pitch, which measures horizontally
• Pixel density is a measure of how densely packed the pixels on a display are. In LCDs,
pixel density is the number of pixels in one linear unit along the display, typically measured
in pixels per inch (px/in or ppi).
2. Colour characteristics:
• Colour depth - measured in bits per primary colour or bits for all colours. Those with 10
bpc (bits per channel) or more can display more shades of colour (approximately 1 billion
shades) than traditional 8 bpc monitors (approximately 16.8 million shades or colours).
• Gamut - A monitor's colour gamut describes a specific range of colours that it can
produce.
3. Input speed characteristics:
• Refresh rate is (in CRTs) the number of times in a second that the display is illuminated
(the number of times a second a raster scan is completed). In LCDs it is the number of
times the image can be changed per second, expressed in hertz (Hz). Maximum refresh
rate is limited by response time. Determines the maximum number of frames per second
(FPS) a monitor is capable of showing.
• Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to change between two shades.
• Input-latency is the time it takes for a monitor to display an image after receiving it,
typically measured in milliseconds (ms).

2. PRINTER
• A printer prints information and data from the computer onto a paper.
• The speed of a printer is measured in Characters Per Second (CPS), Lines Per Minute
(LPM) and Pages Per Minute (PPM).

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

• Printer resolution is a numerical measure of print quality that

is measured in Dots Per Inch (DPI).
• Printers are classified as
1. Character Printers Line Printers and Page Printers
2. Impact Printers and Non-Impact Printers

IMPACT PRINTERS
• This type of printer strikes paper and ribbon together to form
a character, like a typewriter.
• Impact printer can print a character or an entire line at a time.
They use pins or hammers that pressed an inked ribbon against the paper.
• They are less expensive, fast and can make multiple copies with multipart paper.
• There are four types of impact printer
1. Dot Matrix Printer: It forms characters using rows of pins which impact the ribbon on top
of the paper therefore also called pin printers. Dot matrix printers print one character at a
time. It prints characters and images as a pattern of dots. Many dot matrix printers are bi-
directional, that is they can print the characters from either direction, i.e. left or right.

2. Daisy Wheel Printer: In daisy wheel printers,

characters are fully formed on the petals, like
typewriter keys. These printers produce high
resolution output and are more reliable than dot
matrix.

3. Line Printer: It is a high-speed printer capable

of printing an entire line of text at once instead of
one or more characters at a time.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

• These are impact shaped character printers which

print one line at a time.
• Print quality of line printer is not high.
• Also called Chain/Band Printers.
• Can only print pre-defined sets of characters that
are embossed on the chain/band used with the
printer
• Cannot print any shape of characters, different
sizes of print, and graphics such as charts and
graphs
• Are impact printers and can be used for generating multiple copies by using carbon paper
or its equivalent
• Are usually monochrome.
4. Drum Printer: An old-line printer technology that uses
formed character images around a cylindrical drum as
its printing mechanism.
• Line printers that print one line at a time
• Have a solid cylindrical drum with characters embossed
on its surface in the form of circular bands
• Set of hammers mounted in front of the drum in such a manner that an inked ribbon and
paper can be placed between the hammers and the drum
• Can only print a pre-defined set of characters in a predefined style that is embossed on
the drum.
Dot pitch or pixel pitch represents the distance between the center of two adjacent pixels.
The diagonal dot pitch, which measures pixel-to-pixel distance diagonally, and a horizontal
dot pitch, which measures horizontally.

NON-IMPACT PRINTER
• This type of printer uses electrostatic chemicals and inkjet technologies.
• They do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. It can produce high quality graphics and often
a wide variety of fonts than impact printers.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

• There are following types of non-impact printer

1. Inkjet Printer: It is a printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to
create an image. It sprays ink onto paper to form characters and prints high quality text
and graphics.
2. Thermal Printer: It uses heat on chemically treated paper to form characters. Fax
machines that use rolls of paper are also of thermal printer’s type. It is relatively slow,
expensive and requires special paper.
3. Laser Printer: It provides the highest quality text and images for personal computer.
• Laser printer uses laser beam onto photo
sensitive surface for printing.
• It prints high quality graphics and more expensive
than impact printers.
• Page printers that print one page at a time.
• Consist of a laser beam source, a multi-sided
mirror, a photoconductive drum and toner (tiny
particles of oppositely charged ink).
• To print a page, the laser beam is focused on the
electro statically charged drum by the spinning
multi-sided mirror.
• Toner sticks to the drum in the places the laser beam has charged the drum’s surface.
• Toner is then permanently fused on the paper with heat and pressure to generate the
printer output.
• Laser printers produce very high-quality output having resolutions in the range of 600 to
1200 dpi.
4. Electrostatic Printer: It uses an electric charge to deposit toner on paper. These printers
are generally used for large format printing. They are favoured by large printing shops
because of their ability to print fast and making low cost.
COMPONENTS OF A PRINTER
1. Paper support: Supports the paper loaded in the sheet
feeder.
2. Sheet feeder: Holds blank paper and automatically feeds
the paper during printing.
3. Printer cover: Covers the printing mechanism. Open only
when installing or replacing ink cartridges.
4. Output tray: Receives the ejected paper.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

5. Output tray extension: Supports the ejected paper.

6. CD/DVD guide: Supports the CD/DVD tray.

3. PLOTTER
• It is an output device that uses a pen, pencil, marker or other writing tools for making
vector graphics.
• A plotter is a special kind of output channel like a printer, that produces images on
paper.
• They are mainly used to produce large drawings or images such as construction plans,
blueprints for mechanical objects, AUTOCAD, CAD/CAM, etc.
• Plotters usually come in two designs as follows
1. Flat Bed Plotter: These plotters are of small size to be kept on table with restriction of
paper size.
2. Drum Plotter: These plotters are of big size using rolls of paper of unlimited length.

4. SPEAKERS
• It is an output device that receives sound in the
form of electric current.
• It needs a sound card connected to a CPU, that
generates sound via a card.
• These are used for listening to music, for being
audible in seminars during presentations, etc.
• Computer speakers are the speakers which are attached internally or externally to a
computer system.

5. HEADPHONES
• These are a pair of small loudspeakers or less commonly a single
speaker, held close to a user’s ears and connected to a signal source
such as an audio amplifier, radio, CD player or portable media player.
• They are also known as stereo phones, headsets or cans.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

6. SPEECH SYNTHESIZERS
• Converts text information into spoken sentences.
• Used for applications such as:
• Reading out text information to blind persons
• Allowing those persons who cannot speak to
communicate effectively.
• Translating an entered text into spoken words in a
selected language.

7. PROJECTOR
• It is an output device which is used to project
information from a computer onto a large screen, so
it can be viewed by a large group of people
simultaneously.
• Projectors are widely used for classroom training or
conference halls with a large audience.
• It provides a temporary output display.
• There are mainly two types of projectors; LCD projector and DLP (Digital Light
Processing) projector.

8. GRAPHICS / VIDEO CARD

• A graphics card (also called a video card, display card, graphics adapter, GPU, VGA
card/VGA, video adapter, or display adapter) is an expansion card which generates a feed
of output images to a display device (such as a computer monitor).
• At its core is the graphics processing unit (GPU), which is the main component that is a
specialized processor originally designed to accelerate graphics rendering (but should
not be confused with the graphics card as a whole).
• The graphics card is the hardware as a whole, while the GPU is a chip.
• GPU is the unit in the graphics card that performs the actual processing of the images
and graphics while the graphics card is an expansion card in the device that generates
images to display on the output device.
• Graphics cards are used extensively for AI training, cryptocurrency mining and
molecular simulation.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

BOTH INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES

• Few devices that give input and also show or get the output through same device. These
are as follows:
(i) Modem: A modulator-demodulator, or simply a modem, is a hardware device that
converts data from a digital format, intended for communication directly between devices
with specialized wiring.
(ii) Network cards
(iii) Touch screen
(iv) Headsets (headset consists of speakers and microphone in which speaker acts as
output device and microphone acts as input device).
(v) Facsimile (FAX): It has scanner to scan the document and also have printer to print
the document).
(vi) Audio cards/sound cards.

INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) PORTS

• Ports: The connection point acts as an
interface between the computer and external
devices like printers, modems, etc.
• The peripheral devices can be connected to
computer in several ways.
• Input/Output ports are the external interfaces
that are used to connect input and output
devices like printer, monitor and joystick to
computer.
• The I/O devices are connected to the computer via the serial and parallel ports,
Universal Serial Bus (USB), firewire ports, etc.
• Internal Port: It connects the system’s motherboard to internal devices like hard disk,
CD drive, internal Bluetooth, etc.
• External Port: It connects the system’s motherboard to external devices like a mouse,
printer, USB, etc.

1. Parallel Port: It is an interface for connecting eight or more data wires.

• The data flows through the eight wires simultaneously.
• They can transmit eight bits of data in parallel.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

• As result, parallel ports provide high speed data transmission.

• Parallel port is used to connect printer to the computer.
• 25 pin model.
2. Serial Port: It transmits one bit of data through a single wire. Since, data is transmitted
serially/sequentially as single bit. It provides slow speed data transmission.
• Two versions-9pin,25pin
• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
• It is used to connect external modems, older
computer mouse, barcode reader, etc.

3. Universal Serial Bus (USB): It is a common and popular external port available with
computers.
• Normally, two to four USB ports are provided on a PC.
• USB also has the plug and play feature, which allows devices ready to be run.
• It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disks, printers,
scanners, mouse, keyboards, etc.
• Data travels at 12 megabits per second.
4. Firewire: It is used to connect audio and
video multimedia devices like video camera.
• Firewire is an expensive technology used for
large data movement.
• Hard disk drive connects through firewire.
• It has data transfer rate of up to 400 MB/sec.
5. Ethernet Port / LAN Port:
• Connects to a network and high-speed
Internet.
• Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000
megabits per second depending upon
the network bandwidth.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

6. VGA Port: VGA ports also known as Video

Graphic Array connector are those which connect
the monitor to a computer’s video card.
• VGA port has 15 holes and it is similar to the
serial port connector.
• But VGA Ports have holes in it and the serial port
connector has pins in it.

7. Digital Video Interface (DVI) Port: DVI Port is used to connects LCD(flat panel) monitor
to the computer’s high-end video graphic cards and it is very popular among video card
manufacturers.

8. High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a proprietary audio/video interface for

transmitting uncompressed video data and compressed or uncompressed digital audio
data from an HDMI- compliant source device, such as a display controller, to a compatible
computer monitor, video projector, digital television, or digital audio device.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The ______ is a board that plugs into the
motherboard of computer and generates
image for display.
(A) video card
(B) fan
(C) sound card
(D) network card

2. A ______ is a soft copy output device (A) I-3, II-1, III-2

used to display text and graphics (B) I-1, III-2, III-3
information generated by a computer (C) I-2, II-3, III-1
through a video card. (D) I-2, II-1, III-3
(A) printer
(B) projector 7. ________ printer uses impact printing
(C) plotter technology and not preferred for printing
(D) monitor graphical images.
(A) Ink jet
3. Mouse, Trackball, Electronic, pen etc. (B) Daisywheel
are which type of input devices? (C) Laser
(A) Keyboard devices (D) 3D
(B) Vision based devices
(C) Point and draw devices 8. ________ key on the keyboard is used to
(D) Speech Recognition devices switch to overwrite mode during data
entry.
4. What is the full form MICR input device? (A) Insert
(A) Magnetic Inkjet Character Recognition (B) Function
(B) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (C) Copy
(C) Map Ink Character Recognition (D) Delete
(D) Master Ink Character Recognition
9. A set of lines with different thickness
5. Match the following: that you see in product labels which
carries information related to the product
is called _________.
(A) Bar code
(B) ID code
(C) Expiry code
(D) Punch card

10. Any information or data sent to a

computer using mouse or keyboard, for
(A) I-2, II-1, III-3
further processing is considered as
(B) I-2, II-3, III-1
________.
(C) I-3, II-1, III-2
(A) Present
(D) I-1, II-2, III-3
(B) Store
6. Match the following input devices with (C) Output
(D) Input
its types:

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

11. ________ is an hand held device that acts D. Flat panel display monitor
like a mini computer which is used by
Business professionals to access email 17. ….. Is an input device used to read a
and internet. printed
(A) Barcode reader A. OMR
(B) PAGER B. OCR
(C) PDA C. MICR
(D) Mainframe D. CRT

12. _________ represent data by varying the 18. …… Is the earliest device that qualifies
widths and spacings of parallel lines, as a digital
which can be scanned to obtain the A. Calculator
information with in. B. Keyboard
(A) ASCII codes C. Abacus
(B) Bar codes D. CPU
(C) OCR
(D) Magnetic tape 19. What is meant by "Output device" in
Computer Science?
13. Which of the following is an example of A. Any component that receives the
an input device on a computer? output from a computer
(A) Printer B. Any component that displays output on
(B) Compact Disk the computer
(C) Speaker C. Any component that sends data to a
(D) Scanner computer
D. Both A &B
14. Which among the following list of ports
is commonly used for connecting input 20. Input to the computer can be entered
devices such as mouse ________. by the users. How will the input be
(A) USB converted which is entered by the user?
(B) HDMI A. The input entered will be digitized
(C) VGA B. The input entered will be converted to
(D) COM alphanumeric code
C. The input entered will be converted to
15. The special key on the keyboard that Spanish language
has the Windows Logo on it is called _ _ _ D. The input entered will not necessarily
______. be converted
(A) Alternate key
(B) End key 21. Devices such as Trackball and
(C) Start key Touchpads are categorized as
(D) Control key (A) Pointing devices
(B) Storage devices
16. The ……………. Refers to a class of video (C) Display devices
devices that have reduced volume, weight (D) Printing devices
and power requirement in comparison to
the CRT. 22. ________ key needs to be pressed along
A. Visual display unit with an alphabet key to type characters in
B. Display monitor Uppercase.
C. Cathode ray tube monitor (A) Tab

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

(B) Ctrl D. Microphone

(C) Capslock
(D) Shift 29. An ______ device is an
electromechanical device that accepts
23. When an information is processed and data from outside world and translate
sent to an destination device such as them into a from computer can interpret.
monitor or printer is called __________. (A) Controlling
(A) Output (B) Output
(B) Logical reasoning (C) Input
(C) Input (D) Accessing
(D) Data processing
30. Which inputs device is used to
24. Which among the following list of recognize a pre specified type of mark
computer peripherals is not a category of made by pencil or pen?
input devices? (A) Mouse
(A) Keyboard (B) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(B) Scanner (C) Optical Mark Reader
(C) Mouse (D) Bar Code Reader
(D) Printer
31. In context of computer devices, ______
25. What is the use of a Joystick? is used to input data directly into the
(A) Joysticks are used for displaying computer from the source document
outputs without copying and typing the data.
(B) Joysticks are used for computer (A) monitor
games (B) hard disk
(C) Joysticks are used for printing data (C) joystick
(D) Joysticks are used for typing (D) scanner
programs
32. A ______ is an electromechanical
26. How many colour dots make up one device which is used to input
colour pixel on a screen? alphanumeric data into a computer.
(A) 8 (A) Keyboard
(B) 3 (B) Trackball
(C) 265 (C) Mouse
(D) 1080 (D) Joystick

27. The level of detail in print image is 33. Which printer consist of tiny nozzles
called? and as the paper moves, nozzles spray
(A) Print Colour ink on it, forming characters and images?
(B) Print Resolution (A) drum
(C) Print Orientation (B) chain
(D) Print Speed (C) laser
(D) Inkjet
28. Which of the following device can act
as both input and output device? 34. Which of the following is a European
A. Keyboard standard font for OCR?
B. USB flash drive (A) OCR B
C. Projector (B) OCR C

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

(C) OCR D (A) Monitor

(D) OCR A (B) Modem
(C) Keyboard
35. ______ port transmits one bit of data (D) Joystick
through a single wire and is used to
connect external modems, plotters etc. 41. In computer hardware, ______ carries
(A) Serial the addresses of different input/output
(B) Glass devices.
(C) Number (A) LED unit
(D) VDU (B) Address bus
(C) Memory drive
36. How many function keys are there in a (D) Centre disk
QWERTY keyboard?
(A) 8 42. ______ contains a photocell in a small
(B) 12 tube and is used to select objects directly
(C) 10 on the computer screen.
(D) 9 (A) Touch screen
(B) Light pen
37. Keyboard device, Point and draw (C) Joystick
devices, Data Scanning devices etc., are (D) Mouse
the classification of which type of 43. If a letter is to be typed in capital, then
devices? which of the following key is used with
(A) Output that letter?
(B) Memory (A) Alt
(C) Input (B) Ctrl
(D) Printer (C) Tab
(D) Shift
38. Which input device is used to convert
bitmap images of characters to equivalent 44.
ASCII code?
(A) MICR Device
(B) OCR Device
(C) Barcode Device
(D) OMR Device

39. ______ is a non-impact printer.

(A) Daisywheel
(B) Laser
(C) Band
(D) Line (A) I-1, II-2, III-3
(B) I-2, II-1, III-3
40. (C) I-2, II-3, III-1
(D) I-1, II-3, III-2

45. In computer devices, ______ devices

are used for providing the input to
computer by moving the device to point to
a location on computer monitor.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

(A) positioning 50. Which of the following device convert

(B) pointing sound signal to an electric signal?
(C) printing A. Stylus
(D) pinning B. Microphone
C. Camera
46. __________ is an impact D. Speaker
(A) Inkjet printer
(B) Laser printer 51. A ……. is a hardware device that
(C) Dot matrix printer transfers the digital signals between the
(D) Toy printer computer and the communications
channel.
47. What is the full form of CRT in the A. LAN
context of display device? B. Fire stick
(A) Crystal Ray Tube C. Modem
(B) Cathode Ray Tube D. CD drive
(C) Circuit Ray Tube
(D) Central Ray Tube 52. Which of the following is NOT an output
device?
48. The input device that captures the A. LCD
image or video into the computer is called B. Printers
________. C. VDUs
(A) Webpage D. Graphic Tablet
(B) Webcam
(C) Printer 53. A Single point on a computer screen is
(D) Scanner referred as:
A. Element
49. Which among these is a function of an B. Pitch
output device? C. Pixel
A. Converting the coded results into D. Resolution
human readable form
B. Supplying data to the CPU for further 54. The most common pointing device in
process the laptop computer is:
C. Converting instructions from readable A. Touchpad
format to machine readable format B. Joystick
D. Accepting instructions from the user C. Stylus
D. Pointer

1. A 2. D 3. C 4. B 5. B 6. A 7. B 8. A 9. A 10. D
11. C 12. B 13. D 14. A 15. C 16. D 17. B 18. A 19. D 20. A
21. A 22. D 23. A 24. D 25. B 26. B 27. B 28. B 29. C 30. C
31. D 32. A 33. D 34. A 35. A 36. B 37. C 38. B 39. B 40. D
41. B 42. B 43. D 44. C 45. B 46. C 47. B 48. B 49. A 50. B
51. C 52. D 53. C 54. A

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Chapter 4
COMPUTER MEMORY
Learning Objectives

• Memory Hierarchy
• Parameters of Memory
• Types of Memory:
o Primary memory or Main memory
o Random Access Memory (RAM).
o Read Only Memory (ROM)
o Secondary memory or Auxiliary memory:
▪ Hard disk drive, Floppy disk, Magnetic tape, Solid State Drive, CD, DVD
and Blu-ray disc.
• Cache Memory
• Flash Memory

COMPUTER MEMORY
• The computer memory is one of the four main components of a computer system.
• In computing, memory is a device or
system that is used to store information
for immediate use in a computer.
• It stores data and instructions
required during the processing of data
and output results.
• Storage may be required for a limited
period of time, instantly or for an
extended period of time.
• It relates to many devices that are
responsible for storing data on a
temporary or a permanent basis.
• The term memory is often synonymous
with the term primary storage or main
memory.
• The term storage is used for
secondary storage.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

• The hierarchical arrangement of memory/storage based on access/response time, in a

computer is called the memory hierarchy.
• The computer uses a hierarchy of memory that is organized in a manner to enable the
fastest speed and largest capacity of memory.
• There are four major storage levels:
1. Processor registers.
2. Main Memory– the system RAM, Cache, ROM.
3. Secondary Storage – HDD, SSD, CD, etc.
4. Off-line and Tertiary Storage.

Solid State Drive

Magnetic Tape

Optical Disk

Magnetic Disk

RAM

Cache
ROM
Registers
CPU

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

Secondary Storage
Cheapest

Magnetic Slowest (Highest Access Time)

S C
Tape
t
A Optical Disk o
o c s
r c Magnetic
a e Disk t
Highest Storage Capacity (in GBs/TBs)
g s SSD D
e s
E
C T Input RAM Output Devices C
a Devices
i R
p
a m E
Cache
c e
ROM A
I
Registers S
Most Expensive
CPU
Fastest (Least Access Time)

Least Storage Capacity (in Bytes)

PARAMETERS OF MEMORY
Some related parameters of memory are as
follows
1. Storage Capacity: It is representative of the size
of memory.
2. Access Modes: A memory is comprised of
various memory locations. The manner in which
these locations are accessed are determined by the
access modes like randomly or sequentially. In
semiconductor-based memories it is random
3. Access Time: The access time is the time required between the desired modes for a
read or write operation till the data is made available or written at the desired location.

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4. Physical Characteristics: In this respect, the devices can be categorized into four main
categories as electronic, magnetic, mechanical and optical.
5. Permanence of Storage: Its permanence is high for future use in magnetic materials.

ACCESS METHODS
There are several method to access memory as listed below:
1. Sequential / Serial access 2. Random access 3. Direct Access
1. Sequential Access Method: In sequential memory access method, the memory is
accessed in linear sequential way. The time to access data in this type of method
depends on the location of the data.
Example of sequential access: Magnetic tapes use sequential access method.
2. Random Access Method: In random access method, data from any location of the
memory can be accessed randomly. The access to any location is not related with its
physical location and is independent of other locations.
Example of random access: Semiconductor memories like RAM, ROM, SSD (Solid State
Drive) use random access method.
3. Direct Access: In this method, individual blocks or records have a unique address
based on physical location. access is accomplished by direct access to reach a general
vicinity plus sequential searching, counting or waiting to reach the final destination.
This method is a combination of above two access methods.
Example of random access: Secondary Storages like Hard Disk, CD, Floppy Disk, etc. use
Direct access method.

TYPES OF MEMORY
In general, the memory is classified into two categories as follows
1. Primary memory or Main memory – Directly Accessible by CPU.
2. Secondary memory or Auxiliary memory – NOT DIRECTLY Accessible by CPU.

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Based on the working technology, the memory is classified as follows Solid State Drive
1. Semiconductor Based – RAM, Cache, ROM, SSD, Flash Memory.
Magnetic Tape
2. Magnetic – HDD, Floppy.
Floppy Tape
3. Optical – CD /DVD.
Based on the permeance of storage, the memory is classified as CD/DVD Disk
follows
1. Volatile – Loses data when the system turns off - RAM, Cache.
Magnetic Disk
2. Non-Volatile – Does not lose the data when the system is turned
off - ROM, SSD, HDD, Flash Memory, Floppy.
RAM

ROM
Cache

Registers
CPU

PRIMARY MEMORY
• The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is called main memory or
internal memory or read/write memory.
• The primary memory allows the computer to store data for immediate manipulation and
to keep track of what is currently being processed.
• It has limited storage capacity.
• Main memory is volatile in nature, it means that when the power is turned OFF, the
contents of this memory are lost forever. (ROM is Non-Volatile)
• Primary memory can be further classified in two categories which are as follows
1. Random Access Memory
2. Read Only Memory (ROM)
3. Cache Memory
• The following process is followed in a computer:
1. All programs, files, and data are stored in secondary storage that is larger and hence
has greater access time.
2. Secondary memory cannot be accessed directly by a CPU or processor.

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3. In order, to execute any process operating system loads the process in primary memory
which is smaller and can be accessed directly by the CPU.
4. Since only those processes are loaded in primary memory which is ready to be executed,
the CPU can access those processes efficiently and this optimizes the performance of the
system.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

• It is also known as read/write memory, that allows CPU to read as well as write data and
instructions into it.
• RAM is used for the temporary storage of input data, output data and intermediate results.
• Any process in the system which needs to be executed is loaded in RAM which is
processed by the CPU as per Instructions in the program.
• Like if we click on applications like Browser, firstly browser code will be loaded by the
Operating system into the RAM after which the CPU will execute and open up the Browser.
• There are two categories of RAM as follows
(i) Dynamic RAM (DRAM): It is made up of memory cells where each cell is composed of
one capacitor and one transistor.
• DRAM must be refreshed continually to store information.
• DRAM is slower, less- expensive and occupies less space on the computer’s
motherboard.
(ii) Static RAM (SRAM): It retains the data as long as power is provided to the memory chip.
• SRAM needs not be refreshed periodically. It uses multiple transistors for each memory
cell.
• It does not use capacitor.
• SRAM is often used as cache memory due to its high speed.
• SRAM is more expensive and faster than DRAM.
• Cache Memory is made up of SRAM.

• DRAM memory is just one kind of RAM. And within the DRAM category, there are a few
types to know.
1. Asynchronous DRAM (ADRAM)
2. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)
3. Double-Data-Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM)

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4. RAMbus DRAM (RDRAM)

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

• It is also known as non-volatile memory or permanent
storage.
• It does not lose its contents when the power is
switched OFF.
• ROM can have data and instructions written to it only
one time.
• A ROM chip is programmed at the time of manufacturing.
There are three categories of ROM as follows
(i) Masked ROM (MROM): Masked ROM are hardwired and pre-programmed ROM. Any
content that is once written cannot be altered anyhow.
(ii) Programmable ROM (PROM): It can be modified once by the user. The user buys a blank
PROM and writes the desired content but once written content cannot be altered. Once a
PROM has been programmed, its contents can never be changed. It is one-time
programmable device.
(iii) Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): It is similar to PROM, but it can be erased by
exposure to strong ultraviolet light, then rewritten.
(iv) Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): It is similar to EPROM, but it can
be erased electrically, then rewritten electrically and the burning process is reversible by
exposure to electric pulses. It is the most flexible type of ROM, and is now commonly used
for holding BIOS (Basic Input Output System).

BIOS – BASIC INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEM

• Basic Input/Output System is a ROM chip found on motherboards that allows you to
access and set up your computer system at the most basic level.
• The BIOS includes instructions on how to load basic computer hardware.
• Since BIOS is a combination of hardware (Chip) and Software (Instructions written in it)
hence it is a Firmware.
• The main functions of a PC BIOS are:
1. POST (Power on Self Test ) - Test the computer hardware and make sure no errors exist
before loading the operating system. Additional information on the POST is available on
our POST and beep codes page.

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2. Bootstrap Loader - Locate the operating system. If a capable operating system is

located, the BIOS will pass control to it.
3. BIOS setup or CMOS setup - Configuration program that allows you to configure
hardware settings including system settings, such as date, time, and computer passwords.

PRIMARY MEMORY IS VOLATILE IN NATURE?

• Content of primary memory may or may not vanish when power is lost depending
on if it is stored in RAM or ROM.
I. Content of ROM is non-volatile in nature, they are stored even when power is lost.
II. Content of RAM is volatile in nature; it vanishes when power is lost.

CACHE MEMORY
• Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory used to speed up and
synchronizing with high-speed CPU.
• Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but economical than CPU
registers.
• Cache memory acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU.
• It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are immediately
available to the CPU when needed.
• Cache memory is very expensive, so it is smaller in size than Main Memory.
• Generally, computers have cache memory of sizes 256 KB to few MB.
• Cache memory is sometimes integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a
separate chip that has a separate bus interconnect with the CPU.

TERMS RELATED TO THE CACHE MEMORY

• Cache Hit and Cache Miss: When the CPU needs soe data it first looks up in the Cache
and that data is there then it is called as a Cache Hit. If the data is not in the Cache then
the CPU will have to look for that in the RAM and called is as a Cache Miss.

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• Temporal locality: If at one point a particular memory location is referenced, then it is

likely that the same location will be referenced again in the near future. If the data from a
memory location is accessed by the CPU the it is brought into the Cache Memory because
chances are that it will be again required by the CPU.
• Spatial locality: If a particular storage location is referenced at a particular time, then it
is likely that nearby memory locations will be referenced in the near future. If the data
from a memory location is accessed by the CPU the its neighbouring data is brought into
the Cache Memory because chances are that the neighbouring data will be required by
the CPU.

SECONDARY MEMORY/ STORAGE

• Data in secondary memory cannot be processed directly by the CPU, it must first be copied
into primary memory i.e., RAM.
• This memory stores much larger amounts of data and information for extended periods
of time.
• It is the slower and cheaper form of memory.
• Secondary storage is used to store data and programs when they are not being
processed.
• It is also non-volatile in nature.
• It is a permanent storage.
• Secondary memory devices include as follows
1. Magnetic Storage: Magnetic storage is the manipulation of magnetic fields on a medium
in order to record audio, video or other data. It includes hard disk drive, floppy disk and
magnetic tape.
2. Optical Storage: Optical storage is any storage type in which data is written and read
with a laser. It includes CD, DVD and Blu-ray disc.
3. Semiconductor Storage: Solid state storage is a type of storage technique that employs
storage devices built using silicon microchip-based storage architecture. It includes
pen/flash drive, memory card, Solid State Drive, etc.

1. HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)

• It is a non-volatile and direct access, electro-mechanical digital data storage device.
• HDD is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information using
rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic material.
• All programs of a computer are installed in hard disk.

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• Examples of data stored on a computer's hard drive include the operating system,
installed software, and the user's personal files.
• The two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5- inch, for desktop
computers, and 2.5-inch, primarily for laptops.
• HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as PATA (Parallel
Advanced Technology Attachment), SATA (Serial ATA), USB or SAS (Serial Attached SCSI)
cables.
• It is a fixed disk i.e. cannot be removed
from the drive.
• It consists of a spindle that holds flat
circular disks, called platters, which hold
the recorded data.
• Each platter requires read/write heads,
that are used to write and read
information from a platter.
• All the read/write heads are attached to
a single access arm so that they cannot
move independently.
• The information is recorded in bands; each band of information is called a track.
• Each platter has the same number of tracks and a track location that cuts across all
platters is called a cylinder.

• The tracks are divided into pie-shaped sections known as sectors.

• The average access time in a HDD is a function of its rotational speed which is measured
in Revolutions Per Minute.
• RAM speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz), millions of cycles per second so that it can
be compared to your processor's clock speed.

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** Cylinder is a cylindrical intersection through the stack of platters in a disk, centered

around the disk's spindle.
• The first hard drive was introduced to the market by IBM on September 13, 1956.
• Older hard drives had a storage size of several hundred MB (megabytes) to several GB
(gigabytes).
• Newer hard drives have a storage size of several hundred gigabytes to several TB
(terabytes).

How is Data read and written from a HDD?

• Data sent to and read from the hard drive is interpreted by the disk controller.
• This device tells the hard drive what to do and how to move its components.
• When the operating system needs to read or write information, it examines the hard
drive's FAT (File Allocation Table) to determine file location and available write areas.
• Once that is determined, the disk controller instructs the actuator to move the read/write
arm and align the read/write head.
• Because files are often scattered throughout the platter, the head needs to move to
different locations to access all information.
** FAT stands for File Allocation Table, is specifically, a table maintained on a hard disk by
MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems that acts as a table of contents,
showing where directories and files are stored on the disk.

RAID - REDUNDANT ARRAY OF INEXPENSIVE/INDEPENDENT DISKS

• RAID is a way of storing the same data in different places on multiple hard disks or solid-
state drives (SSDs) to protect data in the case of a drive failure.

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• Data is distributed across the drives in one of several ways, referred to as RAID levels,
depending on the required level of redundancy and performance.
• The different schemes, or data distribution layouts, are named by the word "RAID"
followed by a number, for example RAID 0 or RAID 1.

• Each scheme, or RAID level, provides a different balance among the key goals: reliability,
availability, performance, and capacity.
PARITY
• Parity is a mathematical term that defines a value as even or odd.
• For example, the number 4 has an even parity, while the number 5 has an odd parity.
• When even and odd values are compared, such as 4 and 5, they are considered to have
different parity.
• If two even or odd values are compared with each other, they have the same parity.

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2. SOLID STATE DRIVE

• A solid-state drive (SSD) is a storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies to
store data persistently.
• It typically uses the flash memory (semiconductor), and functions as secondary storage
in the hierarchy of computer storage.
• SSDs lack the physical spinning disks and movable read–write heads used in hard disk
drives (HDDs) and floppy disks.
• Compared with electromechanical drives, SSDs are typically more resistant to physical
shock, run silently, and have quicker access time and lower latency.

3. FLOPPY DISK (DISKETTE)

• It is used to store data in magnetic form but it can store small amount of data and it is
slower to access than hard disks.
• Floppy disks are read from and written to by a floppy disk drive (FDD).
• Data is retrieved or recorded on the surface of the disk through a slot on the envelope.
• Floppy disk is removable from the drive. Floppy disk is available in three sizes; 8 inch, 5
and 1/4 inch and 3 and 1/2 inch.
• Commonly called the A: or B:
drive on IBM compatible
computers that is why the
drive letter starts from C: in
your computer today.

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4. MAGNETIC TAPE
• These tapes are made of a plastic film-type material coated with magnetic materials to
store data permanently.
• Data can be read as well as. recorded.
• Magnetic tapes hold the maximum data, which can be accessed sequentially.
• They are generally used to store backup data or that type of data, which is not frequently
used or to transfer data from one system to another.

5. COMPACT DISC (CD)

• It is the most popular and the least expensive type of optical disc.
• The files are stored on this in contiguous sectors.
• CDs are categorized into three main types as follows
(i) CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read Only Memory)
(ii) CD-R (Compact Disc- Recordable)
(iii) CD-RW (Compact Disc- Rewritable)

• Digital Video Disc (DVD): DVD is also known as Super Density Disc (SDD) or Digital
Versatile Disc (DVD). DVDs offer higher storage capacity than CDs while having the same
dimensions.

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• Depending upon the disc type, DVD can store several Gigabytes of data (4.7 GB-17.08
GB).
• DVDs come in three varieties as follows
(i) DVD-ROM (DVD-Read Only Memory)
(ii) DVD-R (DVD-Recordable):
(iii) DVD-RW (DVD-Rewritable)
**To burn a CD means to write data onto a recordable compact disc (called a “CD-R” for
short), with a special device called a CD burner or CD-R drive. The process is often called
“burning” because a laser in the CD-R drive uses heat to record the data to the disc.

6. BLU-RAY DISC
• It is an optical disc storage medium designed to re-capture the data normally in DVD
format.
• Blu-ray disc (BD) contains 25 GB (23.31 GB) per layer space.
•The name Blu-ray disc refers to the blue laser (which is actually a violet laser) used to
read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than the longer-
wavelength red laser used in DVDs.
• Blu-ray can hold almost 5 times more data than a single layer DVD.
• The variations in the formats are as follows
(i) BD-ROM (Read only)
(ii) BD-R (Recordable)
(iii) BD-RW (Rewritable)

7. PEN / THUMBDRIVE
• Pen drive is also known as flash drive.

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

• A flash drive is a data storage device that consists of flash memory (key memory) with
a portable USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface.
• USB flash drives are typically removable, rewritable and
much smaller than a floppy disk.
• Today, flash drives are available in various storage
capacities as 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 4GB, 16GB up to 2 TB.
• They are widely used as an easy and small medium to
transfer and store the information from the computers.

8. MEMORY CARDS
• These are the data storage devices in a chip shaped which can
store the data in it.
• They are commonly used in many electronic devices, including
digital cameras, mobile phones, etc.
• They are small, re-recordable, easily portable and very light
weighted.
• Secure Digital, officially abbreviated as SD, is a proprietary non-
volatile memory card format developed by the SD Association
(SDA) for use in portable devices.

TERTIARY MEMORY
• Tertiary storage or tertiary memory is
the third storage level just below the
secondary storage.
• It involves mounting and unmounting
removable mass storage with the help of
robotic arms to function automatically.
• The main use of tertiary storage is to
archive data that no longer needs to be
accessed regularly.
• These are mainly used for storing large
data, which can be accessed without
human operators and can function

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automatically. It is generally used for backing up data.

• Tertiary storage devices are very cost-effective, and they offer storage
capacities with the help of robotic arms, which act as removable tapes or
disks.
• Typical examples include tape libraries and optical jukeboxes.
• Tertiary storage is also known as nearline storage because it is "near to
online". The formal distinction between online, nearline, and offline storage is:
1. Online storage is immediately available for I/O.
2. Nearline storage is not immediately available, but can be made online
quickly without human intervention.

Secondary Storage
Cheapest

Magnetic Slowest (Highest Access Time) C

S
Tape
t o
Optical Disk
o s
r A
a c Magnetic t
g c Disk Highest Storage Capacity (in GBs/TBs) D
e e
s SSD E
s
C C
a R
p T Input RAM Output
a Devices Devices E
i
c m A
i e Cache S
t ROM E
y S
Registers
Most Expensive
CPU
Fastest (Least Access Time)

Least Storage Capacity (in Bytes)

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 COMPUTER AWARENESS BY TAWQEER UL ISLAM @EACT CLASSES

3. Offline storage is not immediately available, and requires some human

intervention to become online.
FLASH MEMORY

• It is a kind of semiconductor based non-volatile rewritable memory, used in

digital camera, mobile phone, printer, etc.
• The two main types of flash memory, NOR flash and NAND flash, are named
for the NOR and NAND logic gates.
• The NAND type is found mainly in memory cards, USB flash drives, solid-
state drives, feature phones, smartphones, and similar products, for general
storage and transfer of data.
• CMOS: Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.
• MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

VIRTUAL MEMORY
• It is a technique that allows the execution of processes that are not
completely in main memory.
• Virtual Memory is a storage scheme that provides user an illusion of having
a very big main memory.
• One major advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger than
main memory.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. ______ register holds an instruction (B) RAM

while it is being (C) SRAM
(A) Input (D) ROM
(B) Instruction
(C) Inner 8. What is smallest unit of the information
(D) Internal in computer in terms of size?
(A) NIBBLE
2. What is the full form of EPROM? (B) BLOCK
(A) Electrically Programmable ROM (C) BYTE
(B) Erasable Programmable ROM (D) BIT
(C) Extended Programmable ROM
(D) Easy Programmable ROM 9. How will you term 1024 GB as?
(A) 1 Tera Byte
3. How many bits make one Nibble? (B) 1 Mega Byte
(A) 4 bit (C) 1 Peta Byte
(B) 8 bit (D) 1 Kilo Byte
(C) 0 or 1 bit
(D) 1024 bit 10. …………. can be reprogrammed and to
erase the data from it, expose it to ultra
4. ________ can be reprogrammed. To violet light?
erase data from it, expose it to ultra violet (A) PROM
light. To reprogram it, erase all the (B) EPROM
previous data. (C) SDRAM
(A) PROM (D) ROM
(B) EEPROM
(C) SDRAM 11. What is the short form of Binary digit?
(D) EPROM (A) Byte
(B) Bit
5. _______ is a multiple of the unit byte for (C) Nibble
digital information which is one billion (D) GB
bytes.
(A) Terabyte 12. Seek time is ______.
(B) Gigabyte (A) time for data reading
(C) Petabyte (B) time taken to move the read/write
(D) Kilobyte head to desired track
(C) time for data transfer
6. Which memory is an intermediate (D) time taken for desired sector of the
between RAM and processor? track to come under read/write head
(A) ROM
(B) EPROM 13. Magnetic Tape, CD, DVD are ……….. type
(C) PROM of devices?
(D) Cache memory (A) Tertiary
(B) Network
7. Which of the following is a secondary (C) Primary
memory? (D) Database
(A) Hard Disk

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14. Where are files stored permanently? 21. Rotational speed of a magnetic disk is
(A) RAM 3600 rpm. It can transfer 128 kilobytes
(B) Cache data in one full revolution. What is the
(C) SSD transfer rate?
(D) SDRAM (A) 128 kB/sec
(B) 7680 kB/sec
15. ______ is the process of entering data (C) 1280 kB/sec
and instructions into a computer system. (D) 3840 kB/sec
(A) Controlling
(B) Inputting 22. Data ______ means having different
(C) Storing data values for the common fields in
(D) Processing different file.
(A) backup
16. Data ______ means storing the same (B) redundancy
data at multiple locations. (C) inconsistency
(A) independence (D) integrity
(B) redundancy
(C) inconsistency 23. Which register holds information on
(D) shared its way to and from memory?
(A) Memory Backup Register
17. Which register holds address of the (B) Memory Buffer Register
active memory location? (C) Memory Bank Register
(A) Memory Buffer Register (D) Memory Address Register
(B) Memory Backup Register
(C) Memory Access Register 24. ______ stores the result of arithmetic
(D) Memory Address Register and logic
(A) Accumulator
18. Which of the following is a sequential (B) Instruction register
access device? (C) Program counter
(A) CD ROM (D) Data register
(B) DVD
(C) Magnetic tape 25. ______ is used to carry read/write
(D) Memory card commands, status of input/output devices
etc.
19. Primary storage is also known as (A) Memory drive
______. (B) Control bus
(A) Main memory (C) Address unit
(B) Auxiliary storage (D) System unit
(C) Secondary memory
(D) Prime memory 26. What is the full form of MBR?
(A) Memory Builder Register
20. 1 petabytes = ______ bytes. (B) Main Buffer Register
(A) 10 15 (C) Main Builder Register
(B) 10 9 (D) Memory Buffer Register
(C) 10 12
(D) 10 18 27. Resolution is expressed in?
(A) Dots per cm
(B) Dots per m

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(C) Dots per Pixel (B) HDD

(D) Dots per Inch

28. Latency of a magnetic disk is also

known as?
(A) Rotational Delay Time
(B) Disk Delay Time
(C) Locating Delay Time
(D) Horizontal Delay Time

29. The devices that are under the direct

control of the computer are said to be:
A. Microphone
B. Interface units
C. Connected online (C) ROM
D. Semaphore (D) RAM

30. The time required by the read/write 35. Which one of the following is a volatile
head of magnetic tape to position itself on memory type?
the specified track/cylinder is called A. Printer
______. B. Hard disk
(A) latency time C. ROM
(B) transfer time D. RAM
(C) delay time
(D) seek time 36. Which one of the following is ROM
type?
31. Which register is used to accumulate A. DROM
results and data to be operated upon? B. PROM
(A) Subtractor C. SROM
(B) Accumulator D. AROM
(C) Adder
(D) Instruction
37. Which of the following is not a hard
32. What is the full form of DRAM? disk performance parameter?
(A) Dynamic Random Access Memory A. Break time
(B) Different Random Access Memory B. Latency period
(C) Double Random Access Memory C. Access time
(D) Distance Random Access Memory D. Seek time

33. 38. The memory from which information

(A) I-1, II-3, III-3 can only be read, but not written is
(B) I-2, II-3, III-1 called….
(C) I-3, II-2, III-1 A. ROM
(D) I-1, II-3, III-2 B. RAM
C. SSD
34. Memories that are Read only are D. HDD
_____________.
(A) SDD 39. SRAM stands for:

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A. Stable Random Access Memory A. Primary memory

B. Standard Random Access Memory B. Flash memory
C. Special Random Access memory C. Real memory
D. Static Random Access Memory D. Swap memory

40. ……………. helps the computer’s

operating system in pretending that it
have more RAM than it actually has.
1. B 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. B 6. D 7. A 8. D 9. D 10. B
11. B 12. B 13. A 14. C 15. B 16. B 17. D 18. C 19. A 20. A
21. B 22. C 23. B 24. A 25. B 26. D 27. D 28. A 29. C 30. D
31. B 32. A 33. B 34. C 35. D 36. B 37. A 38. A 39. D 40. D

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Chapter 5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEMS
Learning Objectives

• Introduction to Computer Software.

• Types of Software:
o System software: Operating Systems, Device drivers, System Utilities, Firm
Ware and Language Translators.
o Application software: General Purpose Software and Specific Purpose
Software.
• Introduction to Operating Systems.
• Functions of an Operating System.
• Types of Operating Systems:
1. Batch Processing Operating System
2. Single User Operating System
3. Multi User Operating System
4. Multi-Tasking Operating System
5. Time Sharing Operating System
6. Real Time Operating System (RTOS)
• User Interface: GUI and CUI
• Some Important Operating Systems: Unix, Linux, Windows and Macintosh.
• Mobile Operating System: Android, Symbian, iOS and Blackberry.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
• The intangible component of a computer system is the software whereas the tangible part
is the hardware.
• Software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide the
instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do.
• This is in contrast to physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually
performs the work.
• Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and
execute specific tasks.
• A software is an interface between the user and the computer hardware.

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SOFTWARE

PROGRAM 1 PROGRAM 2 PROGRAM 3

Instruction 1 Instruction 1 Instruction 1

Instruction 2 Instruction 2 Instruction 2

Instruction 3 Instruction 3 Instruction 3

Instruction 4 Instruction 4 Instruction 4

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TYPES OF SOFTWARES
• Software can be divided into two major categories
1. System software:
Operating Systems, Device drivers, System Utilities, Firmware and Language Translators.

2. Application software:
General Purpose Software and Specific Purpose Software.

SOFTWARES

SYSTEM APPLICATION
SOFTWARE SOFTWARE

OPERATING UTILITY DEVICE GENERAL

SYSTEMS SOFTWARES DRIVERS PURPOSE

LANGUAGE SPECIFIC
TRANSLATORS PURPOSE

FIRMWARE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE AND PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE

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OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE

Open-source software is computer

Proprietary software is computer software
software whose source code is available
where the source codes are publicly not
openly on the internet and programmers
available only the company which has
can modify it to add new features and
created can modify it.
capabilities without any cost.

In open-source software the source code In proprietary software, the source code is
is public. protected.

Open-source software can be installed on Proprietary software cannot be installed

any computer. into any computer without a valid license.

It is not much flexible so there is a very

It is more flexible and provides more
limited innovation scope with the
freedom which encourages innovation.
restrictions.

Users can get open software free of Users must have to pay to get the
charge. proprietary software.

Examples are Windows, macOS, Internet

Examples are Android, Linux, Firefox, Open
Explorer, Google Earth, Microsoft Office,
Office, GIMP, VLC Media player, etc.
Adobe Flash Player, Skype, etc.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
• System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's
hardware and application programs.
• System software is software designed to provide a platform for other software.
• System software also provides the interface between the user and components of the
computer.
• Depending on the functionality, the system software can be further divided into following
categories:

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1. Operating Systems.
2. Device Drivers.
3. Language Translators.
4. Utility Softwares
5. Firmware

1. OPERATING SYSTEM
• It consists of programs which control, coordinate and supervise the activities of the
various components of a computer system.
• Its function is to provide link between the computer hardware and the user.
• An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software
resources, and provides common services for computer programs.
• An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
• Examples are MS-DOS, Mac OS, Windows XP/2000/98, Unix, Linux, Android etc.
• An operating system has three main functions:
(1) manage the computer's resources, such as the central processing unit, memory, disk
drives, and printers,
(2) establish a user interface, and
(3) execute and provide services for applications software.

2. DEVICE DRIVERS
• A software, which is written with the objective of making a device functional when it is
connected to the computer is called device driver.
• It is a system software that acts like an interface between the device and the user.
• Every device, whether it is a printer, monitor, mouse or keyboard has a driver program
associated with it for its proper functioning.

3. LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR
• It helps in converting programming languages to machine language.
• The translated program is called object code.

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• There are three different kinds of language translator: Assembler, Compiler and
Interpreter.

4. SYSTEM UTILITIES/UTILITY SOFTWARE

• These programs perform tasks related to the maintenance and enhancement of the
computer system.
• These are the packages which are loaded into computer during time of installation of
operating system.
• They are used to support, enhance, expand and secure existing programs and data in the
computer system.
• System utility mainly consists of the following functions:
1. Disk Compression: It increases the amount of information that can be stored on a hard
disk by compressing all information stored on a hard disk. e.g., DiskDoubler, SuperStor
Pro, DoubleDisk Gold, etc.
2. Disk Fragmenter: It detects computer files whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk and moves the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
• It can be used to rearrange files and unused space on your hard disk. e.g., MyDefrag,
Diskeeper, Defraggler, etc.
3. Backup Utilities: It can make a copy of all information stored on a disk and restore either
the entire disk or selected files.
4. Disk Cleaners: It is used to find files that have not been used for a long time.
• This utility also serves to increase the speed of a slow computer. e.g. Bleach Bit cleaner,
etc.
5. Anti-virus: It is the utility which is used to scan computer for viruses and prevent the
computer system files from being corrupt. e.g. Kaspersky, AVG, McAfee, Avira, etc.

5. FIRMWARE
• Firmware is software that provides basic machine instructions that allow the hardware
to function and communicate with other software running on a device.
• It is sometimes called "software for hardware."
• Firmware is held in non-volatile memory devices such as ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and
Flash memory.
• The BIOS found in Personal Computers
• Code inside a printer (in addition to the printer driver that is on the computer)

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• Software controlling electronics in a car — the radio, the ABS (anti-lock braking system),
engine controls, etc.
• Software controlling newer household appliances (microwave ovens, dishwashers, etc.)

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
• It is a computer software designed to help the user to perform single or multiple tasks.
• An application program is a computer program designed to carry out a specific task other
than one relating to the operation of the computer itself, typically to be used by end-users.
• Application softwares are also called the end-user programs.
• These programs do the real work for users.
• Accounting software, Spreadsheet, Word processor, Presentation software, Email,
Banking software, financial software, Reservation systems, Entertainment software, Video
games, Personal computer games, Software art, Educational software, Database
management system (DBMS), Simulation software, 3D computer graphics software,
Animation software, Graphic art software, Video editing software, Audio editing software,
Music sequencer, etc.

There are two types of application software

I. General Purpose Software II. Specific Purpose Software
I. GENERAL PURPOSE SOFTWARE: General purpose software is software that can be used
for a variety of tasks.

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• Different individuals/users use them for varying tasks.

• They allow people to do simple computer tasks.
• For example, a word processor (MS WORD) could be classed as general-purpose
software as it would allow a user to write a novel, create a restaurant menu or even make
a poster.
• Some of the general-purpose software are as follows
1. Word Processing Software: A word processor is a software program capable of creating,
storing and printing of documents.
• Word processors have the ability to create a document and make changes anywhere in
the document.
• E.g., Microsoft Word, WordPerfect (Windows only), AppleWorks (Mac only), Google Docs,
Libre Office Writer, WPS Office Writer etc.
2. Electronic Spreadsheets: Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as
spreadsheets) are the computer programs that accept data in a tabular form and allow
you to create and manipulate spreadsheets electronically.
• E.g., Microsoft Excel, Corel Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3, OpenOffice.org Calc, Google Sheets,
etc.
3. Presentation Software: Presentation is the practice of showing and explaining the
contents of a topic to an audience or a learner visually.
• E.g., Microsoft PowerPoint, Corel Presentations, Google Slides, Lotus Freelance Graphics,
OpenOffice.org Impress, etc.
4. Database Management System (DBMS): A DBMS refers to the software that is
responsible for sorting, maintaining and utilising a database.
• It enables a user to define, create and maintain the database and provide controlled
access on it. e.g., Microsoft Access, Corel Paradox, MySQL, OpenOffice.org Base, etc.
5. Desktop Publishing (DTP) Software: It is a tool for graphic designers and non- designers
to create visual communications for professional or desktop printing as well as for online
or on-screen electronic publishing.
• E.g., Quark XPress, Adobe PageMaker, 3B2, CorelDraw, Corel Ventura, Illustrator, etc.
6. Graphics Software (Image Editing): It is an application program or collection of programs
that enables a person to manipulate visual images on a computer system.
• Most graphics softwares have the ability to import and export one or more graphics file
formats. e.g., DirectX, Adobe Photoshop, piZap, Microsoft Publisher, Picasa, etc.
7. Multimedia Software: Multimedia includes a combination of text, audio, still images,
animation, video or interactivity content forms.

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• E.g. Macro-Media Flash, Xilisoft Video Converter, VLC Media Player, Nimbuzz, etc.

II. SPECIFIC PURPOSE SOFTWARE: Special purpose software is software that can only be
used for one particular task.
• This type of application software generally has one purpose to execute.
• Some of the specific purpose application softwares are described below:
Inventory Management System and Purchasing System, Payroll Management System,
Hotel Management System, Reservation System, Report Card Generator, Accounting
Software, Billing System, etc.

LINKER AND LOADER

1. Linker: It is a system program that links together several object modules and libraries
to form a single and coherent program (executable).
• The main purpose of linker is to resolve references among files.
2. Loader: It is a kind of system software which is responsible for loading and relocation
of the executable program in the main memory.
• It is a part of operating system that brings an executable file residing on disk into memory
and starts its execution process.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
• Operating system is an organized collection or integrated
set of specialized programs that controls the overall
operations of a computer.
• An operating system is a software which performs all the
basic tasks like file management, memory management,
process management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and
printers.
• An Operating System (OS) is a program which acts as an interface between the user
and the computer hardware.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• Following functions are provided by an operating system to the convenience of users

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1. Process Management: Process management involves various tasks like creation,

scheduling, termination of processes, and a dead lock. Process is a program that is under
execution.
2. Memory Management: It is a process of controlling and coordinating computer memory.
It ensures that all processes are able to access their memory or not.
3. File Management: It means managing all the data files in a computer system.
4. Device Management: It is a process of managing the operation and maintenance of
input/output devices. It also facilitates the interface between all the connected devices.
5. Security: The OS keeps the system and programs safe and secure through
authentication. A user id and password decide the authenticity of the user.
6. Other Functions:
• Error detection.
• Keeping a record of system performance.
• Communication between different software etc.

COMPONENTS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

KERNEL
• Kernel is central component of an operating system that manages operations of memory
and CPU.
• It is core component of an operating system.
• Kernel loads first into memory when an operating system is loaded and remains into
memory until operating system is shut down again.

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• It is responsible for various tasks such as disk management, task management, and
memory management.
Types of Kernels:
1. Monolithic Kernel – It is one of types of kernels where all operating system services
operate in kernel space. Example: Unix, Linux, Open VMS, XTS-400 etc.
2. Micro Kernel – It is more stable with less services in kernel space. It puts rest in user
space. Example: Mach, L4, AmigaOS, Minix, K42 etc.
3. Hybrid Kernel – It is the combination of both monolithic kernel and mircrokernel.
Example Windows NT, Netware, BeOS etc.

PROCESSES IN OS
• A program running is called as a Process.
STATES OF A PROCESS:
• New (Create) – In this step, the process is about to be created but not yet created, it is
the program which is present in secondary memory that will be picked up by OS to create
the process.
• Ready – Ready to run. After the creation of a process, the process enters the ready state
i.e., the process is loaded into the main memory. The process here is ready to run and is
waiting to get the CPU time for its execution. Processes that are ready for execution by the
CPU are maintained in a queue for ready processes (Ready Queue).
• Running – The process is chosen by CPU for execution and the instructions within the
process are executed by any one of the CPU.
• Blocked or waiting – Whenever the process requests access to I/O or needs input from
the user it enters the blocked or wait state. The process continues to wait in the main
memory and does not require CPU. Once the I/O operation is completed the process goes
to the ready state.
• Terminated or completed – Process is killed as well as PCB is deleted.

CPU SCHEDULING
• The OS does the function of scheduling different processes in a computer system.
• The OS maintains a separate queue for each of the process states.
• The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues −
1. Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.

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2. Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory, ready
and waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.
3. Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O device
constitute this queue.
• The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.).
• The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready and run queues.

CPU SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS

• There are mainly five types of process scheduling algorithms
1. First Come First Serve (FCFS): The process which requests the CPU gets the CPU
allocation first
2. Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling
3. Shortest Remaining Time First
4. Priority Scheduling: the scheduler selects the tasks to work as per the priority.
5. Round Robin Scheduling: Each process gets an equal CPU time.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

• Types of an operating systems are as follows
1. Batch Processing Operating System: In this operating system, a number of jobs are put
together and executed as a group. This operating system is a responsible for scheduling
the jobs according to priority and the resource required. E.g., Unix.
• Examples of monitors (early BPOS) were IBM's Fortran Monitor System, SOS (Share
Operating System), and finally IBSYS for IBM's 709x systems in 1960.
• Even new systems usually contain one or more batch applications for updating
information at the end of the day, generating reports, printing documents, etc.
2. Single User Operating System: It is a type of operating system which allows only one
user at a time. Operating system for personal computer (PC) is a single user OS. They are
designed to manage one user at a time. E.g., MS-DOS, Windows 9X.
3. Multi User Operating System: This OS allows multiple users to access a computer
system concurrently. It is used in computer networks that allows same data and
applications to be accessed by multiple users at the same time. e.g., Open VMS (Virtual
Memory System).
4. Multi-Tasking Operating System: In this operating system, more than one processes can
be executed

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concurrently. It also allows the user to switch between the running applications. e.g., Linux,
Unix, Windows 95.
• Multi-tasking OS further classified into two types
(i) Pre-emptive Multitasking OS: It is a type of multitasking that allows the OS to forcibly
suspend any task.
(ii) Cooperative Multitasking OS: In a co-operative system a task will continue until it
explicitly relinquishes control of the CPU.
5. Time Sharing Operating System: This operating system allows multiple programs to
simultaneously share the computer resources. It provides each process with a small
portion of a shared computer at once. e.g. Linux, Unix, Windows 2000 server.
6. Real Time Operating System (RTOS): These operating systems are designed to respond
to an event within a predetermined time. They are often used in applications such as flight
reservation system, military applications, etc. is types of operating system increase the
availability and reliability of the system. e.g. PSOS (Portable Software on Silicon), RT Linux,
Lynx, etc.
• There are two types of real time operating system
(i) Hard Real Time OS: A hard-real time system is a system in which a single failure to
meet the deadline may lead to a complete system failure. E.g., Air Traffic Control System,
Medical System, etc.
(ii) Soft Real Time OS: A soft real time system is a system in which one or more failures to
meet the deadline is not considered as complete system failure, but its performance is
considered degraded. Gaming systems.
CUI vs GUI

SOME IMPORTANT OPERATING SYSTEMS

• Some popular operating systems are as follows

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1. UNIX: Unix is a family of multitasking, multiuser computer operating systems, whose

development started in the 1969 at the Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Dennis
Ritchie, and others.
• It is primarily used in a server rather than a workstation and should not be used by anyone
who does not understand the system.
2. Linux: Linux is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux
kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds.
• Over 96.4% of the top 1 million web servers' operating systems are Linux based.
• Some famous Linux distributions are Ubuntu, CentOS, Android, RedHat, Kali, etc.
3. Apple Macintosh (Mac OS): It was introduced in January, 1984 by Steve Jobs and was
initially named as Macintosh OS, which was later renamed as Mac OS.
• macOS is a proprietary graphical operating system developed and marketed by Apple Inc.
since 2001.
• It is the primary operating system for Apple's Mac computers.
• Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the
second most widely used desktop OS, after Windows NT.
4. Microsoft Windows: Windows is a proprietary graphical operating system produced by
Microsoft, the first version of which was released in November 1985.
• It is a processor-independent, multiprocessing and multi-user and most widely used
desktop operating system.

MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEMS

• This OS operates on Smartphones, Tablets and Digital Mobile devices.
• It controls mobile devices and its design supports wireless communication and different
types of mobile applications.
• Some popular mobile operating systems are as follows:
1. Android: It is an open source mobile OS developed by Google, which is based on Linux
(Kernel).
• It is basically designed for touch screen mobile devices like Tablets, Smartphones etc.
Now- a-days, it is most commonly used OS in mobile phones.
• The latest version of Android is Android 11 which was released on 8th September, 2020.
2. Symbian: It is the OS developed and sold by Symbian Ltd.
• It is an open-source mobile OS designed for Smartphones.

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• It has been used by many major handset manufacturers including Motorola, Nokia,
Samsung, Sony, etc.
• The latest version of Symbian is Nokia Belle Feature Pack 2 which was released in
October 2012.
3. iOS: It is the popular closed-source mobile operating system developed by Apple
Incorporation.
• This operating system is commonly used in Apple iPhone, iPod Touch, iPad etc.
• The latest version of iOS is iOS 15 which was released on 6th June, 2021.
4. BlackBerry: It is the most secure operating system used in leading Smartphones
developed by BlackBerry company.
• BlackBerry OS is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by Canadian company
BlackBerry Limited for its BlackBerry line of smartphone handheld devices.
• The latest version of BlackBerry is BlackBerry OS 7.1.0 which was released in 2013.
• BlackBerry Limited have announced that the operating system will become end of life
effectively starting from January 4, 2022.

VERSIONS OF ANDROID AND IOS

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IMPORTANT EXTENSIONS AND THEIR MEANING EXTENSIONS MEANING

It contains commands that are to be executed by the operating system when the computer
first boots.
• .exe Executable files
• .com Command files
• .bat Batch files (It consists of a series of commands to be executed by the command-line
interpreter)
• .doc Document files
• .txt Text files
• .prg Program files
• .ovr Overlays
• .sys System files

MISCELLANEOUS TERMS
• Booting is starting up a computer or computer appliance until it can be used.
• It can be initiated by hardware such as a Start button.
• There are two types of booting
1. Cold Booting (Hard Boot): When a computer is turned ON after it has been completely
shut down.
2. Warm Booting (Soft Boot or Dead Boot): When a computer is restarted by pressing the
combination of Ctrl + Alt + Del keys or by restart button. Warm booting is generally done
when system stops responding or system updates requires system to be restarted for the
updates to take effect.

• Shell: It is the program which interprets commands given by the user.

•Thread: It is a task that runs with other tasks concurrently within the same process. It is
also called as a lightweight process.

•A deadlock is a situation in which two computer programs sharing the same resource are
effectively preventing each other from accessing the resource, resulting in both programs
ceasing to function.

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• Humanware: component refers to the person that uses the computer. More specifically,
it is about the individual that makes hardware and software components productive.

• Freeware: is commonly used for copyrighted software that is given away for free by its
owner.

•Closed source software: (also known as proprietary software), the public is not given
access to the source code, so they can’t see or modify it in any way.

• Open-source software: the source code is publicly available to anyone who wants it, and
programmers can read or change that code if they desire.

• CAD (Computer Aided Design) Software: is used by architects, engineers, drafters and
other to create precision drawings.

• Spooling: Spooling stands for "Simultaneous Peripheral Operations Online".

• So, in Spooling, more than one I/O operations can be performed simultaneously i.e. at the
time when the CPU is executing some process then more than one I/O operations can also
be done at the same time.

MICROSOFT WINDOWS
• Microsoft Windows stands for ‘Microsoft Wide Interactive Network Development for Office
Work Solution. Solution.’
• Microsoft Windows is a series of proprietary graphical interface operating system
developed, marketed and sold by Microsoft.
• A user can easily interact with the windows programs or applications by selecting
relevant options, through the mouse or by entering characters through the keyboard.
• Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985,
as a graphical operating system shell for MS DOS in response to the growing interest in
graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
• Windows 1.0, Windows 2.0, and Windows 2.1, Windows 3.X.

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VERSIONS MICROSOFT WINDOWS

1. WINDOWS 95:
• It is a graphical user interface-based operating system.
• It was released on 24th August, 1995 by Microsoft.
• The first operating system in the 9x family
Features
(i) It is a mixed of 16 bit /32 bit Windows operating system.
(ii) It is consumer oriented and not business oriented.
(iii) It supports FAT32 file system, multi display, Web TV and the Internet Explorer.
• Windows 9 x is a generic term referring to a series of Microsoft Windows computer
operating systems produced from 1995 to 2000 which were based on the Windows 95
kernel and its underlying foundation of MS DOS, both of which were updated in subsequent
versions.
2. WINDOWS 98:
• It was developed in 1998.
• This was produced in two main versions.
• The first Windows 98 version was plagued with programming errors (bugs) but the
Windows 98 second edition came out later was much better with many errors resolved.
Features
(i) Windows 98 was the first operating system to use the Windows Driver Model (WDM)
to replace VxD , which was used on older versions.
(ii) It also supports many peripheral devices (USB, DVD etc.)

3. MICROSOFT NT:
• Introduced in July, 1993 and made specifically for businesses.
• Important Versions: Windows NT 3.1/3.5/3.51/4.0
Features:
(i) It is a processor independent, multiprocessing and multi user operating system.
(ii) It has a 32-bit Windows applications.
(iii) It was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel.

4. Windows ME:
• Windows ME (Millennium Edition) launched in June 2000
• It was targeted specifically at home PC users, and Windows Movie Maker software.
• It is the third and final product of the Windows 9x family.

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Features:
(i) The minimum internal storage is 64MB and maximum 4GB.
(ii) It introduced Multilingual User Interface (MUI).
5. WINDOWS 2000:
• It is the successor to Windows NT 4.0.
• It was oriented towards businesses.
6. WINDOWS XP:
• Microsoft released Windows XP on 25th October, 2001.
• Successor of Windows Me.
• Versions: Windows XP Home edition and Windows XP Professional
• For 64-bit processors.

7. WINDOWS VISTA:
• It was released worldwide on 8th November, 2006.
• It contained a number of new features, from a redesigned shell and user interface to
significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features.
8. WINDOWS 7:
• It is an OS released by Microsoft on 22nd October, 2009.
• It is an upgrade of Windows XP and Vista.
• It does not include some standard applications like Windows Movie Maker, Windows Mail,
Features
(i) It supports 64-bit processor.
(ii) It provides touch, speech, handwriting recognition
(iii) It supports a playback of media in MP4.
(iv) It includes Windows Biometric framework.
9. WINDOWS 8:
• It is a personal computer operating system that was developed by Microsoft and released
on 26 th October, 2012.
• Start button was removed.
Features

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(i) It supports a 64-bit CPU.

(ii) It provides 3D Graphic supports and Internet Explorer 10.
(iii) It supports new emerging technology like USB 3.0, cloud computing.
10. WINDOWS 10:
• It was released by Microsoft on 29th July, 2015.
• Start button was added again.
• Multiple desktop support.
• Central notification Center for App notifications and quick access.
• Cortana personal assistant.
11. WINDOWS 11:
• Windows 10 will be retired, setting Oct. 14, 2025, as the end of support date for the widely
used operating system.
• Windows 11 is the latest major release of Microsoft's Windows NT operating system,
released in October 2021.
• Windows 11 brings a brand new, more Mac like interface to the OS.
• It features a clean design with rounded corners and pastel shades.
• The iconic Start menu also moves to the center of the screen along with the Taskbar.
• But you can move those back to the left, where they are in Windows 10, if you prefer.
• Android app integration
• Windows 11 lets you set up virtual desktops in a way that's similar to on a Mac.

DESKTOP
• When we turn ON the computer then the first screen, which will be display on the
computer is known as desktop
• The background image of desktop is called wallpaper. A small arrow or blinking symbol,
moving on the desktop, is called cursor
• Desktop contains Start menu, Task bar, icons, gadgets, etc.
• Some important components of desktop are organised as follows:

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1. Icons
• A small image of a program, shown on the desktop with program name is known as icon.
• Icons are small pictures that represent files, folders, programs and other items.
• Users can open these programs by double click on icons.
• If you move an icon on your desktop, this is called ‘dragging’ and after releasing it,
it will be called ‘dropping’.
• Some of the icons displayed on the desktop are as follows
1. Computer: It is the most important icon on the desktop, which contains icons of
document folders, hard disk’s partition, each removable disk drive . e.g. Floppy disk, CD,
DVD, etc.

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2. Recycle Bin: It is also a form of icon on the desktop, which contains deleted files, folders
or shortcuts. If we delete a file or folder then it goes to recycle bin. From recycle bin, we
can restore the deleted files or folders on proper place. Once the recycle bin is empty then
we won’t be able to restore those files and folders again.
3. Network: It consists of all network connections, which make possible to connect the
computer to Internet.
4. Documents: This folder contains all your files which you have created and saved in it .
It also contains all types of file format Word processor, Spreadsheet, PowerPoint, image,
etc.

• Task Bar: Initially, the long horizontal bar at the bottom of the desktop is known
as Task bar. When we open a program or any window, then the button of that
program will be displayed on the task bar
• Generally, task bar consists of three parts:
(i) Start button
(ii) Search Bar
(iii) Quick Access
(iv) Notification area
(v) Time and Date

• Start Menu: This menu is the main gateway of our computer’s programs such as files,
folders and settings.
• Start menu also contains most recently opened programs.
• Start menu have following options

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1. All Programs: It contains a list of

installed programs. When we
install any software, it
automatically shows in this menu.
2. Pictures: It is a collection of
Images.
3. Documents: It shows a list of
most recently opened documents.
4. Setting: It includes Control
Panel, Printers, Taskbar, etc.
5. Power: It contains sleep,
hibernate, shut down and restart.

STRUCTURE OF A WINDOW
• Window is a rectangular area which provides an environment to run many programs.
• Some parts of the window are as follows
• Title Bar: It is located at the top of window or any dialog box, which displays the name of
the window or software program. Title bar contains at least three small buttons.
1. Close Button: At the right edge of the title bar, there is a square containing a [X] called
the Close button. It helps to terminate the running program.
2. Minimize Button: It reduces to window to a button on the task bar. It helps to shrink the
window.
3. Maximize Button: It enlarges the window to occupy the whole desktop. It expands the
size of window fit to the desktop.
• Scroll Bar: It appears at the right (or left) side or at the bottom of the window. A window
can display a document, i.e., larger than the window area, so with the help of scroll bar
arrow, the user can scroll a document in the window area to bring the view of hidden
portion of document. There are two types of scroll bars, i.e. Horizontal scroll bar and
Vertical scroll bar.

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• Menu Bar: Each window contains its own menu which performs specific actions when
they have been selected.
• The menu bar consists of several options as follows
1. File Menu contains options like New, Open, Close, Save, Save As, Print, etc.
2. Edit Menu contains options like Undo, Cut, Copy, Paste, Clear, etc.
3. View Menu like Normal, Toolbar, Print Layout, etc.
4. Insert Menu contains options like Header, Footer, etc.
5. Help Menu for tutorials or helpful information.
• Dialog Box: When we perform certain operation on our document and click on the Close
button without saving the document then dialog box will be appear on the screen.
Generally, dialog box contains message, Close button, Yes button, No button and Cancel
button. It is mainly used to suggest that what to do next.

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MAIN PROGRAMS INSIDE THE WINDOWS

1. Notepad: It is a text editor program. Notepad is most commonly used to the edit or view
text files. The file format of Notepad files is .txt (text
• To open Click on Start button All Programs Accessories Notepad
2. WordPad: It is another text editor program including some few features such as complex
formatting, pictures, etc. The extension of WordPad file is rtf (rich text files).
• To open Click on Start button All Programs Accessories WordPad
3. Paint: It is a drawing program, used to create drawing or edit digital pictures (images).
The extension of paint file is png or. jpg or. bmp
• To open Click on Start button All Programs Accessories Paint
4. Calculator: It performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.
• To open Click on Start button All Programs Accessories Calculator
5. Media Player: Windows media player is an easy to use interface to play digital media
files, organise digital media collection, burn CDs.
• To open Click on Start button All Programs Windows Media Player
6. Games: Windows have some games like Chess Titans, Hearts, Freecell , Mahjong Titans,
Purble place, Solitaire, Spider Solitaire, etc.
• To open Click on Start button All Programs Games.

FILES
• These are the collection of related data stored on auxiliary storage media.
• In Windows, files are the basic unit to store data.
• The name given to a file or document by the user is called file name.
• Each file has a specific filename and has a file extension that identifies the file type. Some
common filename extensions are as follows
.docx MS Word document
.rtf WordPad document
.txt Notepad text file
.eml E mail file
.exe Executable file
.xlsx MS Excel file
.htm or html HTML file (Web page)

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.pptx MS PowerPoint presentation

• ZIP File: ZIP stands for Zone Information Protocol. This is an application that allows for
the compression of application files.
• Executable File: When a file contains instructions that can be carried out by the computer,
it is often called an executable file.

FILE SYSTEMS
• A file system is a method of organizing files on physical media, such as hard disks, CD's,
and flash drives.
• In the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems, users are presented with several
different choices of file systems when formatting such media.
• These choices depend on the type of media involved and the situations in which the media
is being formatted.
• The two most common file systems in Windows are as follows:
• NTFS
• FAT
• exFAT
• HFS Plus
• EXT
• The NTFS file system: NTFS (short for New Technology File System) is a modern, well-
formed file system that is most commonly used by Windows Vista, 7 & 8. It has feature
rich, yet simple organization that allows it to be used on very large volumes.
• The FAT file system: The FAT (short for File Allocation Table) file system is a general-
purpose file system that is compatible with all major operating systems (Windows, Mac
OS X, and Linux/Unix). It has relatively simple technical underpinnings, and was the default
file system for all Windows operating systems prior to Windows 2000.
• The exFAT file system: The exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table) is a Microsoft file
system that is compatible with Windows and Mac OS 10.6+. It is also compatible with many
media devices such as TVs and portable media players.
• The HFS Plus file system: HFS (Hierarchical File System) Plus is a file system developed
by Apple for Mac OS X. It is also referred to as Mac OS Extended.
• The EXT file system: The extended file system was created to be used with the Linux
kernel.

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MS WINDOWS SHORTCUT KEYS

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TERMS RELATED TO WINDOWS

• Standby Mode: It drops the computer into a very low power mode.
• Sleep Mode: stores the documents and files you are operating into the RAM, using a small
amount of power in the process. Sleep uses very little power, your PC starts up faster,
and you’re instantly back to where you left off. You don’t have to worry that you'll lose your
work because of your battery draining because Windows automatically saves all your
work and turns off the PC if the battery is too low. Use Sleep when you’re going to be away
from your PC for just a little while like when you’re taking a coffee break. For a lot of PCs
(especially laptops and tablets), your PC goes to sleep when you close your lid or press
the power button.
• Hibernate Mode: It essentially does the same thing, but saves the information to your
hard disk, which allows your computer to be turned off completely and use no energy
Hibernate uses less power than sleep and when you start up the PC again, you’re back to
where you left off (though not as fast as sleep). Use hibernation when you know that you
won't use your laptop or tablet for an extended period and won't have an opportunity to
charge the battery during that time. First check to see if this option is available on your
PC and if it is, turn it on.
• Clipboard is a temporary storage in computer memory that stores the cut or copied data.
• Windows Explorer is a file manager application that is included with releases of the
Microsoft Windows OS.
• CORTANA: Cortana is a virtual assistant developed by Microsoft that uses the Bing search
engine to perform tasks such as setting reminders and answering questions for the user.
Cortana was introduced in Windows 10.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following instructs the (c) object

computer hardware, what to do and how (d) both a and c
to do it? 7. A computer program that functions as
(a) Hardware an intermediary between a computer user
(b) Operating system and the computer hardware is called
(c) Software
(d) Device driver (a) software
(b) hardware
2. A set of computer programs used on a (c) operating system.
computer to perform different tasks is (d) driver
called
(a) computer instructions 8. One or more defects occurring in the
(b) processor computer software that prevents the
(c) software software from working is called
(d) hardware (a) bot
Answer: (c), Software helps to transform (b) system error
one interface into another interface. (c) bug
(d) slug
3. Which of the following is not a type of
software? 9. Bug means
(a) System software (a) logical errors in the program
(b) Application software (b) syntax error in the program
(c) Utility software (c) runtime error
(d) Driver software (d) All of the above

4. Which software is used to manage and 10. A mistake in an algorithm that

control the hardware components and generates incorrect results or output is
allows interaction between the hardware called
and the other different types of software? (a) logical error
(a) Application software (b) syntax error
(b) System software (c) compile-time error
(c) Utility software (d) procedural error
(d) Operating system
11. The process of finding
5. Which of the following is the part of errors/defects/bugs in the software
system software? program is called
(a) Operating system (a) Debugging
(b) Utility software (b) Interpreting
(c) Browser software (c) Compiling
(d) both a and b (d) Testing

12. Software programs developed for

6. The main function of computer software performing particular tasks related to
is to turn data into managing computer resources is called
(a) information (a) System software
(b) program (b) Utility software

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(c) Application software 19. Which among the following application

(d) Helper software software can be used to create, edit, and
print documents?
(a) Spreadsheet
13. Which of the following is not a kind of (b) Word processing
system software? (c) Database software
(a) BIOS software (d) Desktop publishing (DTP)
(b) Unix, Linux
(c) Microsoft Windows, and Mac OS 20. Which of the following is not a kind of
(d) Microsoft Word application software?
(a) Word processor
14. Which of the following is not (b) Database
application software? (c) Browser
(a) MS-Word (d) Device driver
(b) Google Docs
(c) Adobe Acrobat 21. Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and
(d) Turbo C compiler Google Docs are the examples of
(a) an operating software
15. Choose the odd one out. (b) system software
(a) Interpreter (c) utility software
(b) Compiler (d) application software
(c) Interpreter
(d) Operating system 22. Which application software is used to
(e) Programmer perform calculations on rows and
columns of data?
16. Application software is developed to (a) Word processing
accomplish (b) Presentation graphics
(a) real-world tasks (c) Database
(b) operating system tasks (d) Spreadsheet
(c) computer-centric tasks
(d) All of the above 23. Which of the following is also known
as presentation software that is used to
17. Which of the following are known as give presentation of information and
office-oriented application software? pictures through slideshows?
(a) Interpreters, Compilers, editors (a) Multimedia authoring
(b) Network software, backup system (b) Desktop publishing
(c) Word processors, spreadsheets, (c) Presentation graphics
database (d) Both b and c
(d) Both a and c
24. Which of the following are examples
18. What is the full form of GUI? of presentation graphics software?
(a) Microsoft PowerPoint
(a) Graphical Universal Interface (b) Apple Keynote
(b) Graphical User Interface (c) Corel Presentations and Adobe
(c) General Utility Interface Persuasion
(d) General Universal Interface (d) All of these

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25. Which among the following is

database software that allows us to 31. A computer virus that attacks an
create and manage a database? antivirus program to prevent detection of
(a) Microsoft Access the virus in the computer system is
(b) Corel Paradox (a) Worm
(c) Lotus Approach (b) Retrovirus
(d) All of these (c) Trojan
(d) Ghost virus
26. Which utility software helps to protect
the computer system from viruses and 32. Which utility software or program is
prevent the computer system files from used to reduce the size of files to increase
being corrupt? the amount of disk space in the computer
(a) Disk cleanup system?
(b) Disk defragmenter (a) Disk cleanup
(c) Antivirus (b) File compression
(d) All (c) Disk fragmentation
(d) Troubleshooting program
27. Which among the following is not a
type of utility system software? 33. Which of the following Windows
(a) Antivirus utilities scans the entire hard drive and
(b) Firewalls erase (or delete) any unnecessary files
(c) Disk defragmenter such as temporary files from the Internet,
(d) MS-DOS and cookies downloaded while visiting
webpages?
28. Which utility software is used to (a) Disk defragmenter
protect the computer system from (b) Disk cleanup
hackers? (c) Backup and Restore wizard
(a) Antivirus (d) All of the above
(b) Firewall
(c) AUP 34. Which type of utility is used to update
(d) Backup wizard all device drivers at the same time?
(a) Driver update
29. What are the main functions of system (b) Windows update
utility? (c) Device manager
(d) Driver Verification Service (DVS)
(a) Disk cleanup
(b) Disk defragmentation 35. Which Windows utility program
(c) System Restore and Disk compression locates and eliminates unnecessary
(d) Antivirus (Virus protection) fragments of data and rearranges files
(e) All of the above and unused disk space to optimize
operations?
30. What is the full form of a Virus? (a) Backup
(a) Very Information Record User Search (b) Disk restore
(b) Very Interchanged Result Until Source (c) Disk defragmenter
(c) Vital Information Resources Under (d) Disk cleanup
Siege
(d) Vital Information Resources Under 36. What are the main functions of system
Search utilities?

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(a) Data recovery (d) Dreamweaver

(b) Backup (e) Both a and c
(c) Virus protection
(d) All of the above 39. Which of the following application
software is accounting software?
37. Which backup of a computer system (a) Powerpoint
contains a copy of the entire program, (b) Wordperfect
data, and system files? (c) Tally
(a) restoration (d) All of the above
(b) bootstrap
(c) differential 40. Which of the following are examples
(d) full of web browser software?

38. Which of the following application (a) Netscape Communicator

software is a database management (b) Microsoft Internet Explorer
system? (c) Google Chrome
(a) Microsoft MySQL Server (d) All
(b) Netscape Communicator
(c) Oracle
1. c 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. d 6. a 7. c 8. c 9. a 10. a
11. d 12. c 13. d 14. d 15. e 16. a 17. c 18. b 19. b 20. d
21. d 22. d 23. c 24. d 25. d 26. c 27. d 28. b 29. e 30. c
31. b 32. b 33. b 34. b 35. c 36. d 37. d 38. e 39. c 40. d

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Chapter 6
COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
Learning Objectives

• Algorithms and Flowcharts

• Introduction to Programming.
• Programming Languages.
• Low level, Medium-level and High-level languages.
• Some Important High-Level Languages.
• Language Translators: Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter.
• Generation of Languages.
• Programming errors.
• Terms Related to Programming.

ALGORITHM
• An algorithm is a step-by-step method of solving a problem.
• An algorithm is a finite sequence of rigorous steps, typically used to solve a class of
specific problems or to perform a computation.
• A set of rules to be followed in calculations or other problem-solving operations
• The desirable features of an algorithm are
(i) Each step of algorithm should be simple.
(ii) It must be in a finite number of steps.
(iii) It should be as efficient as possible.
(iv) It should be clear in the sense.
ALGORITHM TO MAKE A CUP OF TEA
Step 1: Put the vessel on the stove.
Step 2: Light the stove.
Step 3: Add water to the vessel.
Step 4: Wait for it to boil.
Step 5: Add Tea Leaves.
……………………….
Step 10: Pour the tea into a Cup.

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FLOWCHART
• A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents a workflow
or process.
• A flowchart can also be defined as a diagrammatic
representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step approach to
solving a task.
• The flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds,
and their order by connecting the boxes with arrows.

Flowchart for the even odd algorithm.

Flowchart Symbols

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COMPUTER PROGRAMS
• Program can be defined as a set of instructions that need to be executed to accomplish a
computing task.
• A computer program is a sequence or set of instructions in a programming language for
a computer to execute.
• A person who writes or performs the program is known as programmer.
• Programming is the process of creating a set of instructions that tell a computer how to
perform a task.
• Programming can be done using a variety of computer programming languages, such as
JavaScript, Python, and C++.
• A computer program in its human-readable form is called source code.
• Source code needs another computer program to execute because computers can only
execute their native machine instructions.
• Therefore, source code may be translated to machine instructions using the language's
compiler.
• The resulting file is called an object code file or executable file.

Computer Program for a calculator in Java Language.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
• It is a set of commands, instructions and other syntax use to create a software program.
• Programming language must be simple, easy to learn and use.

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• It must be consistent in terms of syntax and semantics.

Calculato
r
Program
Calculator
in Java
Program
in C++

TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

** C Language is considered as a High-Level Language but may also be termed as a

Medium Level Language.
Programming languages are mainly categorized into three parts which are as follows:
1. Low Level Language (LLL): These programming languages are more difficult to
understand.

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• It is designed to operate and handle the entire instruction set of a computer system
directly which are generally used to write the system software. e.g., Machine language and
Assembly language.
• Low level language abbreviated as LLL, are languages close to the machine level
instruction set.
• A low-level programming language interacts directly with the registers and memory.
• Since, instructions written in low level languages are machine dependent.
• Programs developed using low level languages are machine dependent and are not
portable.
A) Machine Language: It is the only language understood by the computers.
• Sometimes, it referred to as machine code or object code or binary language.
• It is a collection of binary digits (0 or 1) or bits that the computer reads and interprets.
• It is considered a native language as it can be directly understood by a central processing
unit (CPU).
• It is closest to the computer hardware.
• It does not require any translation.
B) Assembly Language: It is a low-level programming language which is used as an
interface with computer hardware.
• It uses structured commands as substitutions for numbers, allowing humans to read the
code easier than looking at binary codes.
• It uses the mnemonics.
• The data can be declared by using decimal notation.

Program in Machine Language. Program in Assembly Language.

2. Medium Level Language (MLL): It serves as the bridge between raw hardware and
programming layer of a computer system.
• It is designed to improve the translated code before it is executed by the processor.

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• The improvement process helps to adjust the source code in accordance with the
computational framework of the target machine.

III. High Level Language (HLL): It is an advanced computer programming language that is
not limited to one computer, designed for a specific job and is easier to understand.
• The main advantage of high-level languages over low level languages is that they are
easier to read, write and understand. e.g. Python, BASIC, C, C++, C#, FORTRAN, Java,
Pascal, etc.
• High-level languages have the following characteristics:
• Require translation
• Portable
• Easier to read, write and maintain as commands are similar to English.

Program in a High-Level Language.

Program in Assembly Language.

Program in Machine Level Language.

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
• It is a software which converts programming languages into machine language.

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• The translated program is called the object code.

TYPES OF LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

• Depending upon used programming languages, language translator is divided into three
categories which are as follows:
1. Assembler: It converts a program written in assembly language into machine language.
2. Interpreter: It converts a HLL program into machine language by converting it line-by-
line. If there is any error in any line, it stops the execution of the program immediately and
reports to the user at the same time. Program execution cannot resume until the error is
rectified by the user. This is a slow process and consumes less memory space.
3. Compiler: It converts HLL program into machine language, which can be understood by
the processor. Compiler converts the entire HLL program in one go and reports all the
errors of the program along with the line numbers. A compiler creates a unique object
program, i.e. if a source program is compiled, there is no need of that source program
because output can be obtained by executing that object program.

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SOME HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES

GENERATION OF LANGUAGES
• The concept of language generations, sometimes called levels, is closely connected to
the advances in technology that brought about computer generations.
• The five generations of language are as Follows
(i) The first-generation languages or 1 GLs are low level languages like machine language.
(ii) The second-generation languages or 2GL are also low-level languages that generally
consist of assembly language.
(iii) The third-generation languages or 3GLs are high level languages such as C, C++, Java.
(iv) The fourth-generation languages or 4GLs are the languages that consist of statements
similar to the statements of human language. 4GLs are commonly used in database
programming and scripting programming, e.g SQL, VBScript, python, etc.
(v) The fifth-generation languages or 5GLs are programming languages that contain visual
tools, which help to develop a program. A good example of 5GLs is Visual Basic.
PROGRAMMING ERRORS
• An error in a program is called bug.

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• It is a term used to describe any issue that arises unexpectedly that cause a computers
not function properly.
Types of Errors
• The types of error are classified into four categories which are as follows
1. Syntax Error: When the rules of the programming language are not followed, the
compiler will show syntax error.

2. Semantic Error: Semantic errors are reported by the compiler when the statements
written in the program are not meaningful to the compiler.

3. Logical Error: Logical errors are those errors that occur in the output of the program.
• The presence of logical errors leads to undesired or incorrect output.

4. Runtime Error: Runtime errors are those errors that occur during the execution of a
program.
• It generally occurs due to some illegal operation performed in the program.
** 5 divided by 0 will result an in an error.

TERMS RELATED TO PROGRAMMING

• Reserved words: These are the words that a programming language has set aside for its
own use.
• Pseudocode: It is not a programming language, but simply an informal way of describing
a program. It does not follow any syntax strictly.
• Control structure: It is a statement or block of statements in a programming language
that determined the control flow or sequence of execution of other instructions or
statements.

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• Looping: It is a control structure which is used in a program to execute a particular set

of statements repeatedly.
• OOPs: OOPs stands for Object Oriented Programming in which programs are considered
as a collection of objects.
• De-Bugging: It is the process of locating and fixing or bypassing bugs (errors) in computer
program code.
• Source Code: Source code refers to high level code or assembly code which is generated
by human/programmer. Source code is easy to read and modify. It is written by
programmer by using any High-Level Language or Intermediate language which is human-
readable.
• Object Code: Object code refers to low level code which is understandable by machine.
Object code is generated from source code after going through compiler or other
translator. It is in executable machine code format. Object code contains a sequence of
machine understandable instructions to which Central Processing Unit understands and
executes.

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Chapter 7
COMPUTER NETWORKING
Learning Objectives

• Introduction to Data Communication.

• Communication Channel.
• Communication Media.
• Guided Media or Wired Technologies.
• Unguided Media or Wireless Technologies.
• Introduction to Computer Networks.
• Benefits of Network.
• Types of Computer Network.
• Network Devices.
• Network Topology.
• Models of Computer Networking.
• OSI Model.
• Terms Related to Networking.

DATA COMMUNICATION
• The term communication means sending or receiving information.
• When we communicate, we share information or data.
• A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that
facilitates intersystem exchange of information between different devices.
• Data Communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of
transmission media.
• It includes the transfer of data or information and the method of preservation of data
during the transfer process.
• Data is transferred from one place to another in the form of signals.
• There are three types of signals
1. Digital Signal: In this signal, data is transmitted in electronic form, i.e., binary digits (0 or
1).
2. Analog Signal: In this signal, data is transmitted in the form of radio waves like in
telephone line
3. Hybrid Signal: These signals have properties of both analog signal and digital signal.

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COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
• The communication channel refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked
devices.
• There are mainly three types of communication channel as follows:
1. Simplex Channel: In this channel, the flow of data is always in one direction, with no
capability to support response in other direction. This communication is unidirectional.
Only one of the communicating devices transmits information and the other can only
receive it. e.g., Radio, Television, Keyboard, etc
2. Half Duplex Channel: In this channel, the data can flow in both directions, but not at a
same time. When one device transmits information, then other can only receive at that
point of time. e.g., Walkie Talkie.
3. Full Duplex Channel: In this channel, the flow of data is in both directions at a time, i.e.,
both stations can transmit and receive information simultaneously. e.g., Wireless handset
(mobile phone).
COMMUNICATION MEDIA
• Communication media of a network refer to the transmission media or the connecting
media used in the network.
• It can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to
destination.
• It refers to the physical media through which communication signals can be transmitted
from one point to another.
• Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Guided or Wired Media:

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• The data signal in guided media is bound by the cabling system that guides the data signal
along a specific path It consists of a cable composed of metals like copper, tin or silver
• Basically, they are divided into three categories
i. Ethernet Cable or Twisted Pair Cable: In this cable, wires are twisted together, which
are surrounded by an insulating material and an outer layer called jacket One of the wires
is used to carry signals to the receiver and the other is used only as a ground reference
e.g., Local area networks use twisted pair cable.
ii. Co axial Cable: It carries the signal of higher frequency data communication through the
network It has a single inner conductor that transmits electric signals and the outer
conductor acts as a ground and is wrapped in a sheet of Teflon or PVC
•Co axial cable is commonly used in transporting multi-channel television signals in cities
e g Cable TV network.
iii. Fibre Optic Cable: It is made up of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light from a source at one end to another
• Optical fibres allow transmission over longer distance at higher bandwidth which is not
affected by electromagnetic field The speed of optical fibre is hundreds of times faster
than co-axial cables.

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2. Unguided or Wireless Media:

• It is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of enhanced electrical
conductors or wires. When the computers in a network are interconnected and data is
transmitted through waves, then they are said to be connected through unguided media.
• Some commonly used unguided media of transmission are
i. Radio wave Transmission (30KHz to 3GHz): When two terminals communicate by using
radio frequencies then such type of communication is known as radio wave transmission.
This transmission is also known as Radio Frequency (RF) transmission. These are
omnidirectional. Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode,
can travel long distances.
ii. Microwave Transmission: Microwaves are electromagnetic waves having frequencies
range from 0.3 to 300 GHz. Microwaves are unidirectional. It is used in cellular network
and television broadcasting.
iii. Infrared Wave Transmission (300GHz to 400 GHz): Infrared waves are the high
frequency waves used for short range communication. These waves do not pass through
the solid objects. They are mainly used in TV remote, wireless speakers.
iv. Satellite Communication: The communication across longer distances can be provided
by combining radio frequency transmission with satellites. It works over a long distance
and fast communication. It is used for communication to ships, vehicles, planes and
handheld terminals.

COMPUTER NETWORKS
• It is a collection of two or more computers, which are connected together to share
information and resources.
• Computer network is a combination of hardware and software that allows
communication between computers over a network.
• Note: ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. It was the first
network developed by Vint Cerf in 1969.

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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• Some of the benefits of network are discussed below
1. File Sharing: Networking of computer helps the users to share data files.
2. Hardware Sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD ROM drives,
hard drives, etc. etc., in a computer.
3. Application Sharing: Applications can be shared over the network and this allows
implementation of client/server applications.
4. User Communication: This allows users to communicate using E mail, newsgroups,
video conferencing within the network.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• Computer network is broadly classified into various types as follows:
1. Local Area Network (LAN): LAN is a small and single site network. It connects network
devices over a relatively short distance.
• It is a system in which computers are interconnected and the geographical area such as
home, office, buildings, school may be within a building to 1 km. On most LANs, cables are
used to connect the computers. LANs are typically owned, controlled and managed by a
single person or organisation.
• They also use certain specific connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token
Ring. LAN provides a sharing of peripherals in an efficient or effective way.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN is a geographically dispersed collection of LANs. A
WAN like the Internet spans most of the world. A network device called a router connects
LANs to a WAN.

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• Like the Internet, most WANs are not owned by any one organization, but rather exist
under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs use technology like
TCP/IP, ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): It is a data network designed for a town or city.
• It connects an area larger than a LAN, but smaller than a WAN. Its main purpose is to
share hardware and software resources by the various users. Cable TV network is an
example of metropolitan area network. The computers in a MAN are connected using co
axial cables or fibre optic cables.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN): PAN refers to a small network of communication.
• These are used in a few limited ranges, which is in reachability of individual person. Few
examples of PAN are Bluetooth, wireless USB, Z wave and Zig Bee.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• These devices are required to amplify the signal to restore the original strength of signal
and to provide an interface to connect multiple computers in a network.
• There are many types of network devices used in
networking.
• Some of them are described below
1. Repeater: Repeaters have two ports and can
connect two segments of a LAN. It amplifies the
signals when they are transported over a long
distance so that the signal can be as strong as the
original signal. A repeater boosts the signal back to
its correct level.

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2. Hub: It is like a repeater with multiple ports

used to connect the network channels. It acts as
a centralized connection to several computers
with the central node or server.
• When a hub receives a packet of data at one of
its ports from a network channel, it transmits the
packet to all of its ports to all other network
channel.
3. Gateway: It is an interconnecting device, which joins two different network protocols
together. They are also known as protocol converters. It accepts packet formatted for one
protocol and converts the formatted packet into another protocol.
4. Bridge: A bridge operates at the data link
layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the
MAC addresses of source and destination. It is
also used for interconnecting two LANs
working on the same protocol. It has a single
input and single output port, thus making it a 2-
port device. Switches are sometimes called
multiport bridges.
5. Switch: It is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one
LAN. It helps to reduce overall network traffic.
• Switch forwards a data packet to a specific route using MAC Addresses.
• There is a vast difference between a switch and a hub.. A hub forwards each incoming
packet (data) to all the hub ports, while a switch forwards each incoming packet to the
specified recipient.
6. Router: A router is a device
like a switch that routes data
packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is
mainly a Network Layer
device. Routers normally
connect LANs and WANs
together and have a
dynamically updating routing
table based on which they
make decisions on routing the
data packets.

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7. Modem: It is a device that converts digital

signal to analog signal modulator) at the
sender’s end and converts back analog
signal to digital signal demodulator) at the
receiver’s end, in order to make
communication possible via telephone
lines. A Modem is always placed between a
telephone line and a computer.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• The term ‘topology’ refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically.
• Topology can be referred as the geometric arrangement of a computer network.
• Each computer system in a topology is known as node.
• The most commonly used topologies are described below:
1. Bus Topology: It is such that there is a single line to which all nodes are connected. It is
usually used when a network installation is small, simple or temporary. In bus topology,
all the network components are connected with a same (single) line.
2. Star Topology: All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as
hub device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point-to-point
connection between hosts and hub.
3. Ring or Circular Topology: In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two
other machines, creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to
communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels
through all intermediate hosts.
4. Mesh Topology: It is also known as completely interconnected topology. In mesh
topology, every node has a dedicated point to point link to every other node.
5. Tree Topology: This is a network topology in which nodes are arranged as a tree.
• The function of the central node in this topology may be distributed. Its basic structure is
like an inverted tree, where the root acts as a server. Also known as Hierarchical
Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use presently. This
topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network.

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MODELS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• There are mainly two models of computer networking as follows:
1. Peer to Peer Network: It is also known as P2P network. Peers are equally privileged,
equipotent participants in the network.
• In P2P connection, a couple of computers is connected via a Universal Serial Bus (USB)
to transfer files. In peer to peer networking, each or every computer may be worked as
server or client.
• Example BitTorrent.

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2. Client Server Network: The model of interaction between two application programs in
which a program at one end (client) requests a service from a program at the other end
(server).

OSI MODEL
• Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a standard reference model for communication
between two end users in a network.
• In 1983, the International Standards Organisation (ISO) published a document called Basic
Reference Model for Open System Interconnection, which visualizes network protocols as
a seven layered model.
• OSI is a layered framework for the design of network system that allows communication
between all types of computer system.
• It consists of seven layers across a network:
• Application Layer: [User Interface]
• Presentation Layer: [Data formatting, Encryption /Decryption]
• Session Layer: [Establish and Maintain sessions]
• Transport Layer: [Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) accurate]
• Network Layer: [ Internet Protocol (IP)]
• Data Link Layer: [Media Access Control (MAC)]
• Physical Layer: [Signals and Cables]
TERMS RELATED TO COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. Multiplexing: It is a technique used for transmitting signals simultaneously over a
common medium. It involves single path and multiple channels for data communication.
2. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): It is a channel access method used by various
radio communication technologies. CDMA employs spread spectrum technology and a
special coding scheme, where each transmitter is assigned a code to allow multiple users
to be multiplexed over the same physical channel.
3. Packet Switching: It transmits data across digital networks by breaking it down into
blocks or packets for more efficient transfer using various network devices. Each time
one device sends a file to another, it breaks the file down into packets so that it can
determine the most efficient route for sending the data across the network at that time.
4. Public Switched Telephone Network: (PSTN): It is designed Circuit switched based
system for telephone, which requires modem for data communication. It is used for FAX
machine also.

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5. Integrated Services Digital Network: (ISDN): It is used for voice, video and data services.
It uses digital transmission and combines both circuit and packet switching
6. Ethernet: It is a widely used technology employing a bus technology. An ethernet LAN
consists of a single co-axial cable called Ether. It operates at 10 Mbps and provides a 48
bits address. Fast ethernet operates at 100 Mbps.
8. Server is a system that responds to requests across a computer network to provide a
network service. It can be run on a dedicated computer. It is one of the most powerful and
typical computers.
9. File Server is a type of computer used on network that provides access to files. It allows
users to share programs and data over LAN network.
10. Protocols are the set of rules used by a network for communication. It is mainly used
to connect all the computers to the network.
11. Bluetooth is a wireless technology used for exchanging data over short distances to
create a Personal Area Network (PAN).
12. Bandwidth determines the data transfer rate which is measured in Cycle Per Second
(CPS) or Hertz (Hz).
13. Throughput is the amount of data that is actually transmitted between the two
computers. It is specified in bits per second (bps). Giga bits per second (Gbps) is the
fastest speed unit per data transmission.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. What is the definition of a 6. What type of transmission media is

communication system? bound by a cabling system which guides
a) The exchange of information between the data along a specific path?
two people. a) Unguided or Wireless Media
b) Guided or Wired Media
b) A set of rules and regulations for the
c) Coaxial Cable Media
transmission of data.
d) Fiber-Optic Media
c) The transfer of data between two
devices across a transmission media. 7. What type of cable consists of wires
d) The collection of hardware and twisted together surrounded by an
software that facilitates intersystem insulating material and an outer layer
exchange of information between called a jacket?
different devices. a) Coaxial Cable
b) Radio Frequency Cable
2. What type of signal includes data c) Fiber Optic Cable
transmitted in electronic form? d) Ethernet Cable or Twisted Pair Cable
a) Optical Signal
8. What type of cable is commonly used in
b) Mechanical Signal
transporting multi-channel television
c) Digital Signal signals in cities?
d) Analog Signal a) Teflon
b) Coaxial Cable
3. What is the primary type of signal used c) Twisted Pair Cable
in communication channel? d) PVC
a) Analog Signal
b) Digital Signal 9. What is the advantage of using fibre
c) Radio waves optic cable compared to other
d) Hybrid Signal transmission media?
a) Cheap and easy to install
4. What type of communication channel
allows data to flow in both directions, but b) Faster than other transmission media
not at the same time? c) Immune to electromagnetic
a) Half Duplex Channel interference
b) Simplex Channel d) Allows transmission over longer
distances at higher bandwidths
c) Television
d) Radio 10. How can computers be connected over
a distance without the use of enhanced
5. In wireless communication, which type electrical conductors or wires?
of device allows both transmitting and a) Wireless Transmission
receiving of data simultaneously? b) Radio wave Transmission
a) Full Duplex Channel c) Copper Wire Transmission
b) Wireless Handset d) Fiber Optic Transmission
c) Communication Media
d) Walkie Talkie 11. What is the main purpose of a computer
network?

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a) To store data 17. What is a repeater used for in a

b) To share information and resources. computer network?
c) To send emails a) To reduce the signal strength.
d) To develop ARPANET b) To amplify the signal and provide an
interface to connect multiple computers.
12. What type of computer networks allow
c) To help facilitate communication
users to communicate using E-mail,
between computers.
newsgroups, and video conferencing?
a) Networking of computers d) To provide internet access to
b) Application Sharing computers.
c) Hardware Sharing
d) User Communication 18. What is a repeater used for?
a) To connect multiple network channels.
13. What is a Local Area Network (LAN) b) To boost the signal back to its correct
used to connect? level.
a) Computers within a building. c) To amplify signals when they are
b) Network devices over a relatively short transported over a long distance.
distance. d) To connect two segments of a LAN.
c) Computers over a long distance.
19. What is a hub used for?
d) Network devices over a large area.
a) It transmits data from one port to
another network channel.
14. What type of networks are LANs?
b) It is an interconnecting device which
a) Owned, controlled and managed by a joins two different networks together.
single person or organisation c) It acts as a centralized connection to
b) Connecting the world together several computers with the central node
c) Used primarily to share peripherals or server.
d) It converts data from one protocol to
d) Made up of geographically dispersed
another.
collections of LANs
20. What is the purpose of a bridge?
15. What technology is used for
a) To interconnect two LANs working on
connectivity in WANs?
the same protocol.
a) X.25
b) To repeat content reading the MAC
b) Frame Relay
addresses
c) TCP/IP
c) To filter content by reading the MAC
d) ATM addresses
d) To accept packet formatted for one
16. What type of network is used in a
protocol and convert it into another
limited range for an individual person?
protocol
a) Personal Area Network (PAN)
b) Metropolitan Area Network 21. What is the most accurate statement
c) Coaxial or Fibre Optic Cables regarding switches?
d) Cable TV Network a) Switches have a single input and single
output port.

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b) Hubs and switches are essentially the communication between all types of
same. computer system?
c) Switches are hardware devices that a) Seven layer model
join multiple computers together within b) International Standards Organisation
one LAN. (ISO)
d) Switches forward data packets using IP c) Basic Reference Model
Addresses. d) Open System Interconnection (OSI)

22. What device routes data packets 27. What is Multiplexing?

based on their IP addresses? a) Establish and Maintain sessions
a) Router
b) A technique used for transmitting
b) Network Layer signals simultaneously over a common
c) Hub medium.
d) Switch c) Signals and Cables
d) Data formatting, Encryption
23. What device converts digital signals to /Decryption
analog signals so communication can
take place via telephone lines? 28. What is a channel access method used
a) Modem by various radio communication
b) Switch technologies?
c) Network Interface Card a) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
d) Router b) Frequency Modulation
c) Spread Spectrum Technology
24. What is the most commonly used d) Packet Switching
topology for computer networks?
a) Bus Topology 29. What type of LAN is Ethernet?
b) Ring Topology a) It is a wireless technology using
c) Star Topology microwave frequencies.
d) Mesh Topology b) It is a widely used technology
employing a bus technology.
25. In Star Topology, which type of device c) It is a packet switching network
is usually used as the network hub? operating at 10 Mbps.
a) A switch d) It is a circuit switching network
b) A single line operating at 100 Mbps.
c) A router
30. What type of computer is a Server?
d) A central device a) A File Server.
26. Which model is used as a framework b) A dedicated computer.
for the design of network system allowing c) A LAN network.
d) A typical computer.
1. d 2. c 2. d 3. a 5. a 6. b 7. d 8. b 9. d 10. b
11. b 12. d 13. b 14. a 15. c 16. a 17. b 18. c 19. c 20. a
21. c 22. a 23. a 24. a 25. d 26. d 27. b 28. a 29. b 30. b

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Chapter 8
INTERNET
Learning Objectives

• Introduction to Internet.
• History of Internet.
• Advantages of Internet.
• Disadvantages of Internet.
• Internet Connections.
• Interconnecting Protocols.
• E Mail
• Internet of Things
• Dark Web and Tor Browser
• Important Terms related to Internet.
• Services of Internet.

INTERNET
• The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet Protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide.
• The Internet is a world-wide network of networked computers (nowadays other devices
also) those are able to exchange information with each other.
• It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business,
and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies.
• Internet stands for International Network, which began in 1950’s by Vint Cerf known as
the Father of Internet (along with Bob Cahn).
• It governed by agencies just like Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (or IANA) that
establish universal protocols.
SERVICES OF THE INTERNET
• An Internet user can access to a wide variety of services such as electronic mail, file
transfer, interest group membership, multimedia displays, real time broadcasting,
shopping, etc.
• Some of the important services provided by the Internet are briefed in the following
sections:
1. Chatting.

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2. E-mail.
3. Video conferencing.
4. e-Learning.
5. e-Banking.
6. e-Shopping.
7. e-Reservation.
8. Social networking.
9. e-Commerce.
10. m-Commerce.

HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

• In 1969, the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of Utah were connected
as the beginning of the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) using
50 kbits circuits.
• It was the world’s first operational packet switching network.
• The goal of this project was to connect computers at different universities and U.S.
defence
• In mid-80’s another federal agency, the National Science Foundation, created a new high-
capacity network called NSFnet, which was more capable than ARPANET.
• So, private organizations and people started working to build their own networks, which
were later interconnected with ARPANET and NSFnet to form the Internet.

ADVANTAGES AND DISTAVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET

• The advantages of the Internet are as follows
(i) Allows you to easily communicate with other people.
(ii) Global reach enables one to connect anyone on the Internet.
(iii) Publishing documents on the Internet saves paper.
(iv) A valuable resource for companies to advertise and conduct business.
(v) Greater access to information reduces research times.
• The disadvantages of the Internet are as follows
(i) It is a major source of computer viruses.
(ii) Messages sent across the Internet can be easily intercepted and are open to abuse
by others.
(iii) Much of the information is not checked and may be incorrect or irrelevant.

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(iv) Cyber frauds may take place involving Credit/Debit card numbers and details.
(v) Addiction, time waster, and causes distractions.
(vi) Bullying, trolls, stalkers, and crime.
(vii) Spam and advertising.
(viii) Pornographic and violent images (on Dark Web).
(ix) Identity theft, hacking, viruses, and cheating.
(x) Affects focus and patience.
(xi) Health issues and obesity.
(xii) Depression, loneliness, and social isolation.
(xiii) Not a safe place for children.

INTERNET CONNECTIONS
•Bandwidth: The maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet connection in a
given amount of time (Mbps) Mbps)) and cost are the two factors that help you in deciding
which Internet connection is to use.
• The speed of Internet access depends on the bandwidth.
• Some of the Internet connections available for Internet access are as follows
1. DIAL UP CONNECTION: A Dial up is a method of connecting to the Internet using an
existing telephone (PSTN).
• Dial up connection uses the telephone line to connect to the Internet(56kbps).
• When a user initiates a dial up connection, the modem dials a phone number of an Internet
Service Provider (ISP) that is designated to receive dial up calls.
• The ISP then establishes the connection, which usually takes about ten seconds and is
accompanied by several beeping and buzzing sounds.
2. BROADBAND CONNECTION: The term broadband commonly refers to high speed Internet
access that is always on and faster than the traditional dial up access.
• It uses a telephone line, co-axial, fibre or satellite to connect to the Internet.
• Broadband access allows users to connect to the Internet at greater speed than a
standard 256 KB modem or dial up access
• Broadband includes several high-speed transmission technologies such as follows:
i. Digital Subscriber Line: It provides Internet access by transmitting digital data over the
wires of a local telephone network DSL is the most common type of broadband service.
• Simultaneous talking and internet access possible.
• Digital Subscriber Line, is a service that carries digital data transmission over standard
twisted pair phone cable.

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ii. Cable Modem: This service enables cable operators to provide broadband using the same
co axial cables that deliver pictures and sound to your TV set.
• Most cable modems are external devices that have two connections, one to the cable wall
outlet and the other to a computer.
• They provide transmission speed of 1.5 Mbps or more.
iii. Broadband over Power Line (BPL): BPL is the delivery of broadband over the existing
low and medium voltage electric power distribution network.
• BPL is good for areas, where there are no other broadband connections, but power
infrastructure exists. e.g., Rural areas.
iv. Fiber optic: technology converts electrical signals carrying data to light and sends the
light through transparent glass fibers about the diameter of a human hair.
• Fiber transmits data at speeds far exceeding current DSL or cable modem speeds,
typically by tens or even hundreds of Mbps.
3. WIRELESS CONNECTION: Wireless broadband connects a home or business to the
Internet using a radio link between the customer’s location and the service provider’s
facility.
• Wireless broadband can be mobile or fixed.
• Unlike DSL and cable, wireless broadband requires neither a modem nor cables. It can
be easily established in areas, where it is not feasible to deploy DSL or cable.
• Some ways to connect the Internet wirelessly are as follows
i. Wireless Fidelity (Wi Fi): It is a universal wireless networking technology that utilizes
radio frequencies to transfer data.
• Wi Fi allows high speed Internet connections without the use of cables or wires.
• Wi Fi networks can be used for public Internet access at ‘hotspot’ such as restaurants,
coffee shops, hotels, airports, convention centers and city parks.
ii. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX): It is one of the hottest
broadband wireless technologies around today.
• Part of fourth generation (4G) wireless communication technology, WiMax far surpassed
the 30 metre (100 foot) wireless range of a conventional Wi Fi local area network (LAN),
offering a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles).
• WiMAX has the ability to provide service even in areas that are difficult for wired
infrastructure to reach and the ability to overcome the physical limitations of traditional
wired infrastructure.
iii. Mobile Wireless Broadband Services: These services are also becoming available from
mobile telephone service providers and others.

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• These services are generally appropriate for mobile customers and require a special PC
card with a built-in antenna that plugs into a user’s computer.
• Mobile broadband can be accessed using a small portable USB modem (often called a
dongle or stick).
• Generally, they provide lower speeds in the range of several hundred kbps.
INTERNETING PROTOCOLS
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated.
• Generally, some of protocols used to communicate via an Internet are as follows
1. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP):
• The details of TCP/IP are as follows
(a) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): It provides reliable transport service, i.e. it
ensures that message sent from sender to receiver is properly routed.
• TCP converts messages into a set of packets at the source which are then reassembled
back into messages at the destination.
(b) Internet Protocol (IP): It allows different computers to communicate by creating a
network of networks.
• IP handles the dispatch of packets over the network.
• It maintains the addressing of packets with multiple standards.
• Each IP packet must contain the source and the destination addresses.
Note: An IPV4 address is 32-bit number while as IPV6 is a 128-bit number.
2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): File transfer protocol (FTP) is a set of rules that computers
follow for the transferring of files from one system to another over the internet.
• It can transfer files between any computers that have an Internet connection and also
works between computers using totally different operating systems
• Some examples of FTP software are FileZilla, Kasablanca , gFTP , konqueror ,
3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP defines how messages are formatted and
transmitted and what actions should be taken by the Web servers and browsers in
response to various commands.
4. Telnet Protocol: (For Remote Access) Telnet is a type of client server protocol that can
be used to open a command line on a remote computer, typically a server.
• Telnet session will start by entering valid username and password.

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5. Usenet Protocol: Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on

computers.
• Users read and post messages (called articles or posts, and collectively termed news) to
one or more categories, known as newsgroups.
6. Wireless Application Protocol (WAP): Wireless Application Protocol is a technical
standard for accessing information over a mobile wireless network
7. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): It allows delivery of voice communication over ‘IP’
Internet Protocol networks. e.g., IP.
IP ADDRESSES
• An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
• An IP address serves two main functions: host or network interface identification and
location addressing
• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.
11110010.00011001.11111100.00001000 or 192.86.85.68 (IPV4)
• However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4
addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was standardized
in 1998.
• IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.
• IP address is provided by the ISP (Internet Service
• The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA).

MAC ADDRESS
• A media access control address (MAC address) is a unique identifier assigned to a
Network Interface Controller (NIC) for use as a network address in communications within
a network segment.
• This is commonly used in most IEEE 802 networking technologies, including Ethernet, Wi
Fi and Bluetooth.
• MAC addresses are primarily assigned by device manufacturers, and are therefore often
referred to as the burned in address, or as an Ethernet hardware address hardware
address or physical address.
• Each address can be stored in hardware, such as the card's read only memory, or by a
firmware mechanism.

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• MAC addresses contain 48bits (6 bytes) represented as six groups of two hexadecimal
digits, separated by hyphens, colons, or without a separator.

E-MAIL
• Email (electronic mail) is a way to send and receive messages across the Internet.
• Each user of email is assigned a unique name for his email account.
• To receive emails, you will need an email account and an email address.
• Email addresses are always written in a standard format that includes a user name, the
@(at) symbol, and the email provider's domain e.g., [email protected]
• The username is the name you choose to identify yourself.
• The email provider is the website that hosts your email account.
• Some businesses and organizations use email addresses with their own website
domain. e.g., [email protected]
• The first email was sent by Ray Tomlinson to himself in 1971.
COMPONENTS OF AN E-MAIL
• E mail message comprises of different
components: E-mail Header, Greeting, Text,
and Signature.
E-MAIL HEADER
• From: The From field indicates the sender’s
address i.e., who sent the e mail.
• Date: The Date field indicates the date when
the e mail was sent.
• To: The To field indicates the recipient’s
address i.e., to whom the e mail is sent.
• Subject: The Subject field indicates the purpose of
e mail. It should be precise and to the point.
• CC: CC stands for Carbon copy. It includes those
recipient addresses whom we want to keep
informed but not exactly the intended recipient.
• BCC: BCC stands for Black Carbon Copy. It is used
when we do not want one or more of the recipients

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to know that someone else was copied on the message.

• Text: It represents the actual content of the
• Signature: This is the final part of an e mail message. It includes Name of Sender,
Address, and Contact Number.

VALID EMAIL ADDRESS FORMAT

• A valid email address consists of an email prefix and an email domain, both in
acceptable formats.
• The prefix appears to the left of the @ symbol.
• The domain appears to the right of the @ symbol.
• For example, in the address [email protected], "example" is the email prefix, and
"mail.com" is the email domain.
• Acceptable email prefix formats
1. Allowed characters: letters (a z), numbers, underscores, periods, and dashes.
2. An underscore, period, or dash must be followed by one or more letter or number.

Invalid email prefixes: Valid email prefixes:

[email protected] [email protected]
[email protected] [email protected]
[email protected] [email protected]
abc#[email protected] [email protected]
• Acceptable email domain formats
1. Allowed characters: letters, numbers, dashes.
2. The last portion of the domain must be at least two characters, for example: .com, .org,

Invalid email domains: Valid email domains:

[email protected] [email protected]
abc.def@mail#archive.com [email protected]
abc.def@mail [email protected]
[email protected] [email protected]
cc.

E-MAIL PROTOCOLS
• The common protocols used to deliver email over the Internet:
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), is used to send and receive mails over the
internet.

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• Post Office Protocol (POP), is used to retrieve email for a single client.
• Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), is used to retrieve mails for multiple clients.
• MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension Protocol), is an additional email protocol
that allows non-ASCII data to be sent through SMTP. It allows users to send and receive
different types of data like audio, images, videos and other application programs on the
Internet.

INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

• The Internet of things (IoT) describes
physical objects (or groups of such objects)
with sensors, processing ability, software
and other technologies that connect and
exchange data with other devices and
systems over the Internet or other
communications networks.
• Internet of things has been considered a
misnomer because devices do not need to be
connected to the public internet, they only
need to be connected to a network and be
individually addressable.
• In the consumer market, IoT technology is most synonymous with products pertaining to
the concept of the "smart home", including devices and appliances (such as lighting
fixtures, thermostats, home security systems, cameras, and other home appliances) that
can be controlled via devices associated with that ecosystem, such as smartphones and
smart speakers.

DEEP WEB AND DARK WEB

• Deep Web: It is the web that cannot be accessed by the search engines, like government
private data, bank data, cloud data, etc. These data are sensitive and private, so kept out of
reach. It is used to provide access to a specific group of people. On the dark Web, users do
intentionally bury data.
• Dark Web: The dark web refers to encrypted online content that is not indexed by
conventional search engines. Darknet provides a user with anonymity but service was

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introduced that allowed someone to host a website on the darknet and remain anonymous.
This attracted people who do illegal stuff to sell things without getting caught. One example
is a website called the silk road which was on a darknet called TOR, used to sell drugs, and
was taken down by the FBI.
ToR BROWSER
• Tor, short for The Onion Router, is free and open-source software for enabling anonymous
communication.
• It directs Internet traffic through a free, worldwide,
volunteer overlay network, consisting of more than seven
thousand relays, to conceal a user's location and usage from
anyone performing network surveillance or traffic analysis.
• Using Tor makes it more difficult to trace a user's Internet
activity.
• Tor's intended use is to protect the personal privacy of its users, as well as their freedom
and ability to communicate confidentially through IP address anonymity using Tor exit
nodes.

TERMS RELTED TO THE INTERNET

1.World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web, commonly known as the Web, is an
information system where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform
Resource Locators, which may be interlinked by hyperlinks, and are accessible over the
Internet.
2. Web Page: The backbone of the world wide web is made of files, called pages or Web
pages, containing information and links to resources both text and multimedia throughout
the Internet. It is created using HTML(Hypertext Markup Language ). There are basically
two main types of web page as static and dynamic. The main or first page of a website is
known as home page.
3.Website: A group of Web pages that follow the same theme and are connected together
with hyperlinks is called Website. In other words, “A Website is a collection of digital
documents, primarily HTML files, that are linked together and that exist on the Web under
the same domain.” e.g.
http://www.facebook.com is a website while http://www.facebook.com/home/
http://www.facebook.com/friends/ is a Web page.
• Home page, index page, or main page is a page on a website. A home page usually refers
to:
• The initial or main web page of a website, sometimes called the "front page" (by analogy
with newspapers).

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• The first page that appears upon opening a web browser program, which is also
sometimes called the start page.
• The web page or local file that automatically loads when a web browser starts or when
the browser's "home" button is pressed; this is also called a "home page". The user can
specify the URL of the page to be loaded, or alternatively choose e.g. to re load the most
recent web page browsed.
4. Web Browser: It is a software application that is used to locate, retrieve and also display
content on the world wide web, including Web pages.
• Web browsers are programs used to explore the Internet.
• We can install more than one Web browsers on a single computer.
• The user can navigate through files, folders and Websites with the help of a browser.
• There are two types of Web browsers as follows
i. Text Web Browser: A Web browser that displays only text-based information is known
as text Web browser. e.g., Lynx, which provides access to the Internet in the text mode
only.
ii. Graphical Web Browser: A Web browser that supports both text and graphic information
is known as graphical Web browser. e.g., Internet Explorer, Firefox, Netscape, Safari,
Google Chrome and Opera.
• Note The first graphical Web browser was NCSA Mosaic
5.Web Server: The Web browser is a client that requests HTML files from Web servers. The
server computer will deliver those Web pages to the computers that request them and
may also do other processing with the Web pages.
• A web server is computer software and underlying hardware
• Every Web server that is connected to the Internet is given a unique address, i.e. IP
address.
• Examples are Apache HTTP Server, Internet Information Services (IIS), Lighttpd,
6. Web Address and URL: A Web address identifies the location of a specific Web page on
the Internet, such as http://www.cricbuzz.com.
• On the Web, Web addresses are called URLs.
• URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator.
• It is the Web address for a website or a Web page.
• Tim Berners Lee created the first URL in 1991 to allow the publishing of hyperlinks on the
world wide web. e.g.
• http://www. google.com/services/index.htm’’

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http:// Protocol identifier

www World Wide Web
google.com Domain name
/services/ Directory
index.htm Web page
7.Domain Name: A domain name is a way to identify and locate computers connected to
the Internet.
• A domain name must be unique.
• It always has two or more parts, separated by period/dot (.). e.g., google.com, yahoo.com,
etc.
8. Domain Abbreviation: Domains are organized by the type of organization and by country.
• A three-letter abbreviation indicating the organization and usually two letter abbreviation
indicating the country name.
• Most common domain abbreviations for organisation are as follows
.info Informational organisation
.com Commercial
.gov Government
.edu Educational
.mil Military
.net Network resources
.org Non-profit organisation
• Some domain abbreviations for country are as follows
.in India
.au Australia
9. Domain Name System (DNS): DNS stores and associates many types of information with
domain names, but most importantly, it translates domain names (computers host names)
to IP addresses.
10. Blogs: A blog is a website or Web page in which an individual records opinion, links to
other site, on regular basis.
• A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, web pages and other media
related to its topic.

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• Most blogs, are primarily textual, although some focus on art, photographs, videos, music
and audio.
• These blogs are referred to as Edu blogs
• The entries of blog is also known as posts
• E.g., Blogger.com, Wordpress.com, tumblr.com., etc.
11. Newsgroups: An area on a computer network especially the Internet, devoted to the
discussion of a specified topic is known as Newsgroup.
12. Search Engine: It searches the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular
information specified in a textual web search query.
• When a search engine returns the links to web pages corresponding to the keywords
entered is called a hit, otherwise called a miss.
• Here are some of the most popular search engines:
• Google http://www.google.com
• DuckDuckgo www.Duckduckgo.com
• AltaVista http://www.altavista.com
• Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com
• Hotbot http://www.hotbot.com
• Lycos http://www.lycos.com
• Excite http://www.excite.com
• WebCrawler http://www.webcrawler.com
13. Intranet: An intranet is a private network contained within an enterprise that is used to
securely share company information and computing resources among employees.
14. Extranet: is a private network that uses the Internet protocol and the public
telecommunication system to security share part of a business information.
15. Podcast: A podcast is an episodic series of spoken word digital audio files that a user
can download to a personal device for easy listening.
16. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): It is used for designing Web pages.
• A markup language is a set of markup (angular bracket, <>) tags which tells the Web
browser how to display a Web page’s words and images for the user.
• Each individual markup code is referred to as an element or tag
17. Rich Text Formatting: This helps the sender (of E mail) format the contents of his/her
E-mail message by applying font, size, bold, italic, etc.
18. Cookie: is a small message given to a Web browser by a Web server.

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• It stores information about the user’s Web activity.

19. Bookmarks: are links to Web pages that make it easily to get back to your favorite
places.
18. Cloud computing is a type of Internet based computing that provides shared computer
processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand.
• Public clouds: Public clouds are cloud environments typically created from IT
infrastructure not owned by the end user. Some of the largest public cloud providers
include Alibaba Cloud, Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google Cloud, IBM Cloud, and
Microsoft Azure.
• Private clouds are loosely defined as cloud environments solely dedicated to a single end
user or group, where the environment usually runs behind that user or group's firewall.
All clouds become private clouds when the underlying IT infrastructure is dedicated to a
single customer with completely isolated access.
• A hybrid cloud uses a private cloud foundation combined with the strategic integration
and use of public cloud services.
• Google Drive is a personal cloud storage service from Google which gives every user 15
GB of Drive storage space. OneDrive is Microsoft's service for hosting files in the "cloud
computing". OneDrive offers 5GB of storage space for free.
CLOUD SERVICES
• Cloud services are infrastructure, platforms, or software that are hosted by third party
providers and made available to users through the internet.
• There are three main types of as a Service Solutions: IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS.
• IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): IaaS means a cloud service provider manages the
infrastructure for you the actual servers, network, virtualization, and data storage through
an internet connection.
• PaaS (Platform as a Service): PaaS means the hardware and an application software
platform are provided and managed by an outside cloud service provider, but the user
handles the apps running on top of the platform and the data the app relies on. Primarily
for developers and programmers, PaaS gives users a shared cloud platform for application
development and management.
• SaaS (Software as a Service): SaaS is a service that delivers a software application which
the cloud service provider manages to its users. Typically, SaaS apps are web applications
or mobile apps that users can access via a web browser.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. What is the Internet? a) Health issues and obesity

a) A search engine b) Bandwidth and cost
b) A collection of webpages c) Data Cap
c) A global system of interconnected
7. What type of Internet connection uses
computer networks that use the
the telephone line to connect to the
standard Internet Protocol suite (TCP/IP)
Internet at 56kbps?
d) A world-wide network of connected a) Dial up connection
devices
b) DSL Connection
2. What does the term 'Internet' stand c) Wi-Fi Connection
for? d) Cable Connection
a) International Network
b) International News 8. What type of connection is established
when a user initiates a dial up
c) International Number
connection?
d) International Navigation a) Internet Service Provider (ISP)
b) Broadband Connection
3. What was the first operational packet
switching network? c) Ten second delay
a) ARPANET d) Beeping and buzzing sounds
b) e-Commerce
9. What type of technology is used to
c) Social networking
connect to the Internet with broadband?
d) m-Commerce a) Telephone Line
b) Digital Subscriber Line
4. What preceded the development of the
Internet? c) Fibre
a) Private networks d) Co-axial
b) ARPANET
10. What type of broadband service is
c) The National Science Foundation's
most common and carries digital data
NSFnet
transmission over standard twisted pair
d) Disadvantages of the Internet phone cable?
a) Cable Modem
5. What is a disadvantage of the Internet?
b) Telephone Network
a) It allows you to easily communicate
with other people. c) Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
b) Publishing documents on the Internet d) Simultaneous Talking and Internet
saves paper. Access
c) It is a major source of computer
viruses. 11. What is Broadband over Power Line
d) Global reach enables one to connect (BPL)?
anyone on the Internet. a) A service that enables cable operators
to provide broadband using the same co
6. What are two factors to consider when axial cables that deliver pictures and
choosing an Internet connection? sound to your TV set.

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b) A service that provides transmission b) Web Page

speed of 1.5 Mbps or more. c) Homepage
c) An external device that has two
d) Static page
connections, one to the cable wall outlet
and the other to a computer.
17. What is a home page?
d) A device that delivers both picture and
a) A collection of digital documents
sound to a TV set.
linked together on the web.
12. What technology can send light b) A hyperlink connecting various web
through transparent glass fibers about pages together.
the diameter of a human hair? c) The main part of the website.
a) Fiber optic d) The page on a website that a user is
b) WiFi directed to when they first visit.
c) Copper wiring
18. Which of the following is the correct
d) BPL
definition of a Homepage?
a) The homepage is the same as a
13. How does Wireless Broadband
landing page.
connect a home or business to the
Internet? b) A web page or local file that
a) Through fiber optic cable automatically loads when a web browser
starts or when the button home is
b) At speeds far exceeding current DSL
pressed.
or cable modem speeds
c) The initial or main web page of a
c) Through a modem and cables
website, sometimes called the "front
d) Through a radio link between the page" (by analogy with newspapers).
customer's location and the service
d) The first page that appears upon
provider's facility.
opening a web browser program, which
is also sometimes called the start page.
14. What is the purpose of the dark web?
a) To provide access to a specific group
of people 19. What is a Web Browser?
b) To be accessible by search engines a) A program used to install multiple
c) To access sensitive private web browsers on a single computer
information b) A program used to explore the
Internet
d) To intentionally bury data
c) A software application used to locate,
retrieve and display content on the world
15. What is the World Wide Web (WWW)
wide web.
commonly known as?
d) An application used to reload
a) FBI
webpages
b) TOR
c) The Web 20. What type of Web Browser can
d) Silk Road display both text-based and graphical
information?
16. What is the main page of a website a) Internet Access in Text Mode
called? b) Lynx
a) HTML Markup Language

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c) Text Web Browser a) Newsgroup

d) Graphical Web Browser b) Miss
c) Query
21. Which of the following is an example
d) Hit
of a graphical web browser?
a) NCSA Mosaic 5
26. Which of the following is not a
b) Firefox popular search engine?
c) Google Chrome a) AltaVista
d) Web Server b) Google
c) Intranet
22. What is used to uniquely identify and
d) Yahoo
locate computers connected to the
Internet?
27. What is Hyper Text Markup Language
a) IP Address
(HTML) used for?
b) Domain Name a) Downloading audio files
c) Apache HTTP Server b) Creating podcasts
d) Internet Information Services (IIS) c) Designing Webpages
d) Sharing business information
23. What is the purpose of the Domain
Name System (DNS)?
28. What does PaaS stand for?
a) To store and associate many types of
a) Software as a Service
information with domain names.
b) To translate domain names to IP b) Platform as a Service
addresses. c) Provider as a Service
c) To provide an opinion and link to other d) Programming as a Service
sites on a regular basis.
d) To provide an online platform for 29. Internet is governed by several
individuals to connect. voluntary organizations such as
a) IAB (Internet Architecture Board)
24. Which of the following websites is not b) IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
a popular edu blog? c) InterNIC
a) tumblr.com d) All of the above
b) Blogger.com
c) Wordpress.com 30. To access a webpage, an URL is
required. What is the full form of URL?
d) Newsgroups
a) Uniform Resource Locator
b) Universal Resource Locator
25. What is the term used to refer to the
c) Universal Resource Line
links to web pages when a search engine
d) Uniform Resource Line
returns them?
1. c 2. a 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. b, c 7. a 8. a 9. b 10. c
11. a 12. a 13. d 14. d 15. c 16. c 17. d 18. c 19. c 20. d
21. c 22. b 23. b 24. d 25. d 26. c 27. c 28. b 29. d 30. a

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Chapter 9
COMPUTER SECURITY
Learning Objectives

• Introduction to COMPUTER SECURITY.

• Methods to Provide Protection.
• Components of Computer Security.
• Sources of Cyber Attack.
• Malware: Threats to Computer Security.
• Effects of Virus.
• Symptoms of Malware Attack.
• Some Other Threats to Computer Security.
• Solutions to Compute Security Threats.
• Some Important terms related to Computer Security.

COMPUTER SECURITY
• Computer security is also known as cyber security or IT security.
• Computer security is a branch of information technology known as information security,
which is intended to protect computers.
• It is the protection of computing systems and the data that they store, share or access.
• Basic components of computer security system are as follows
1. Confidentiality: It ensures that data is not accessed by any unauthorized person.
2. Integrity: It ensures that information is not altered by any unauthorized person in such
a way that it is not detectable by authorised users.
3. Authentication: It ensures that users are the persons they claim to be.
4. Access Control: It ensures that users access only those resources that they are allowed
to access
5. Non-Repudiation: It ensures that originators of messages cannot deny they are not
sender of the message.
6. Availability: It ensures that systems work promptly and service is not denied to
authorised users.
7. Privacy: It ensures the right that someone has to keep their personal information secret
or known only to a small group of people.

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8. Steganography: Steganography is the practice of hiding a secret message in something

(text, image, video, etc.) that is not secret.
9. Cryptography: Cryptography is a method of protecting information and communications
through the use of codes, so that only those for whom the information is intended can read
and process it.

Some terms commonly used in cryptography are as follows

(i) Plain text: It is the original message that is an input.
(ii) Cipher: It is a bit by bit or character by character transformation without regard to the
meaning of the message.
(iii) Cipher Text: It is the coded message or the encrypted data.
(iv) Encryption: It is the process of converting plain text to cipher text, using an encryption
algorithm.
(v) Decryption: It is the reverse of encryption, i.e., converting cipher text to plaint text.
SOURCES OF CYBER ATTACKS
• The most potent and vulnerable threat of computer users is virus attacks.
• A computer virus is a small software program that spreads from one computer to another
and that interferes with computer operation.
• The sources of attack can as be follows:
1. Downloadable Programs: Downloadable files are one of the best possible sources of
virus.
• Any type of executable file like games, screen saver is one of the major sources.
• If you want to download programs from the Internet then it is necessary to scan every
program before downloading them.
2. Cracked Software: These softwares are another source of virus attacks.
• Such cracked forms of illegal files contain virus and bugs that are difficult to detect as
well as to remove.

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• Hence, it is always a preferable option to download software from the appropriate source.
3. E mail Attachments: These attachments are the most common source of viruses. You
must handle E mail attachments with extreme care, especially if the E-mail comes from
an unknown sender
4. Internet: Majority of all computer users are unaware as when viruses attack computer
systems. Almost all computer users click or download everything that comes their way
and hence unknowingly invites the possibility of virus attacks.
5. Booting from Unknown CD: When the computer system is not working, it is a good
practice to remove the CD. If you do not remove the CD, it may start to boot automatically
from the disk which enhances the possibility of virus attacks.

MALWARES
• Malware stands for malicious software.
• It is a broad term that refers to a variety of malicious programs that are used to damage
computer system, gather sensitive information or gain access to private computer
systems.
• It includes computer viruses, worms, trojan horses, rootkits, spyware, adware, etc.
• Some of them are described below
1. Virus: VIRUS stands for Vital Information Resources Under Siege.
• Computer viruses are small programs that can negatively affect the computer.
• It obtains control of a PC and directs it to perform unusual and often destructive actions.
• Viruses are copied itself and attached itself to other programs which further spread the
infection.
• The virus can affect or attack any part of the computer software such as the boot block,
operating system, system areas, files and application programs.
• The first computer virus Creeper created in 1971.
• Virus is an ATTACHED (not STANDALONE) and SELF-REPLICATING PROGRAM /
SOFTWARE.
• Types of Viruses:
• Some common types of viruses are as follows
1. Resident Virus: It fixes themselves into the system’s memory and get activated whenever
the operating system runs and infects all the files that are opened. It hides in the RAM and
stays there even after the malicious code is executed. e.g., Randex, Meve etc.

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2. Direct Action Virus: It comes into action when the file containing the virus is executed. It
infects files in the folder that are specified in the AUTOEXEC.bat file path. e.g., Vienna virus.
3. Overwrite Virus: It deletes the information contained in the files that it infects, rendering
them partially or totally useless, once they have been infected. e.g., Way, Trj.Reboot,
Trivial.88. D etc.
4. Boot Sector Virus: It is also called Master Boot Sector virus or Master Boot Record virus.
This type of virus affects the boot sector of a hard disk . Brain was the first PC boot sector
virus created in 1986. e.g., Polyboot.B, AntiEXE etc.
5. Macro Virus: It infects files that are created using certain applications or programs that
contain macros, like .doc, .xls, .ppt etc. e.g., Melissa.
6. File System Virus: It is also called Cluster virus or Directory virus. It infects the directory
of the computer by changing the path that indicates the location of a file. e.g. Dir 2 virus.
7. Polymorphic Virus: It encrypts or encodes itself in an encrypted way, every time it infects
a system. This virus then goes on to create a large number of copies. e.g., Elkern, Tuareg
etc.
8. FAT Virus: File Allocation Table is used to store all the information about the location of
files, unusable space, etc. FAT Virus affects the FAT. e.g., Link virus etc.
9. Multipartite Virus: It may spread in multiple ways such as the operating system installed
or the existence of certain files. e.g., Flip.
10. Web Scripting Virus: Many Websites execute complex code in order to provide
interesting content. These sites are sometimes created with purposely infected code. e.g.,
JS Fortnight.
EFFECTS OF VIRUS
• There are many different effects that viruses can have on your computer, depending on
the types of viruses.
• Some viruses can
(i) monitor what you are doing.
(ii) slow down your computer’s performance.
(iii) destroy all data on your local disk.
(iv) effect on computer networks and the connection to Internet.
(v) Virtually increase or decrease memory size.
(vi) display different types of error messages.
(vii) decrease partition size.
(viii)alter PC settings.

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(ix) display arrays of annoying advertising.

(x) extend boot times.
(xi) create more than one partitions.
OTHER TYPES OF MALWARES
1. WORMS: A computer worm is a standalone malware computer program that replicates
itself in order to spread to other computers.
• Often, it uses computer network to spread itself, relying on security failures on the target
computer to access it.
• Worm is a STANDALONE and SELF-REPLICATING PROGRAM / SOFTWARE.
• Worms are hard to detect because they are invisible files. e.g., Bagle, I love you, Morris,
Nimda etc
2. TROJAN: A Trojan, or Trojan horse, is a non-self-replicating type of malware which
appears to perform a desirable function but instead facilitates unauthorised access to the
user’s computer system. Trojans do not attempt to inject themselves into other files like a
computer virus.
• Trojan horses may steal information, or harm their host computer systems.
• Trojans may use drive by downloads or install via online games or Internet driven
applications in order to reach target computers. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not
replicate themselves. e.g., Beast, Sub7.Zeus, ZeroAccess Rootkit etc.
• Trojan is a STANDALONE and NON-SELF-REPLICATING PROGRAM / SOFTWARE.
3. SPYWARE: It is a program which is installed on a computer system to spy on the system
owner’s activity and collects all the information which is misused afterwards.
• It tracks the user’s behaviour and reports back to a central source.
• These are used for either legal or illegal purpose
• Example: PEGASUS
• Spyware can transmit personal information to another person’s computer over the
Internet. e.g., CoolWeb Search, FinFisher, Zango, Zlob Trojan, Keyloggers etc.
• Ransomware is a type of malware that prevents or limits users from accessing their
system, either by locking the system's screen or by locking the users' files until a ransom
is paid.
• More modern ransomware families, collectively categorized as crypto-ransomware,
encrypt certain file types on infected systems and force users to pay the ransom through
certain online payment methods to get a decryption key
• Examples:

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1. AIDS Trojan: One of the first known examples of ransomware was the AIDS Trojan written
by evolutionary biologist Dr. Joseph Popp. Popp sent infected floppy diskettes to hundreds
of victims under the heading "AIDS Information Introductory Diskette".
2. WannaCry: Released on 12 May 2017 that mainly affected the Windows operating devices.
The ransom demand ranged from $300 to $600 to be paid in the cryptocurrency Bitcoin.
WannaCry ransomware is also known as WannaCrypt, WCry , Wana Decrypt0r 2.0,
WannaCrypt0r 2.0 and Wanna Decryptor
3. CryptoLocker
4. Petya
5. Bad Rabbit
6. TeslaCrypt
SYMPTOMS OF A MALWARE ATTACK
• There is a list of symptoms of malware attack which indicates that your system is infected
with a computer malware.
• Some primary symptoms of malware attack are as follows
(i) Odd messages are displaying on the
(ii) Some files are missing.
(iii) System runs slower.
(iv) PC crashes and restarts again and again.
(v) Drives are not accessible.
(vi) Antivirus software will not run or installed.
(vii) Unexpected sound or music plays.
(viii) The mouse pointer changes its graphic.
(ix) System receives strange E-mails containing odd attachments or viruses.
(x) PC starts performing functions like opening or closing window, running programs on
its own.
SOME OTHER THREATS TO THE COMPUTER SECURITY
• There are some other threats to computer security which are described below
1. Spoofing: It is the technique to access the unauthorised data without concerning to the
authorised user. It accesses the resources over the network.
• It is also known as ‘Masquerade’.

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• IP spoofing is a process or technique to enter in another computer by accessing its IP

address.
• It pretends to be a legitimate user and access to its computer via a network
2. Salami Technique: It diverts small amounts of money from a large number of accounts
maintained by the system.
3. Hacking: It is the act of intruding into someone else’s computer or network. Hacking may
result in a Denial of Service (DoS) which prevents authorised users from accessing the
resources of the computer. A hacker is someone, who does hacking process. Hackers can
be Black Hat (Bad), White Hat (Good) and Grey Hat (Sometimes good and sometime bad)
hackers.
4. Cracking: It is the act of breaking into computers. It is a popular, growing subject on
Internet. Cracking tools are widely distributed on the Internet. They include password
crackers, trojans, viruses, etc.
5. Phishing: It is characterised by attempting to fraudulently acquire sensitive information
such as passwords, credit cards details etc. by masquerading as a trustworthy person
6. Spam: It is the abuse of messaging systems to send unsolicited bulk messages in the
form of E mails. It is a subset of electronic spam involving nearly identical messages sent
to numerous recipients by E mails.
7. Adware: It is any software package which automatically renders advertisements in order
to generate revenue for its author. The term is sometimes used to refer the software that
displays unwanted advertisements.
8. Rootkit: It is a type of malware that is designed to gain administrative level control over
a computer system without being detected.

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SOLUTIONS TO COMPUTER SECURITY THREATS

• Some safeguards (or solutions) to protect a computer system from accidental access,
are described below:
1.Antivirus Software: It is an application software that is designed to prevent, search for,
detect and remove viruses and other malicious softwares like worms, trojans, adware and
more.
•It consists of computer programs that attempt to identify threats and eliminate computer
viruses and other malware.
• Some popular Antiviruses
(i) Avast (ii) Avg (iii) K7 (iv) Kaspersky (v) Trend Micro (vi) Quick Heal (vii) Symantec (viii)
Norton (ix) McAfee
2. Digital Certificate: It is the attachment to an electronic message used for security
purposes. The common use of a digital certificate is to verify that a user sending a message
is who he or she claims to be, and to provide the receiver with the means to encode a reply.
It provides a means of proving your identity in electronic transactions.
3.Digital Signature: It is an electronic form of a signature that can be used to authenticate
the identity of the sender of a message or the signer of a document, and also ensure that
the original content of the message or document that has been sent is unchanged
4. Firewall: It can either be software based or hardware based and is used to help in
keeping a network secure. Its primary objective is to control the incoming and outgoing
network traffic by analyzing the data packets and determining whether it should be allowed
through or not, based on a predetermined rule set. A network’s firewall builds a bridge
between an internal network that is assumed to be secure and trusted, and another
network, usually an external (inter) network, such as the Internet, that is not assumed to
be secure and trusted. A firewall also includes or works with a proxy server that makes
network requests on behalf of workstation users.
5. Password: It is a secret word or a string of characters used for user authentication to
prove identity or access approval to gain access to a resource. A password is typically
somewhere between 4 to 16 characters, depending on how the computer system is setup.
When a password is entered, the computer system is careful not to display the characters
on the display screen, in case others might see it. There are two common modes of
password as follows
(i) Weak Password: Easily remember just like names, birth dates, phone number etc.
(ii) Strong Password: Difficult to break and a combination of alphabets and symbols.
6. Denial of Service and Distributed Denial of Service: A DoS attack is a denial-of-service
attack where a computer is used to flood a server with TCP and UDP packets. A Distributed
Denial of Service (DDoS) attack is where multiple systems (BOTS) target a single system

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with a DoS attack. The targeted network is then bombarded with packets from multiple
locations.
6. File Access Permission: Most current file systems have methods of assigning
permissions or access rights to specific user and group of users. These systems control
the ability of the users to view or make changes to the contents of the file system. File
access permission refers to privileges that allow a user to read, write or execute a file.
There are three specific file access permissions as follows
(i) Read Permission: If you have read permission of a file, you can only see the contents. In
case of directory, access means that the user can read the contents.
(ii) Write Permission: If you have the write permission of a file, you can only modify or
remove the contents of a file. In case of directory, you can add or delete contents to the
files of the directory.
(iii) Execute Permission: If you have the execute permission of a file, you can only execute
a program.
TERMS RELATED TO SECURITY
1. Eavesdropping: The attacker monitors transmissions for message content.
2. Masquerading: The attacker impersonates an authorized user and thereby gain certain
unauthorised privilege.
3. Patches: It is a piece of software designed to fix problems with a computer program or
its supporting data. This includes fixing security vulnerabilities and other bugs and
improving the usability and performance.
4. Logic Bomb: It is a piece of code intentionally inserted into a computer’s memory that
will set off a malicious function when specified conditions are met. They are also called
slag code and does not replicate itself.
5. Proxy Server: It can act as a firewall by responding to input packets in the manner of an
application while blocking other packets. It hides the true network addresses and used to
intercept all messages entering and leaving the network.
7. Keylogger: is a software program designed to record every keystroke on the machine
on which it runs.
8. Software License: The legal right to use software based on specific restrictions is
granted via Software license
9. Software Piracy: means copying of data or computer software without the owner’s
permission.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. What is the main goal of computer c) It is the process of converting plain

security? text to cipher text, using an encryption
a) To enable easy access to data. algorithm. d) It is the coded message or
b) To protect from computer viruses. the encrypted data.
c) To protect computers and the data
6. What is a primary source of viruses on
they store, share or access.
the internet?
d) To ensure data is not accessed by any a) Downloadable Programs
unauthorized person. b) Screen Savers
c) Websites
2. What ensures originators of messages d) Games
cannot deny they are not sender of the
message? 7. What is one of the most common
a) Authentication sources of viruses?
b) Access Control a) Scanning programs before
c) Availability downloading
b) Appropriate sources
d) Non-Repudiation c) Cracked software
d) Email Attachments
3. What is the primary purpose of
Cryptography? 8. When should you handle E-mail
a) To make sure systems work promptly. attachments with extreme care?
b) To practice Steganography. a) When it takes a long time to download
c) To ensure that service is not denied to b) When the computer system is not
authorized users. working
d) To keep personal information secret. c) When you are expecting an important
message
4. What is cipher in terms of d) When it comes from an unknown
cryptography? sender
a) Cipher is a method of protecting
information and communications through 9. What does MALWARE stand for?
the use of codes. a) Malicious Weaponry Access
b) Cipher is a bit by bit or character by b) Monitor and limit wireless access
character transformation without regard c) Malicious software
to the meaning of the message. d) Mainly Web-Related Applications and
c) Plain Text is the original message that
Extension File
is an input.
d) Plain Text is a bit by bit or character 10. What does VIRUS stand for?
by character transformation without a) Virtual Information Resources Unite
regard to the meaning of the message. Securely
5. What is Cipher Text? b) Vital Information Resources
a) The most potent and vulnerable threat Unsatisfactory
of computer users is virus attacks. c) Vastly Identified Resources Using
b) It is the reverse of encryption, i.e., Security
converting cipher text to plaint text.

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d) Vital Information Resources Under c) A type of malware that extends boot

Siege times.
d) A type of malware that displays arrays
11. What kind of virus is Randex? of annoying advertising.
a) Logic Bomb Virus
b) Direct Action Virus 17. What type of malware does not
attempt to inject itself into other files?
c) Macro Virus
a) Bagle
d) Memory Resident Virus
b) Nimda
12. What type of virus is Vienna virus? c) Trojan
a) Trivial.88 Virus d) Worm
b) Overwrite Virus
18. What type of program is a Trojan?
c) Reboot Virus
a) Online game
d) Boot Sector Virus
b) Self-replicating
13. What type of virus was Brain, the first c) Spyware
PC boot sector virus created in 1986? d) Standalone and non-self-replicating
a) Cluster Virus
b) Boot Sector Virus 19. What is the purpose of spyware?
c) File System Virus a) It tracks the user's behaviour and
reports back to a central source.
d) Macro Virus
b) It is used to protect the user's
14. What type of virus is the File computer from harmful viruses.
Allocation Table virus? c) It can transmit personal information to
a) Multipartite Virus another person's computer over the
b) Elkern Virus Internet.
c) FAT Virus d) It can store personal information
securely.
d) Tuareg Virus
20. What is an example of ransomware?
15. Which of the following is NOT one of
a) A backdoor
the possible effects a virus can have on a
computer? b) A computer virus
a) Destroy all data on your local disk c) Spyware
b) Monitor what you are doing d) AIDS Trojan
c) Virtually increase or decrease
memory size 21. What year was the AIDS Trojan
released?
d) Alter PC settings
a) 2017
16. What is a computer worm? b) 1989
a) A standalone and self-replicating c) 2006
program / software d) 1996
b) A type of malware that creates more
than one partitions. 22. What type of access is granted with
execute permission?

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a) The ability to delete a file. d) Avast

b) The ability to read the contents of a
directory. 27. What is the purpose of a digital
certificate?
c) The ability to execute a program.
a) To verify that a user sending a
d) The ability to modify a file. message is who he or she claims to be.
b) To provide a list of security solutions
23. What is the purpose of a patch?
a) To impersonate an authorized user c) To encrypt data
b) To monitor message content d) To improve system performance
c) To fix problems with a computer
28. What is a digital signature used for?
program or its supporting data.
a) To protect electronic devices from
d) To improve usability and performance hackers.
b) To authenticate the identity of the
24. What is a proxy server?
sender of a message or the signer of a
a) A server that can act as a firewall.
document.
b) A server that replicates itself.
c) To provide secure access to networks.
c) A piece of code that sets off malicious
d) To store and back-up confidential
functions when certain conditions are
information.
met.
d) A virus that can enter a computer's 29. State whether True or False: Data
memory. encryption is primarily used to ensure
confidentiality.
25. What is Software Piracy? a) True
a) The legal right to use software based
on specific restrictions. b) False
b) Copying of data or computer software c) Can’t be interpreted
without the owner's permission. d) None
c) Hiding the true network address.
d) A software program designed to 30. In which category does compromising
record keystrokes. confidential information fall?
a) Threat
26. Which of the following is a computer b) Bug
security threat?
a) Virus c) Attack
b) Antivirus Software d) Vulnerability
c) Avg
1. c 2. d 3. d 4. b 5. d 6. a 7. d 8. d 9. d 10. d
11. b 12. b 13. b 14. c 15. c 16. a 17. c 18. d 19. a 20. d
21. b 22. c 23. c 24. a 25. b 26. a 27. a 28. b 29. a 30. a

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Chapter 10
MICROSOFT OFFICE
Learning Objectives

• Introduction to Microsoft Office.

1. Microsoft Word.
• Components of Microsoft Word.
• Features of Microsoft Word
• MS WORD 2016
• MS WORD 2019
• Shortcut Keys of MS Word and their Descriptions.
2. Microsoft Excel.
• Components of Microsoft Excel.
• Features of Microsoft Excel
• MS WORD 2019
• Shortcut Keys of MS Excel and their Descriptions.
3. Microsoft PowerPoint.
• Components of Microsoft PowerPoint.
• Features of Microsoft PowerPoint.
• MS WORD 2019.
• Shortcut Keys of MS Excel and their Descriptions.
4. Microsoft Access.
5. Microsoft Outlook.

MICROSOFT OFFICE
• It is a collection of softwares (Software suite) based on specific purpose and mainly used
in office work.
• Microsoft Office was developed by Microsoft Inc in 1988 and the first version of Office
contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.
• Different versions include Microsoft Office 95 Microsoft Office 97 Microsoft Office 2000
Microsoft Office XP, Microsoft Office 2003 Microsoft Office 2007 Microsoft Office 2010
Microsoft Office 2013 Microsoft Office 2016 Office 365 and Office 2019 (Sep 24 2018).
• MS Office 2016 comes in Home Student, Home Business, Standard, Professional,
Professional Plus editions.
• The main softwares of MS Office package

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1. MS Word (Word Processing Software)

2. MS Excel (Spreadsheet Software)
3. MS PowerPoint (Presentation Software)
4. MS Access (Database Management Software)
5. MS Outlook (E mail Client
6. MS Publisher

MICROSOFT WORD
• Microsoft Word is a word processor developed by Microsoft
• Word Processing refers to the act of using a computer to create, edit, save and print
documents.
• The document can be a poster, report, letter, brochure, Web page, newsletter etc
• In 1981 Microsoft hired Charles Simonyi the primary developer of Bravo, the first GUI word
processor.
• Microsoft Word was first released on October 25 1983 under the name Multi Tool Word.
• It provides tools for editing, formatting and printing of documents up to 32 MB (text only).
• Other word processors include Pages, Google Docs, Libre Office etc
STARTING MS-WORD APPLICATION
• There are two methods of starting MS Word which are as follows
(i) Click on Start button and then click on Run option.
• Run dialog box will be appear on screen.
• Now, type winword on text box and press Enter key
• It opens MS Word with a blank document.

(ii) Click Start button > All Programs > Microsoft Office > Microsoft Office Word 2016
• It opens MS Word with a blank document.
• By default, the name of the blank document is Document1.docx, where .docx is the
extension of a MS Word file.

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COMPONENTS OF MICROSOFT WORD

• The components of MS Word are as follows

(i) Title Bar: It shows the name of the application and name of the file. It consists of three
control buttons, i.e.
(a) Minimize (reduces the window but Word still active)
(b) Restore (brings Word window to the maximum original size)
(c) Close (Close the word)
(ii) Standard/Quick Access Tool Bar: It displays the icons for the common operation like
Open, Print, Save etc.

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(iii) Ribbon: It is a set of tools and commands across the top of the screen. It consists of a
panel of commands which are organized into a set of tabs.
(iv) Tab: On the ribbon, it contains the buttons needed to edit characters, text and layout.
(a) Home tab: Consists of Clipboard (Cut, Copy, Paste), Font (Size, Color, Bold, Italic,
Underline), Paragraph (Bullets/ Numbering, Indent), Styles, Editing (Find and
(b) Insert tab: Consists of Pages (Cover Page, Blank Page, Page Break), Tables (Table),
Illustrations (Picture, ClipArt, Shapes, SmartArt, Chart), Links (Hyperlink, Book mark,
cross references), Header & Footer, Text TextBox , Date & Time, Object), Symbols
(Equations).
(c) Page Layout tab: Consists of Themes, Page Setup, Page Background, Paragraph,
Arrange.
(d) References tab: Consists of Table of Contents, Footnotes, Citations & Bibliography,
Captions, Index, Table of Authorities.

(e) Mailings tab: Consists of Create, Start Mail Merge, Write and Insert Fields, Preview
Results and Finish.

(f) Review tab: Consists of Proofing (Spelling & Grammar, Thesaurus, Translate),
Comments, Tracking, Changes, Compare, Protect.

(g) View tab: Consists of Document Views (Print Layout, Full Screen Reading),
Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, Macros, etc.

(v) Ruler: It appears on the top of the document window. It allows to format the horizontal
or vertical alignment of text in a document.
•There are two types of rulers:
(a) Horizontal ruler: It indicates the width of the document and is used to set left and
right margins.
(b) Vertical ruler: It indicates the height of the document and is used to set top and
bottom margins.
(vi) Status Bar: It displays the information such as page number, current page, current
template, column number and line number, etc.
(vii) Work Area: It is the rectangular area of the document window that can be used to type
the text. It is also called as workplace.
(viii) Cursor: It is also called insertion pointer. It denotes the place where text, graphics or
any other item would be placed when you type, overwrite or insert them.

TABS IN MICROSOFT WORD

Home Tab

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• The Home tab commands are put together in groups called Clipboard, Font, Paragraph,
and Styles. There is a vertical line between these parts that you can see. Under some of
these areas, there are more options that can be chosen from a drop-down menu.
• Clipboard: The Clipboard Group is the first group under the Home tab. This category
includes four options: Paste, Cut, Copy, and Format Painter. Here are the options of
Clipboard group:
• Paste Paste the contents of the clipboard.
• Cut Removes and copies information from the document to the clipboard.
• Copy Copies information from the document for the clipboard.
• Format Painter Formatting from another section of a document is applied.
• NOTE: The clipboard is a buffer for short term storage and transfer (copying) within and
between application programs.

1. Font: The Font group has the most basic controls for changing the text’s font, style, and
color. Here are the option of Font group:
Font The font is changed.
Font Size Chooses the size of the font.
Font Color Changes the font’s coloring.
Increase Font Size Changes the font size by one point.
Decrease Font Size Reduces the text size by one point.
Clear all formatting Removes formatting, leaving only plain text.
Bold Boldens the text.
Italicize Changes the text to be in italics.
Underline The text is underlined.
Strikethrough The text is crossed out.
Subscript Small letters are typed beneath the text. e.g., 12
Superscript Small letters are typed above the text. e.g., X2
Text Effects and Typography Text effects such as outline and shadow are added.
Text Highlight Color Highlights text.
2. Paragraph: The Paragraph Group is concerned with the arrangement of text in a
paragraph. Users can make lists, change the indentation, sort items, show para graph
formatting, align text in a paragraph, adjust line spacing, fill shapes with color, and draw
borders. Below are the available commands in paragraph group.
• Bullets Creates a list with bullets (unordered list).
• Numbering Makes a list with numbers.
• Multilevel List Constructs an outline.

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• Decrease Indent Moves the paragraph’s indentation closer to the left edge.
• Increase Indent Moves the paragraph’s indentation closer to the right margin.
• Sort Organizes data in alphabetical order.
• Show/Hide Paragraph Marks Indicates where each paragraph begins and ends.
• Align Left Text is aligned with the left margin.
• Center Text is centered in the document.
• Align Right Text is aligned with the right margin.
• Line and Paragraph Spacing Modifies the distance between lines and paragraphs.
• Shading Changes the background colour of the text.
• Borders Creates lines surrounding text.
3. Styles: The styles group is found on the Home Tab, contains a collection of quick styles.
• Page Formatting Styles Creates various styles and previews them in the text.
4. Editing: The Editing Group is located at the far right end of the Home Tab. There are three
options for the Editing Group, two of which are drop down menus. Commands in editing
group includes the following:
• Find Locates words within a document.
• Replace Searches the document for text to replace.
• Select Selects all or a portion of the document’s text.
INSERT TAB
• The Insert tab is used to insert or add extra features to the document, such as pictures,
shapes, pages, symbols, etc. Icons and text are used to identify these options.
• Most of these options have a drop-down menu for additional features.
• The Insert commands are organized by commands that fall into these groupings: Pages,
Tables, Illustrations, Add ins, Media, Links , Comments , Header and Footer, Text and

• Pages: The “Page” dialog box can quickly display by clicking on the dialog box launcher in
the bottom right corner of this group. The following are the commands in Pages group:

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• Cover Page: Creates a document’s cover page.

• Blank Page: Inserts a blank page anywhere specified in the
document.
• Page Break: Where specified, ends the current page and moves
the remaining text to the next page.
• Tables: Table Creates a new table or inserts an existing table
into the document.

• Illustrations: Illustrations group allows you to insert pictures, shapes, smart art, and
charts into your document. The layout and look of your documents will be improved by
these options. Here are list of commands under Illustrations group . By clicking on the
dialog box launcher in the bottom right corner of this group other option will display.
• Pictures: Inserts photos in your document.
• Shapes: Add shapes to your document.
• Icons: This function inserts icons into your document.
• 3D Models: Adds a 3D model to your document.
• SmartArt: In your document, inserts a SmartArt graph or list. (SmartArt refers to the
range of graphics available in Word that you can use to create diagrams, such as flow
charts, process charts, organisation charts, and the like.)
• Chart: This function generates a chart to display your data.
• Screenshot: This function inserts a screenshot into your document.
• Add ins: The Add ins group displays any third party add ins you have installed. An add-in
is a supplemental program that extends the capabilities of Microsoft Word by adding
custom commands and specialized features. Get Add ins Allows you to extend Word’s
functionality. My Add ins Inserts add ins obtained by calling Get Add ins.
• Media: Online Video Inserts a video into your document.
• Links: Link Inserts a link for web pages in your document.

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• Bookmark: Creates a specific spot in your document that can be jumped to without having
to scroll.
• Cross reference: Refers to a specific place in the document, such as a heading or table.
• Comments: Comments can be added to a document that do not change the document.
Comments Adds notes in specific places in the document.
• Header & Footer: Headers and footers are at the top and bottom of the document. They
are separate from the main document and are often used to hold footnotes, page numbers,
titles, and other information. The available commands in Header & Footer includes the
following.
• Header: Adds repeat content to the top of every page in the document.
• Footer: Adds repeat content to the bottom of every page in the document.
• Page Number: Adds page numbers to each page of your document.
• Text: The available commands in Text includes the following.
• Text Box: Adds a custom text box that draws emphasis to the text.
• Quick Parts: Inserts text or formatting that has been previously saved into a document.
• WordArt: Adds aesthetic flourishes to this box’s text.
• Drop Cap: A drop cap (dropped capital) is a large capital
letter used as a decorative element at the beginning of a
paragraph or section.
• Signature Line: The signature line is added to the document.
• Date & Time: Options for adding the date and time to the document.
• Object: Adds an additional document or chart to the current document.
• Symbols: Symbol Adds symbols to the document, such as currency and trademark.
• Equation: Adds mathematical equations to the document.
DRAW TAB
• The Draw tab enables the user to draw in the Word document. The Draw tab is available
with Office 365 and if available, may need to be added to your ribbon. The Draw tab has
options for choosing what you want to do (draw/eraser), type of pen tool, and draw with
trackpad.

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DESIGN TAB
• The design tab provides format themes, backgrounds, colour schemes, page borders, etc.
for your document. If you do not see the Design tab and you would like it in your ribbon, go
to File > Options > Customize Ribbon and check the box beside Design.

• Document Formatting: Document formatting is how a document is laid out on the page,
how it looks and is visually organized. It includes things like font choice, font size and style
like bold or italics, spacing, margins, alignment, columns, indentation, and lists.
• The commands of Document Formatting group:
• Themes: Adds custom formatting to the document.
• Colors: Changes the entire color palette of the document to a color scheme of your choice.
• Fonts: Changes the font of the document.
• Paragraph Spacing: Changes the line and paragraph spacing of the document.
• Effects: Changes the overall look of objects with shading and other options.
• Set as Default: Sets the current formatting as the default for new documents.
• Page background: The commands of Page background group. It is a feature of MS Word
that lets you change the background of a whole document at once.
• Watermark: Adds a faint image behind the text of your document.
• Page Color: Changes the background color of the document.
• Page Borders: Adds a border around the document.

LAYOUT TAB
The Layout tab enables the user to control the layout, including the page orientation,
margins, etc. The Layout options are organized by commands that fall under: Page Setup,
Margins, and Arrangement.

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• Page Setup: Page setup is a set of rules that control how a printed page looks and is laid
out.
• Margins: Margins are the blank spaces that line the top, bottom, and left and right sides
of a document. Sets the margin sizes for the document.
• Orientation: Changes the orientation of the document to portrait or landscape mode.
• Size: Selects the size of paper for printing.
• Columns: Splits the page into up to 13 columns.
• Breaks: Ends the current page at your desired location, and starts the remainder of the
information on the next page.
• Line Numbers: Adds numbers to each line for easy reference to a specific location.
• Hyphenation: Automatically hyphenates words that extend beyond the end of a line.
Hyphenation is placed at syllable boundaries.
• Paragraph: The Paragraph Group focuses on arranging text in a paragraph. Users may
create lists, adjust the indentation, sort items, show paragraph formatting, correctly, align
text in a paragraph, adjust line spacing, add fill color in shapes, and create borders.
• Indent Left: Moves the paragraph away from the left margin.
• Indent Right: Moves the paragraph away from the right margin.
• Spacing Before: Changes how much spacing is before the selected paragraph.
• Spacing After: Changes how much spacing is after the selected paragraph.
• Arrange: The following are command of Arrange group
• Position: Moves the placement of the selected item to the desired location on the page.
• Wrap Text: Selects how the text on the page wraps around the object.
• Bring Forward: Moves the selected object forward in front of other objects.
• Send backward: Moves the selected object behind other objects.
• Selection pane: Displays a listing of all objects on the page.
• Align: Sets the alignment of the object on the page.
• Group: Joins objects together, making them appear as one object.
• Rotate: Rotates the selected image.
REFERENCES TAB
• The Reference tab enables the user to enter document sources and citations, create a
table of contents, add an index, etc. The Reference tab is organized by commands that fall
under these groupings Table of Contents, Footnotes, Research, Citations, Captions, Index,
and Table Authorities

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• Table of Contents: Table of Contents Provides an overview of the document’s contents.

• Add Text: Includes an editable heading in the table of contents.
• Update Table: If changes are made to the document, this refreshes the table of contents
to reflect the correct page numbers.
• Footnotes: Insert Footnote Adds a note to the bottom of the current page.
• Insert Endnote: Adds a comment or citation to the end of the page. Used in conjunction
with superscript numbers placed in the text.
• Next Footnote: Moves to the next footnote.
• Show Notes: Moves to the footnotes or endnotes of the page.
• Research: Research Assists in finding information and pictures that you can cite in your
document.
• Smart Lookup: Selects text in the document to search for a definition or more information
online.
• Citations & Bibliography: Citations & Bibliography commands are the following:
• Insert Citation: Credits a source of information [1].
• Manage Sources: Organizes the sources of the information cited.
• Style Allows: you to choose the citation style from APA, Chicago, or MLA.
• Bibliography: Displays a list of all cited sources.
• Captions: Insert Caption Labels your object or picture.
• Insert Table of Figures: Adds a listing of captions for easy reference.
• Update Table: If changes are made to the table of figures, this updates the changes.
• Cross reference: Refers to a source of information elsewhere in your document, such as
a table of figures. If the source information changes, the reference is updated
automatically.
• Index: The following are commands in Index group
• Mark Entry: Adds selected text to the index.
• Insert Index: Adds a list of keywords and the page number where they appear.
• Update Index: If any changes are made to the document, this updates it if necessary.
• Table of Authorities:

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• Insert Table of Authorities: Adds a list of authorities, cases, or statutes noted in the
document.
• Mark Citation: Adds selected text to the Table of Authorities.
• Update Table: If any changes are made to the document, this updates the Table of
Authorities if necessary.
MAILINGS TAB
• The Mailings Tab enables the user to merge emails, writing and inserting different fields,
etc. and is the least used tab. The Mailings tab is organized by commands that fall under
these groupings: Address, Start Mail Merge, Insert Fields, Preview, Merge Range, and
Finish.

• Create: Create group includes the following commands:

• Envelopes: Allows you to set up your printer for printing envelopes.
• Labels: Allows you to set up your printer for printing labels.
• Start Mail Merge:
Start Mail Merge: Allows you to create one document, and send it to multiple recipients,
personalizing it for each person.
• Select Recipients: Allows you to choose the list of people to receive the document.
• Edit Recipient List: Enables changes to be made to the recipient list.
• Write & Insert Fields:
• Highlight Merge Fields: Highlights specific fields in the document.
• Address Block: Adds an address block to your document.
• Greeting Line: Adds a greeting line to your document.
• Insert Merge Field: Adds a field from the recipient list, such as last name or phone
number.
• Rules: Specifies rules for the merge.
• Match Fields: Defines the different fields in the recipient list.
• Update Labels: Uses information from the recipient list to update the label fields.
• Preview Results: Allows you to verify the mail merge information is entered correctly
before finalizing the document.

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• First Record: Jumps to the first recipient.

• Previous Record: Jumps to the previous recipient.
• Next Record: Jumps to the next recipient.
• Last Record: Jumps to the last recipient.
• Find Recipient: Searches for a specific recipient.
• Check for Errors: Checks the mail merge for errors before it is applied.
• Finish and Acrobat: Finish & Merge Allows you to choose how to complete the mail merge.
• Merge to Adobe PDF: Merges the document to a PDF file, allowing you to send it digitally.

REVIEW TAB
• The Review Tab enables users to proofread, add or remove comments, track changes,
Read Aloud, check accessibility, etc. Students with low vision who are not using a screen
reader can access Read Aloud. Educators who are creating Word documents for classroom
use should use the Check Accessibility to check their documents for common accessibility
errors. Students are often involved in group projects that require tracking as peers provide
comments to the documents and teachers often provide comments directly in the digital
document. After learning the basic Word processing skills (such as copy and paste), the
next step for students is to learn to use features in the Review tab in order to work on
group projects. The Review tab is organized by commands that fall under these groupings:
Proofreading, Read Aloud, Accessibility, Translate, Comments, Tracking, Reviewing,
Accept, Compare, Protect, Ink, and Resume Assistance.

• Proofing: Proofreading tools include checking for mistakes in spelling or grammar,

putting hyphens between words, and looking up words in a thesaurus.
• Editor: Checks for spelling, grammar, and writing suggestions.
• Thesaurus: Suggests another word to use for the selected word.
• Word Count: Tells you the words, lines, and characters in the document.
• Accessibility and Speech:
• Check Accessibility: Checks your document to make sure it is easily legible.
• Read Aloud: Uses text to speech software to read the text out loud.

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• Language:
• Translate: Translates your text into another language.
• Language: Chooses the language for proofing tools like spellcheck.
• Comments:
• New: Comment Adds a note to the document.
• Delete: Deletes a note from the document.
• Previous: Skips to the previous note.
• Next: Skips to the next note.
• Show Comments: Makes all comments in the document visible.
• Tracking:
• Track Changes: Keeps track of all changes made to the document.
• Simple Markup: Allows you to select how you want to see changes.
• Show Markup: Allows you to choose which types of markup you want to see.
• Reviewing Pane: Lists all document changes.
• Ink and Resume
• Hide Ink: On touch enabled computers, allows you to hide any drawings made with Draw
or Ink.
VIEW TAB
• The View tab enables users to switch between different views of the document such as
seeing more than one page at a time, boundaries, grids and rulers. The View Tab now
includes accessibility features such as Focus, Immersive Reader, and Zoom. The View Tab
is organized by commands that fall under these groupings: Document View, Accessibility,
Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, and Macros. The Focus option will hide everything at the top of
the Word document, leaving just the blank (or written text) on the page. Focus mode was
designed to remove any distractions from the document so that students can focus on their
writing (or reading).

• Views: Views group you can quickly switch between the Normal and Master Page views
of your publication.
• Read Mode: Displays the pages in book format for easier reading.
• Print Layout: Previews how the page looks if printed.

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• Web Layout: Previews how the page would look if it were a website.
• Outline: Previews your document in an outline form. (Outline View helps you manage a
document's structure and headings without getting lost in the text.)
• Draft: Previews your document without any formatting marks, headers, or footers.
• Immersive:
• Focus: Hides buttons and UI elements so you can focus on the document.
• Immersive Reader: Helps with reading skills. Immersive Reader provides options for a
comfortable and easy to process experience by allowing you to listen to the text read aloud
or adjust how text appears by modifying spacing, color and more.
• Page Movement:
• Vertical: Scrolls up and down to move between pages.
• Side to Side: Scrolls from side to side to move between pages.
• Show:
• Ruler: Shows a ruler on the side of the document.
• Gridlines: Shows gridlines over the document.
• Navigation Pane: Shows a side pane with a search function.
• Zoom:
• Zoom: Increases the viewing size of the document.
• 100%: Displays the document at actual size.
• One Page: Zooms the document so you can see the entire page.
• Multiple Pages: Zooms the document so you can see multiple pages at once.
• Page Width: Zooms the page, so the width matches the window
• Window:
• New Window: Opens a window of your document so you can work in multiple places.
• Arrange: All Stacks your documents so you can see them all at once.
• Split: Displays two sections of your document at one time.
• View Side by Side: Displays different documents side by side for comparison.
• Synchronous: Scrolling Displays two documents at the same time.
• Reset Window: Position Displays two documents side by side so they are equally sized on
the screen.
• Switch Windows: Quickly switches to another open document window.

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• Macros: Macros Allows you to create custom macros, or choose from predefined macros,
to perform a sequence of actions all at once. To run a macro, you can click the button on
the Quick Access Toolbar, press the keyboard shortcut, or run it from the Macros list.
HELP TAB
• The Help tab in MS Word is the fastest and easiest way in getting help within Microsoft
Office programs. On Windows, press F1 from within the program to get to it. If you’re using
Word on macOS, for example, you can go to the Help menu and choose Word Help.
• Help Gets help with Microsoft Word.
• Contact Support Gets help from a Microsoft support agent.
• Feedback Provides feedback to Microsoft.
• Show Training Shows online training and learning content.
• What’s New Showcases the latest upgrades from Microsoft.

FEATURES OF MICROSOFT WORD

• The features of MS Word are described below
(i) Text Editing: It provides editing, adding and deleting text, modification of text content i.e.,
cut, copy and paste
(ii) Format Text: It offers to modify the text in any of the available hundreds of text designs.
It formats text in various styles such as bold, italic, underline,
(iii) Indentation: It denotes the distance text boundaries and page margins. It offers three
types of indentation positive, hanging and negative indent
(iv) Page Orientation: It facilitates selection of typed text printed or visible in horizontal
view or vertical view on a specified size of the page. Word offers Portrait vertically oriented
and Landscape horizontally oriented.
(v) Find and Replace: This feature allows flexibility and comfort to the user to replace a
text with a substituted text at all places.

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PORTRAIT VS LANDSCAPE

GUTTER VS MARGIN VS INDENT

(vi) Spell Check: This facilitates automatic and manual checking of spelling mistakes and
suggests a few possible alternate options for incorrect spelt words.
(vii) Thesaurus: It contains a comprehensive dictionary and thesaurus feature offers
synonym options for a word.
(viii) Bullets and Numbering: A list of bullets and numbering
features used for tables, lists, pages and tables of content.
Bullets are arranged in unordered lists and numbering are
arranged in ordered lists

(ix) Graphics: It provides

the facility of
incorporating drawings in
the documents which
enhances their
usefulness.

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(x) Object Linking and Embedding (OLE): It is a program integration technology that is used
to share information between programs through objects. Objects save entities like charts,
equations, video clips, audio clips, pictures, etc.
(xi) Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bars: They enable one to move up and down or left and
right across the window. The horizontal scroll bar is located above the status bar. The
vertical scroll bar is located along the right side of the screen to move up and down the
document.
(xii) Save a Document: When we create a new document, it will be saved into the hard drive.
To save a document, user has three common ways
(i) To click on Save option from File
(ii) Select Save button from Standard/Quick Access toolbar.
(iii) Pressing Ctrl + S key.

SHORTCUT KEYS IN MICROSOFT WORD

• Ctrl + A Select all contents of the page.
• Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + C Copy selected text.
• Ctrl + X Cut selected text.
• Ctrl + N Open new/blank document.
• Ctrl + O Open options.
• Ctrl + P Open the print window.
• Ctrl + F Open find box.
• Ctrl + I Italicize highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + K Insert link.
• Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + V Paste.
• Ctrl + Y Redo the last action performed.
• Ctrl + Z Undo last action.
• Ctrl + G Go to a page section or line.
• Ctrl + H Find and replace options.
• Ctrl + J Justify paragraph alignment.
• Ctrl + L Align selected text or line to the left.

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• Ctrl + Q Align selected paragraph to the left.

• Ctrl + E Align selected text or line to the center.
• Ctrl + R Align selected text or line to the right.
• Ctrl + M Indent the paragraph.
• Ctrl + T Hanging indent.
• Ctrl + D Font options.
• Ctrl + Shift + F Change the font.
• Ctrl + Shift + > Increase selected font +1.
• Ctrl + ] Increase selected font +1.
• Ctrl + [ Decrease selected font 1.
• Ctrl + (Left arrow) Move one word to the left.
• Ctrl + (Right arrow) Move one word to the right.
• Ctrl + (Up arrow) Move to the beginning of the line or paragraph.
• Ctrl + (Down arrow) Move to the end of the paragraph.
• Ctrl + Del Delete word to the right of the cursor.
• Ctrl + Backspace Delete word to the left of the cursor.
• Ctrl + End Move cursor to end of the document.
• Ctrl + Home Move cursor to the beginning of the document.
• Ctrl + Space Reset highlighted text to default font.
• Ctrl + 1 Single space between lines.
• Ctrl + 2 Double space between lines.
• Ctrl + 5 1.5 line spacing.
• Ctrl + Alt + 1 Change text to heading 1.
• Ctrl + Alt + 2 Change text to heading 2.
• Ctrl + Alt + 3 Change text to heading 3.
• Alt + W Q, then tab in Zoom dialog box to the value you want.
• Ctrl + Shift + C Copy formatting from text.
• Ctrl + Shift + V Apply copied formatting to text.
• Alt + Ctrl + S Split the document window.
• Alt + Shift + C or Alt + Ctrl + S Remove the document window split

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• Alt + W F Switch to Read Mode view

• Alt + Ctrl + P Switch to Print Layout view
• Alt + Ctrl + O Switch to Outline view
• Alt + Ctrl + N Switch to Draft view

MICROSOFT WORD 2016

New Features in MS Word 2016
1. Tell Me: Word's new Tell me what you want to do box on the ribbon (pictured below)
allows you to locate commands and tools, or bypass Word's menus altogether Instead of
navigating menus, you can enter words or phrases into the Tell Me box to access the
features or commands you want to use.

2. Smart Lookup: The new Smart Lookup allows you to look up,
define, or research words or phrases in Word documents For
example, highlighting and right clicking the phrase "Indigo
Bunting" and then selecting Smart Lookup from the resulting
pop up menu produces multiple web based search results
(powered by Microsoft Bing), as suggested in the screenshot below.
3. Ink Equation: The new Ink Equation tool allows you to create complex mathematical
equations using your finger, touch stylus, or mouse to draw freehand, and the resulting
equation is translated into computer text To use this tool, from Word's Insert tab, select
Equation Ink Equation to launch the equation canvas, and then draw your equation, as
suggested in the screenshot below.

4. Co-authoring in real time Documents you save on OneDrive or SharePoint, and then
share with your colleagues, can be edited (using Word 2016 or Word Online) in real time,
so you and your colleagues will be able to see everyone's edits instantly.( Word's document

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sharing tool updated one another's document at predetermined intervals, such as every 15
minutes.
5. New Draw tab: Word 2016 's new Draw tab (pictured below) provides an assortment of
drawing and inking tools to help you mark up or illustrate a document If your computer or
device is touch enabled, the Draw tab is turned on automatically otherwise, you can turn
on the Draw tab by selecting Customize Ribbon from the File Options menu, and then
checking the Draw tab box, and clicking OK.
QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR IN MS WORD 2016
• By default, on top is the Quick access toolbar which has 3 default options available: Save,
Undo Typing and Repeat Typing.
• After this there is a drop-down menu for customizing the quick access toolbar.
• This toolbar is totally customizable; you can position it below the tabs and commands or
add more items to it.
• To add or remove a command from the quick access toolbar: When you find a favourite
command, right click it, and then click Add to Quick Access Toolbar.
• Remove a command by right clicking it on the Quick Access Toolbar, and then clicking
Remove from Quick Access Toolbar.

MICROSOFT WORD 2019

NEW FEATURES IN MS WORD 2019
1. Translate words, phrases or sentences to another language with Microsoft Translator.
You can do this from the Review tab in the ribbon.
2. Word reads your document aloud, highlighting text as it's read.
3. Draw and write with your digital pen. A customizable, portable set of pens (and pencils!)
lets you write in your document in a natural way. Highlight something important, draw,
convert ink to a shape, or do math.
4. Add icons or other scalable vector graphics (SVGs) to your documents. Change their
color , apply effects, and change them up to suit your
5. Easily insert a 3D model, and then rotate it a complete 360 degrees. Your readers will
be able to rotate it too.
6. Sound effects can enhance your productivity in Microsoft Office by providing audio cues.
Turn on audio cues to guide you as you work. Find it in Options > Ease of Access.
7. View a page at a time, side by side: Instead of scrolling continuously, flip through pages
like a book with Side-to-Side view. On a touch screen, use your finger to page through your
document. No touch screen? The horizontal scroll bar or your mouse wheel gives you book
style navigation.

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MICROSOFT EXCEL
• Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet developed by Microsoft for Windows, macOS, Android
and iOS.
• A spreadsheet is a computer application for organization, analysis, and storage of data in
tabular form (in the form of rows and columns).
• The spreadsheet program also provides tools for creating graphs, inserting pictures and
chart, analyzing the data etc.
• MS Excel features calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a macro programming
language called Visual Basic for Applications (VBA).
• Excel forms part of the Microsoft Office suite of software.
• Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Macintosh on September 30, 1985 ,
and the first Windows version was 2.05 (to synchronize with the Macintosh version 2.2) in
November 1987.
• Other examples of spreadsheets are: Corel Quattro Pro, Snowball, Lotus 1 2 3, Apple
Numbers etc.

EXAMPLE OF A SALES SPREADSHEET

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EXAMPLE OF CHARTS
STARTING MS EXCEL
• To start MS Excel software, we can follow any one method out of them:
(i) Click on Start button and then click on Run option.
• Run dialog box will be appear on screen.
• Now, type excel on text box and press Enter key.
(ii) Click Start button > All Programs > Microsoft Office >
Microsoft Office Excel 2016
• By default, the name of the blank spreadsheet is Book1.xlsx , where xls and .xlsx are the
extensions of a MS Excel spreadsheet.
• Other extensions include: xls , xlt , xlm , .xlsx, xlsm , xltx , xltm xlsb , xla , xlam , xll and .
xlw.

COMPONENTS OF MICROSOFT EXCEL

• The components of MS Excel are as follows
1. Title Bar: It shows the name of the application and name of the file. It consists of three
control buttons, i.e. minimize, maximize and close.
2. Ribbon: It consists of a panel of commands which are organized into a set of tabs.
3. Tab: On the ribbon, it contains the buttons needed to edit characters, text and layout
(i) Home tab: Consists of Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells and Editing
(ii) Insert tab: Consists of Tables, Illustrations, Charts, Links and Text
(iii) Page Layout tab: Consists of Themes, Page Setup, Scale to Fit, Sheet Options and
Arrange.
(iv) Formulas tab: Consists of Function Library, Defined Names, Formula Auditing and
Calculation.
(v) Data tab: Consists of Get External Data, Connections, Sort & Filter, Data Tools and
Outline.
(vi) Review tab: Consists of Proofing, Comments and Changes
(vii) View tab: Consists of Workbook Views, Show/Hide. Zoom, Window and Macros

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4. Status Bar: It displays information about the currently active worksheet. It includes page
number, view shortcuts, zoom slider, etc.
5. Formula Bar: It is located below the ribbon. It is used to enter and edit worksheet data.
It includes
(i) Name box: displays the all references or column and row location of the active cell.
(ii) Functions: are predefined formulas that perform calculations by using specific values,
called arguments.
TABS IN MS-EXCEL 2016
The ribbon in Excel and other Office Suite’s Application has Tabs. In Excel 2016 there are 8
tabs followed by a new feature of “Tell me what you want to do” arranged in a horizontal
fashion. The tabs are as follows: File, Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data, Review,
and View.
Following are the groups of Commands available under tabs of Excel 2016:
Home: Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Style (for Conditional Formatting of table),
Cells (to insert, delete and format cells), Editing (AutoSum, Sort & Filter, Find & Select)
Insert: Tables (Pivot Table, and Tables); Illustrations (Pictures, Online Picture, shapes and
Icon); Add-ins; Charts; Tours (3D Map); Sparklines (Line, Column, Win/Loss); Filters; Links;
Text; Symbols
Page Layout: Themes; Page Setup (Margin, orientation, page size, print area, breaks,
background and print titles); Scale to fit; Sheet Options (Gridline, headings); Arrange
Formulas: Insert Function; Function Library; Defined Names; Formula Auditing; Calculation

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Data: Get external Data; Get & Transform (New query, show queries, from table, recent
sources); Connections; Sort and Filter; Data Tools; Forecast (what-if analysis, forecast
sheet); Outline
Review: Proofing (Spelling, Thesaurus); Accessibility; Insights-smart lookup; Comments;
Changes (Protect sheet, protect workbook, share workbook, allow users to edit ranges,
track changes)
View: Workbook Views (Normal, Page Break Preview, Page Layout, Custom Views); Show
(gridlines, ruler. formula bar, headings); Zoom; Window; Macros

FUNCTIONS IN EXCEL
• Predefined formulas in MS Excel are called functions.
• There are different types of functions:
Function Description
CHAR Returns the character specified by the code number
CLEAN Removes all nonprintable characters from text
CODE Returns a numeric code for the first character in a text string
CONCATENATE Joins several text items into one text item
EXACT Checks to see if two text values are identical
FIND, FINDB Finds one text value within another (case-sensitive)
FIXED Formats a number as text with a fixed number of decimals
LEFT Returns the leftmost characters from a text value
LEN, LENB Returns the number of characters in a text string
LOWER Converts text to lowercase
NUMBERVALUE Converts text to number in a locale-independent manner
PROPER Capitalizes the first letter in each word of a text value
REPLACE, Replaces characters within text
REPLACEB
REPT Repeats text a given number of times
RIGHT, RIGHTB Returns the rightmost characters from a text value
SEARCH, SEARCHB Finds one text value within another (not case-sensitive)
SUBSTITUTE Substitutes new text for old text in a text string
T Converts its arguments to text
TEXT Formats a number and converts it to text
TRIM Removes spaces from text
UPPER Converts text to uppercase
VALUE Converts a text argument to a number
VALUETOTEXT returns text from any specified value. It passes text values unchanged, and converts
non-text values to text.
AVERAGE Returns the average of its arguments
AVERAGEA Returns the average of its arguments, including numbers, text, and logical values
AVERAGEIF Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of all the cells in a range that meet a given
criteria
COUNT Counts how many numbers are in the list of arguments
COUNTA Counts how many values are in the list of arguments
COUNTBLANK Counts the number of blank cells within a range
COUNTIF Counts the number of cells within a range that meet the given criteria
COUNTIFS Counts the number of cells within a range that meet multiple criteria
MAX Returns the maximum value in a list of arguments

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MAXA Returns the maximum value in a list of arguments, including numbers, text, and logical
values
MEDIAN Returns the median of the given numbers
MIN Returns the minimum value in a list of arguments
MINA Returns the smallest value in a list of arguments, including numbers, text, and logical
values
ABS Returns the absolute value of a number
AGGREGATE Returns an aggregate in a list or database
ARABIC Converts a Roman number to Arabic, as a number
BASE Converts a number into a text representation with the given radix (base)
CEILING Rounds a number to the nearest integer or to the nearest multiple of significance
DECIMAL Converts a text representation of a number in a given base into a decimal number
DEGREES Converts radians to degrees
EVEN Rounds a number up to the nearest even integer
EXP Returns’e’raised to the power of a given number
FACT Returns the factorial of a number
FLOOR Rounds a number down, toward zero
GCD Returns the greatest common divisor
INT Rounds a number down to the nearest integer
LCM Returns the least common multiple
LN Returns the natural logarithm of a number
LOG Returns the logarithm of a number to a specified base
LOG10 Returns the base-10 logarithm of a number
ODD Rounds a number up to the nearest odd integer
PI Returns the value of pi
POWER Returns the result of a number raised to a power
PRODUCT Multiplies its arguments
ROUND Rounds a number to a specified number of digits
ADDRESS Returns a reference as text to a single cell in a worksheet
COLUMN Returns the column number of a reference
COLUMNS Returns the number of columns in a reference
FILTER Filters a range of data based on criteria you define
FORMULATEXT Returns the formula at the given reference as text
HLOOKUP Looks in the top row of an array and returns the value of the indicated cell
HYPERLINK Creates a shortcut or jump that opens a document stored on a network server, an
intranet, or the Internet
INDEX Uses an index to choose a value from a reference or array
INDIRECT Returns a reference indicated by a text value
LOOKUP Looks up values in a vector or array
ROW Returns the row number of a reference
ROWS Returns the number of rows in a reference
SORT Sorts the contents of a range or array
UNIQUE Returns a list of unique values in a list or range
VLOOKUP Looks in the first column of an array and moves across the row to return the value of
a cell
XLOOKUP Searches a range or an array, and returnsan itemcorrespondingto thefirst match it
finds. If a match doesn't exist,then XLOOKUP can return theclosest (approximate)
match.
CELL Returns information about the formatting, location, or contents of a cell
ERROR.TYPE Returns a number corresponding to an error type
ISBLANK Returns TRUE if the value is blank
ISERR Returns TRUE if the value is any error value except #N/A
ISERROR Returns TRUE if the value is any error value
ISEVEN Returns TRUE if the number is even
ISFORMULA Returns TRUE if there is a reference to a cell that contains a formula

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ISLOGICAL Returns TRUE if the value is a logical value

ISNA Returns TRUE if the value is the #N/A error value
ISNONTEXT Returns TRUE if the value is not text
ISNUMBER Returns TRUE if the value is a number
ISODD Returns TRUE if the number is odd
ISTEXT Returns TRUE if the value is text
N Returns a value converted to a number
SHEET Returns the sheet number of the referenced sheet
TYPE Returns a number indicating the data type of a value
DATE Returns the serial number of a particular date
DATEDIF Calculates the number of days, months, or years between two dates. This function is
useful in formulas where you need to calculate an age.
DATEVALUE Converts a date in the form of text to a serial number
DAY Converts a serial number to a day of the month
DAYS Returns the number of days between two dates
HOUR Converts a serial number to an hour
MINUTE Converts a serial number to a minute
MONTH Converts a serial number to a month
NOW Returns the serial number of the current date and time
SECOND Converts a serial number to a second
TIME Returns the serial number of a particular time
TIMEVALUE Converts a time in the form of text to a serial number
TODAY Returns the serial number of today's date
WEEKNUM Converts a serial number to a number representing where the week falls numerically
with a year

BASICS OF SPREADSHEET
COMPONENTS OF MICROSOFT EXCEL
• The basic terms of spreadsheet are as follows
1. A spreadsheet is a software tool that lets one enter, calculate, manipulate and analyze
set of numbers in tabular form
2. The intersection of each row and column is called cell. A cell is an individual container
for data.
• It may hold
(i) Numbers
(ii) Formulas (Mathematical equations)
(iii) Text (Labels)
3. An array of cells is called a sheet or worksheet. A worksheet holds information
presented in tabular format with text.
4. A workbook is a document that contains one or more worksheet. Each new workbook
has created three worksheets by default. But in new versions like Office 16, 365 or 2019
there is only one default sheet.
5. A row is given a number that identifies, it starts from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … so on.

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6. A column is given a letter that identifies it starts from A … Z, AA … AZ, BA, BB … BZ so on.

Feature Maximum limit

Worksheet size 1,048,576 rows by 16,384 columns
Column width 255 characters
Row height 409 points
Page breaks 1,026 horizontal and vertical
Total number of characters that a cell can 32,767 characters
contain
Characters in a header or footer 255
Maximum number of line feeds per cell 253
Sheets in a workbook Limited by available memory (default is 1
sheet)
Unique cell formats/cell styles 64,000
Unique font types 1,024 global fonts available for use; 512
per workbook
Hyperlinks in a worksheet 66,530 hyperlinks
Panes in a window 4
Zoom range 10 percent to 400 percent
Fields in a data form 32
Freeze Panes in Excel: If you wish to see a particular area of a worksheet visible or
multiple rows and columns while you scroll to another area of the worksheet, you can use
Freeze Panes (available under view tab).
CHARTS
• These are the graphical and pictorial representation of worksheet data.
• Types of Charts
• There are various types of charts.
1. Area Chart: It emphases the magnitude of change over time.
2. Column Chart: It shows data changes over a period of time or illustrates comparisons
among items.
3. Bar Chart: It illustrates comparisons among individual items. Categories are organized
vertically and values horizontally. The difference is that Column charts display vertical
columns and Bar charts display horizontal bars
4. Line Chart: It shows trends in data at equal intervals. It is useful for depicting the change
in a value over period of time.
5. Pie Chart: It shows the proportional size of items that make up only one data series to
the sum of the items.

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6. XY (Scatter) Chart: It shows the relationships among the numeric values in several data
series or plots two groups of numbers as series of XY coordinates. Scatter compares pairs
of values.

COMPONENTS OF A CHART
• Components of a chart are as follows
1. Chart Area: This is the total region surrounding the chart.
2. Plot Area: The area where data is plotted. The plot area is bounded by axes in a 2D Chart
whereas in 3D Chart it is bounded by walls and floor.
3. Chart Title: The descriptive text aimed at helping user identify the chart.
4. Axis Title: These are the titles given to three axis, i.e. X, Y and Z.
5. Data Series: A row or column of numbers that are plotted in a chart is called a data
series.
6. Gridlines: These are horizontal and vertical lines which inserted in the chart to enhance
its readability.
7. Legends: It helps to identify various plotted data series.
8. Data Label: It provides additional information about a data marker.
9. Data Table: It is defined as a range of cells that are used for testing and analyzing
outcomes on a large scale.

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MACROS
• If you have tasks in Microsoft Excel that you do repeatedly, you can record a macro to
automate those tasks. A macro is an action or a set of actions that you can run as many
times as you want. When you create a macro, you are recording your mouse clicks and
commands. VBA (Visual Basic for Applications) is the programming language for writing
Macros in Excel and other Office programs.
EXCEL CELL MODES: READY, EDIT AND ENTER AND POINT
1) Ready Mode: The "Ready" mode shows that Excel worksheet is ready to accept an input
from the user. Excel Cell Mode status will become "Ready" when Excel user is not editing
any cell or user is not inserting any data.
2) Edit Mode: If you type function key " F2 " at any Excel cell, the Cell mode will change to
"Edit" mode. If you double click on a non-blank where data is already filled ) Excel Cell with
mouse pointer, the Cell mode will become "Edit" mode.
3) Enter Mode: When a user is entering data into a cell , the Cell Mode will become "Enter"
mode. By default, Cell Mode will become "Enter" mode, when you double click on a blank
(empty) Excel cell with mouse pointer. A single mouse click when at "Enter" mode will
change the Cell mode to "Edit" mode.
4) Point Mode: Point Mode is also called as formula cell selection mode. The Cell mode
status will become Point, when you start typing a formula inside a cell (beginning with "=",
"+", or and then select the cells that you want to include in that formula.
SHORTCUT KEYS OF MS EXCEL AND THEIR DESCRIPTIONS
• Ctrl + A Select all contents of a worksheet.
• Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + I Italicize highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + C Copy selected text.
• Ctrl + V Paste
• Ctrl + D Fill

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• Ctrl + K Insert link

• Ctrl + F Open find and replace options.
• Ctrl + G Open go to options.
• Ctrl + H Open find and replace options.
• Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + Y Redo last action.
• Ctrl + 5 Strikethrough highlighted selection.
• Ctrl + O Open options.
• Ctrl + N Open new document.
• Ctrl + P Open print dialog box.
• Ctrl + S Save.
• Ctrl + W Close document.
• Ctrl + Z Undo last action.
• F2 Edit the selected cell.
• F5 Go to a specific cell.
• F7 Spell check selected text and/or document.
• F11 Create chart
• Ctrl + Shift + ; Enter the current time.
• Ctrl + ; Enter the current date
• Alt + Shift + F1 Insert new worksheet.
• Shift + F3 Open the Excel formula window.
• Shift + F5 Bring up the search box
• Ctrl + F9 Minimize current window.
• Ctrl + F10 Maximize currently selected window.
• Ctrl + F6 Switch between open workbooks/windows.
• Ctrl + Page up & Page Down Move between Excel worksheets in the same document.
• Ctrl + Tab Move between two or more open Excel files
• Alt + = Create the formula to sum all of the above cells.
• Ctrl + Shift + Insert the value of above cell into the current cell.
• Ctrl + Shift + ! Format number in comma format.

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• Ctrl + Shift + $ Format number in currency format.

• Ctrl + Shift + # Format number in date format.
• Ctrl + Shift + % Format number in percentage format.
• Ctrl + Shift + ^ Format number in scientific format.
• Ctrl + Shift + @ Format number in time format.
• Ctrl + (Right arrow) Move to next section of text.
• Ctrl + Space Select entire column.
• Shift + Space Select entire row.
More Shortcut keys used in MS Excel
Alt+H, H Choose a fill color
Alt+N Go to Insert tab
Alt+H, A, then C Center align cell contents
Alt+P Go to Page Layout tab
Alt+A Go to Data tab
Alt+W Go to View tab
Shift+F10, or Context key Open context menu
Alt+H, B Add borders
Alt+H,D, then C Delete column
Alt+M Go to Formula tab
Ctrl+9 Hide the selected rows
Ctrl+0 Hide the selected columns
Press To do this
Ctrl+1 Open the Format Cells dialog box.
Ctrl+Shift+F or Format fonts in the Format Cells dialog box.
Ctrl+Shift+P

F2 Edit the active cell and put the insertion point at the end of its
contents. Or, if editing is turned off for the cell, move the
insertion point into the formula bar. If editing a formula, toggle
Point mode off or on so you can use arrow keys to create a
reference.
Shift+F2 Add or edit a cell comment.

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Ctrl+Shift+Plus (+) Open the Insert dialog to insert blank cells.

Ctrl+Minus (-) Open the Delete dialog box to delete selected cells.
Ctrl+Shift+colon (:) Enter the current time.
Ctrl+semi-colon (;) Enter the current date.
Ctrl+grave accent (`) Switch between displaying cell values or formulas in the
worksheet.
Ctrl+apostrophe (') Copy a formula from the cell above the active cell into the cell
or the Formula Bar.
Ctrl+X Move the selected cells.
Ctrl+C Copy the selected cells.
Ctrl+V Paste content at the insertion point, replacing any selection.
Ctrl+Alt+V Open the Paste Special dialog box.
Ctrl+I or Ctrl+3 Italicize text or remove italic formatting.
Ctrl+B or Ctrl+2 Bold text or remove bold formatting.
Ctrl+U or Ctrl+4 Underline text or remove underline.
Ctrl+5 Apply or remove strikethrough formatting.
Ctrl+6 Switch between hiding objects, displaying objects, and
displaying placeholders for objects.
Ctrl+Shift+ampersand Apply an outline border to the selected cells.
(&)

Ctrl+Shift+underline (_) Remove the outline border from the selected cells.
Ctrl+8 Display or hide the outline symbols.

MICROSOFT POWERPOINT
• Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation software.
• In computing, a presentation program (also called presentation software) is a software
package used to display information in the form of a slide show . It has three major
functions:
1. An editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted.
2. A method for inserting and manipulating graphic images.
3. A slide show system to display the content.

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• PowerPoint was created by Robert Gaskins and Dennis Austin at a software company
named Forethought, Inc
• It was released on April 20, 1987, initially for Macintosh System Operating system based
computers only.
• Microsoft acquired PowerPoint for about $14 million three months after it appeared.
• PowerPoint became a component of the Microsoft Office suite, first offered in 1989 for
Macintosh and in 1990 for Windows, which bundled several Microsoft apps.
STARTING MS POWERPOINT
• To start MS PowerPoint software, we can follow any one method out of them:
(i) Click on Start button and then click on Run option.
• Run dialog box will be appear on screen.
• Now, type powerpnt on text box and press Enter key.
(ii) Click Start button > All Programs > Microsoft Office > Microsoft Office PowerPoint2016
• By default, the name of the blank document is Presentation1. ppt , where .ppt or .pptx is
the extension of a PowerPoint file.
COMPONENTS OF POWERPOINT
• Various components of MS PowerPoint 2007 window are described below
1. Title Bar: It contains the name of currently opened file followed by software name.
2. Ribbon: It is same as Word and Excel, jus few tabs are different like Animations, Slide
Show, etc.
3. Slide: It appears in the center of the window. You can create your presentation by adding
content to the slides.
4. Slide Pane: This area of PowerPoint window displays all the slides that are added in the
presentation.
5. Slide View Tab: This tab displays a thumbnail view of all the slides.
6. Outline View Tab: This tab displays the text contained in the presentation in an outline
format.
7. Notes Section: This can be used for creating notes.
8. Status Bar: It displays the number of the slide that is currently being displayed.

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TABS IN POWERPOINT 2016

In PowerPoint 2016 there are 9 tabs followed by a new feature of “Tell me what you want
to do” arranged in a horizontal fashion. The tabs are as follows: File, Home, Insert, design,
Transition, Animation, Slide Show, Review, and View.
1. Home: The home tab in PowerPoint has following groups: Clipboard, Slides, Font,
Paragraph, drawing and Editing. The Clipboard, Editing and Font commands are same as
that in Word 2016. The Slides group contains commands to insert new slide, choose slide
layout, reset the positions and formatting of the slide placeholders and option to organize
your slides into sections.
2. Insert: Click Insert to add something to a slide. This includes pictures, shapes, charts,
links, text boxes, video and more. The Insert Tab has following groups of commands: Slides,
Tables, Images, Illustrations, Add-ins, Links, Comments, Text, Symbols and Media.
3. Design: On the Design tab, you can add a theme or color scheme, or format the slide
background. The design tab has following categories or groups of commands:
Themes- Each theme has its own unique set of fonts, effect, colour to create a visually
appeasing and overall look of the slide.
Variants - The current theme or style can be customized using various colour schemes
through variants.
Customize- This group contains commands to change slide size and Format Background.
Designer- For instant slide makeovers.

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4. Transitions: Set up how your slides change from one to the next on the Transitions Tab.
Find a gallery of the possible transitions in the Transition to This Slide group – click More
Button at the side of the gallery to see all of them.
5. Animations: User may use the Animations tab to choreograph the movement of things
on his slides. Note that you can see many possible animations in the gallery in the
Animation group, and see more of them by clicking
More Button. Apart from adding animation you can also customize its duration and timing
as you need by using advanced animation and timing group of commands.
6. Slide Show: On the Slide Show tab, set up the way that you want to show your
presentation to others.
7. Revie: The Review tab lets you add comments, run spell-check, or compare one
presentation with another (such as an earlier version).
8. View: Views allow you to look at your presentation in different ways, depending on where
you are in the creation or delivery process.
9. File: At one end of the ribbon is the File tab, which you use for the behind-the-scenes
stuff you do with a file, such as opening, saving, sharing, exporting, printing and managing
your presentation. Click the File tab to open a new view called the Backstage.
10. Tools tabs: When you click some parts of your slides, such as pictures, shapes, SmartArt
or text boxes, you might see a colourful new tab appear.
For example, the Drawing Tools tab appears when you click a shape or text box. When you
click a picture, the Picture Tools tab appears. Other such tabs include SmartArt Tools, Chart
Tools, Table Tools and Video Tools. These tabs disappear or change when you click
something else in your presentation.
POWERPOINT VIEWS
• Different types of views available in PowerPoint 2007 are explained below
1. Normal View: This is the main editing view, where you write and design your
presentations, i.e., actual screen which is displayed.
2. Slide Sorter View: It provides a view of slides in thumbnail form. This view makes it easy
to sort and organize the sequence of the slides at the time of creating presentation.
3. Notes Page View: In this view, the notes pane is located just below the slide pane. Here,
notes that apply to the current slide can be typed. Later, these notes can be printed and
referred while giving actual presentation.
4. Slide Show View: This is used to deliver a presentation to the audience. Slide Show view
takes up the full computer screen, like an actual presentation. To exit Slide Show view,
press Esc key from the keyboard.

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5. Master View: This view includes Slide view, Handout view and Notes view. They are the
main slides that store information about the presentation, including background color,
fonts effects, placeholder sizes and positions.
SHORTCUT KEYS OF MICROSOFT POWERPOINT AND THEIR DESCRIPTIONS
• Ctrl + A: Select all items on the page or the active text box.
• Ctrl + B: Applies bold to the selected text.
• Ctrl + F: Opens the find and replace dialog box with find tab.
• Ctrl + H: Opens the find and replace dialog box with replace tab.
• Ctrl + I: Applies italic to the selected text.
• Ctrl + M: Inserts a new slide.
• Ctrl + N: Opens a new blank presentation.
• Ctrl + O: Opens the Open dialog box.
• Ctrl + T: Opens the Font dialog box.
• Ctrl + U: Underline the selected text.
• Ctrl + V: Paste the cut or copied text.
• Ctrl + W: Closes the presentation.
• Ctrl + Y: Repeats or redo the last command entered.
• S: Stop/Start the slide show.
• F1: Opens the help dialog box.
• F5: View the Slide Show.
• Esc: End the slide show.
• End: Moves cursor to end of current line of text.
• Home: Moves cursor to beginning of current line of text.
• Ctrl + Home: Moves cursor in beginning of the active Text Box.
• Ctrl + End: Moves cursor to end of active Text Box.
• Shift + Ctrl + Home: Selects all text from the cursor to the start of the active text box.
• Shift + Ctrl + End: Selects all text from the cursor to the end of the active text box.
• Alt + Z, Q: Change the zoom for the slide
• Alt + N, P: Insert a Picture
• Alt + H, S, and then H: Insert a shape.

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• Alt + G, H: Select a theme.

• Alt + H, L: Select a slide layout.
• Page Down: Go to the next slide.
• Page Up: Go to the previous slide.
• Alt + H: Go to the Home tab.
• Alt + N: Move to the Insert tab.
• Alt + S, B: Start the slide show.
• Esc: End the slide show.
• Alt + F, X: Close PowerPoint.

SOME NEW FEATURES INTRODUCED IN OFFICE 2016 FOR WINDOWS OS

• Share: In Word 2016 for Windows, it is easier than ever to share your documents. When
you share your files by using OneDrive or SharePoint Online for Office 365, you can invite
people to the document directly from within Word, or send a PDF or Word file as an email
attachment. This feature of share is also available for Excel and PowerPoint 2016.
• Tell Me: This is a text field where you can enter words and phrases about what you want
to do next and quickly get to those features you want to use or actions you want to perform.
You can also use Tell Me to find help about what you're looking for, or to use Smart Lookup
to research or define the term you entered.
• Smart Lookup: Bing search incorporated with applications
• New Charts introduced in Excel 2016: New Chart types and templates are introduced in
Excel 2016 such as tree map , sunburst chart (also known as a ring chart), waterfall chart,
box plot and histogram, and financial and calendar templates.
• Skype and OneDrive Integration: One of the new features added to Word, Excel, and
PowerPoint is the ability to use Skype for Business to collaborate and communicate while
working on documents. User can IM or video call someone with Skype from the new Share
pane built into the new Office applications. OneDrive integration supports cloud storage
file hosting service that supports access of office document from anywhere on any device.
• New animations in PowerPoint (such as the Morph transition), the ability to insert online
video in OneNote, and a data loss prevention feature in Word, Excel, and PowerPoint.
• New recent documents feature in Outlook 2016 shows you the documents you've recently
worked on in the Office apps, so you don't have to hunt for them on your PC
• Enterprise Data Protection: To manage and prevent data loss at enterprise level, MS Office
2016 comes paced with inbuilt security feature that provide an ease for system admin to
enforce policies for content authoring and document sharing.

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SOME COMMANDS RELATED TO MS OFFICE

1. Save Vs Save As: "Save" simply saves your work by updating the last saved version of
the file to match the current version you see on your screen.
• "Save As" brings up a prompt to save your work as a file with a different name. For
example, you might choose to save a document called "New Doc" as "Final Doc". This way,
you can save you file at different stages and keep multiple versions on your hard drive.
2. Save or convert to PDF: You can use the Office programs to save or convert your files to
PDFs so that you can share them or print them using commercial printers. To export or
save as PDF, in your Office file, on the File menu, click Export or Save As.
3. Undo Vs Redo: You can undo, redo, or repeat many actions in Microsoft Word,
PowerPoint, and Excel. Undo reverses the immediate action. Redo reverts the effects of
the undo action.
4. Portrait Vs Landscape: The terms portrait and landscape refer to different orientations
of the paper; whether it is oriented vertically or horizontally. A page with portrait
orientation, typical for letters, memos, and other text documents, is taller than it is wide.
Portrait is vertical mode and landscape is horizontal mode.

MICROSOFT ACCESS
• Microsoft Access is a Database Management System (DBMS) from Microsoft
• A database is a collection of logically related and similar data
• Database stores similar kind of data for a specific purpose that is organized in such a
manner that any information can be retrieved from it, when needed.
• Microsoft Access is an application which allows the creating and manipulating of
databases.
• Microsoft Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet Database Engine.
• It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases.
• Microsoft Access is a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS), i.e., data is
stored in multiple tables.
• Microsoft released Access version 1.0 on November 13, 1992

STARTING MS ACCESS
• To start MS Access software, we can follow any one method out of them:
(i) Click on Start button and then click on Run option.

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• Run dialog box will be appear on screen.

• Now, type msaccess on text box and press Enter key.
(ii) Click Start button > All Programs > Microsoft Office > Microsoft Office Access2016
• By default, database1.accdb is the name of the new MS Access database.

COMPONENTS OF MS ACCESS
• Within MS Access, there are four components as follows
1. Table: stores the data in your database.
2. Queries: get information from the data stored in the tables.
3. Reports: allows printing of data, based on queries or tables created by the user.
4. Forms: make it easy to enter data in the tables. A form is an interface for adding and
editing data.

TYPES OF QUERIES
• There are five types of queries
1. Select query: Retrieves data from one or more tables and displays the record
set in a datasheet. This is the most common type of query.
2. Parameter query: Prompts the user to enter values that define the query, such as a
specified region for sales results.
3. Cross tab query: Arranges a record set to make it more easily visible, using both row
headings and column headings.
4. Action query: Creates a new table or changes an existing table.
5. SQL query: An advanced query that is created using an SQL (Structured Query Language)
statement.
ELEMENTS OF MS ACCESS
• In MS Access, database holds various elements for every database operation
1. Field Name It is a label provided for a field that specifies the type of information contained
in a particular field.
2. Field Type/Data Type It specifies the type of data stored in the field such as textual data
and numerical data or combination of both. The default size of data type is 50 in
• MS Access. There are various data types as follows
• Data Type Field length or Field size

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• Text 0 255 characters

• Memo 0 65535 characters
• Number 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes
• Date/Time 8 bytes
• Currency 8 bytes
• Auto Number 4 bytes
• Yes/No 1 bit (0 or 1)
• OLE object upto 1 GB
• Hyperlink Each part contains 2048 characters
A Row is called a Record.
A Column is called a Field or Attribute
3. Field Length: Field refers length or width to the maximum number of characters that a
field can contain.
4. Primary Key: A field which is used to uniquely identify the records in a table. The primary
key cannot contain null value.
5. Validation Rule: It is a condition that must be met before data is accepted into database.
6. MS Access View: You can create a table by two most popular ways
(i) Datasheet View: It shows the data in the database and also allows you to enter and edit
the data but not allow to change the database.
(ii) Design View: It allows you to create or change the table and also set the keys.
7. Filtering Data: It enables to display only those records in a table that meet a specified
filter criterion.
8. Relationship It is an association between access tables or queries that use related fields.
It is a link between tables and enables us to accessed data from both tables
simultaneously.
•Relationship can be divided into three categories as One to One, One to Many and Many to
Many.
9. Attributes These can be defined as the characteristics of an entity to identify it uniquely.
Such as student’s attributes are Roll No, Section, Name, etc.
• It is an E mail client and personal information manager that is available as a part of
Microsoft Office suite.
• Though primarily an email client, Outlook also includes such functions as calendaring,
task managing, contact managing, note taking, journal logging, and web browsing

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• Individuals can use Outlook as a stand-alone application; organizations can deploy it as

multi user software (through Microsoft Exchange Server or SharePoint) for such shared
functions as mailboxes, calendars, folders, data aggregation (i.e., SharePoint lists), and
appointment
• Windows mobile devices have the version of MS Outlook, which enables users to
synchronize their E mails data to their smartphones.
• Outlook.com is a free webmail version of Microsoft Outlook, using a similar user interface.
Originally known as Hotmail, it was rebranded as Outlook.com in 2012.

MICROSOFT OUTLOOK
• It is an E mail client and personal information manager that is available as a part of
Microsoft Office suite.
• Though primarily an email client, Outlook also includes such functions as calendaring,
task managing, contact managing, note taking, journal logging, and web browsing
• Individuals can use Outlook as a standalone application; organizations can deploy it as
multi user software (through Microsoft Exchange Server or SharePoint) for such shared
functions as mailboxes, calendars, folders, data aggregation (i.e., SharePoint lists), and
appointment.
• Windows mobile devices have the version of MS Outlook, which enables users to
synchronize their E mails data to their smartphones.
• Outlook.com is a free webmail version of Microsoft Outlook, using a similar user interface.
Originally known as Hotmail, it was rebranded as Outlook.com in 2012.
FILE EXTENSIONS
WORD

XML file type Extension

Document .docx
Macro-enabled document .docm
Template .dotx
Macro-enabled template .dotm
EXCEL

XML file type Extension

Workbook .xlsx
Macro-enabled workbook .xlsm
Template .xltx
Macro-enabled template .xltm
Non-XML binary workbook .xlsb
Macro-enabled add-in .xlam
POWERPOINT

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XML file type Extension

Presentation .pptx
Macro-enabled presentation .pptm
Template .potx
Macro-enabled template .potm
Macro-enabled add-in .ppam
Show .ppsx
Macro-enabled show .ppsm
Slide .sldx
Macro-enabled slide .sldm
Office theme .thmx

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. What was the first version of Microsoft a) Consists of Table of Contents,

Office released in 1988? Footnotes, Citations & Bibliography,
a) Microsoft Office 365 Captions, Index, Table of Authorities.
b) Microsoft Office 97 b) Consists of Themes, Page Setup, Page
c) Microsoft Office XP Background, Paragraph, Arrange
d) Microsoft Office 95 c) Consists of Hyperlink, Book mark,
cross references, Header & Footer, Text
2. What is the default document name in TextBox , Date & Time, Object
Microsoft Word 2016? d) Consists of Create, Start Mail Merge,
a) Microsoft Office Word 2016.docx Write and Insert Fields, Preview Results
b) Document1.docx and Finish
c) Document1.txt
d) Blank Document.docx 6. What can be found in the View tab in
Microsoft Word?
3. What button reduces the window but a) Changes
keeps Word still active? b) Document Views, Show/Hide, Zoom,
a) Ribbon Window, Macros
b) Minimize c) Proofing
c) Close d) Ruler
d) Restore
7. What is used to set the left and right
4. What tab includes the "Find and margins of a document?
Replace" command? a) Work Area
a) Home tab b) Status Bar
b) Paragraph tab c) Horizontal ruler
c) Clipboard tab d) Vertical ruler
d) Insert tab
8. What is the term for the rectangular
5. What is the References tab used for? area of the document window that can be
used to type the text?
a) Home tab

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b) Clipboard 14. Which of the following is not a task

c) Workplace carried out by the Proofing tab?
a) Looking upwords in a thesaurus
d) Cursor
b) Resume Assistance
9. What is the fourth option in the c) Checking for mistakes in spelling or
Clipboard group under the Home tab? grammar
a) Cut d) Suggesting another word to use for a
b) Copy selected word
c) Format Painter
15. What does the "Comments" section in
d) Paste
Microsoft Word allow you to do?
a) Check Accessibility
10. What is the purpose of the Format
Painter tool in the Paragraph Group? b) Translate to another language
a) To arrange the text in a paragraph. c) Read Aloud
b) To apply formatting from another d) Add a note to the document.
section of a document.
c) To copy information from the document 16. What does CTRL + O do?
for the clipboard. a) Select all contents of the page.
d) To remove and copy information from b) Bold highlighted selection.
the document to the clipboard. c) Open new/blank document.
d) Open options.
11. Which command can users use to
change the indentation of a paragraph? 17. Which keyboard shortcut is used to
a) Decrease Indent italicize highlighted selection?
b) Create List a) Ctrl + K
c) Increase Indent b) Ctrl + I
d) Numbering
c) Ctrl + Y
12. What tool should educators use when d) Ctrl + V
creating Word documents for classroom
use? 18. What is Ctrl+D used for?
a) Check Accessibility a) Font Options
b) Proofread b) Align selected text or line to the left
c) Read Aloud c) Indent the paragraph
d) Track Changes d) Change the font

13. What is the next step for students after 19. What is the keyboard shortcut to delete
learning basic Word processing skills? a word to the right of the cursor?
a) Using features in the Review tab. a) Ctrl + ]
b) Copying and pasting b) Ctrl + (Down arrow)
c) Learning to type c) Ctrl + Del
d) Working on group projects d) Ctrl + [

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20. What shortcut is used to reset a) Data Label

highlighted text to the default font? b) Gridlines
a) Ctrl + Space
c) Legends
b) Ctrl + Alt + 1
d) Axis Title
c) Ctrl + End
d) Ctrl + 5 27. Which keyboard short cut command
allows you to open a new document?
21. What is the shortcut for changing text a) Ctrl + N
to heading 3? b) Ctrl + O
a) Ctrl + Alt + 3
c) Ctrl + P
b) Alt + 2
d) Ctrl + Y
c) Alt+W Q, then tab in Zoom dialog box
d) Ctrl+Shift+C 28. What keyboard shortcut can you use
to enter the current date?
22. What is the shortcut to switch to Draft a) Shift + F3
view in MS Excel? b) Alt + Shift + F1
a) Shift+Ctrl+D
c) F11
b) Alt+Shift+N
d) Ctrl + ;
c) Ctrl+Alt+D
d) Alt+Ctrl+N 29. Which key combination creates the
formula to sum all of the above cells?
23. What type of tab is the Home tab? a) Ctrl + F9
a) Minimize b) Shift + F5
b) Ribbon c) Ctrl + F10
c) Maximize d) Alt + =
d) Control
30. How can you format a number in
24. Which tab consists of Tables, comma format?
Illustrations, Charts, Links and Text? a) Ctrl + Shift + #
a) Review tab b) Ctrl + Shift + !
b) Font tab c) Ctrl + Shift + $
c) Insert tab d) Ctrl + Shift + %
d) Data tab
31. What is a function of a presentation
25. Which of the following is not a program?
component of a chart? a) Format number in time format.
a) Plot Area b) Display information in the form of a
b) Chart Area slide show.
c) Chart Title c) Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation
d) Macros software.
d) Move to next section of text.
26. What helps to identify various plotted
data series?

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32. What was the software company

named Forethought, Inc responsible for 38. What additional function does
creating? Microsoft Outlook provide besides
a) Graphic images serving as an email client?
b) Microsoft a) Calendaring
c) PowerPoint b) Note taking
d) A slide show system c) Web browsing
d) Task managing
33. What is the most common type of
query? 39. What type of software is Outlook?
a) Update query a) Stand-alone application
b) Select query b) Windows Mobile device
c) Multi user software
c) Append query
d) Free webmail version
d) Parameter query
40. What was the name of Microsoft's
34. Which of the following is not an email client before it was rebranded as
element of MS Access? Outlook.com in 2012?
a) Field Name a) Microsoft Outlook
b) Action query b) Hotmail
c) Cross tab query c) Yahoo Outlook
d) SQL query d) Google Outlook

35. What is the most common way to 41. Which of the following can be used to
create a table in MS Access? insert a chart into a spreadsheet?
a) Validation Rule a) Charts
b) Primary Key b) Cells
c) Datasheet View c) Filters
d) Null Value d) Editing

36. What allows you to create or change 42. What feature allows you to view
tables and set the keys in Access? calculation steps in Excel?
a) Filtering Data a) Connections
b) Scale to fit
b) Relationship
c) Formula Auditing
c) Generate View
d) Forecast
d) Design View
43. Which of the following is NOT a
37. What type of link between two tables component of Microsoft Excel?
allows us to access data from both a) Proofing (Spelling, Thesaurus)
simultaneously? b) Insights-smart lookup
a) One to Many c) Accessibility
b) Attributes d) Macros
c) One to One
d) Relationship

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44. What can a cell in a spreadsheet c) Edit and Enter Mode

contain? d) Ready Mode
a) Numbers, Formulas, and Text
b) Animations 48. When you type the function key "F2"
c) Photos into an Excel cell, what will the Cell Mode
d) Music become?
a) Insert Mode
45. How many default worksheets are b) Ready Mode
there in new versions of Office such as 16, c) Enter Mode
365 or 2019? d) Edit Mode
a) Three
b) None 49. What is the default Cell Mode when a
c) One user double clicks on a blank Excel Cell
d) Five with the mouse pointer?
a) Enter Mode
46. Which letter would identify column 112 b) Edit Mode
in Microsoft Excel? c) Point Mode
a) BV d) None of the Above
b) TT
c) XY 50. What happens when you start typing a
d) NM formula inside a cell beginning with "=",
"+" or any other sign?
47. What mode does Excel Worksheet a) Ctrl+ A will Select all contents of a
need to be in to accept an input from the worksheet.
user? b) The Cellmode status will become Point.
a) VBA Mode c) Ctrl+ B will Bold highlighted selection.
b) Point Mode d) Ctrl+ I will Italicize highlighted
selection.

1. d 2. b 3. b 4. a 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. c 9. c 10. b
11. a 12. a 13. a 14. b 15. d 16. d 17. b 18. a 19. c 20. a
21. a 22. d 23. b 24. c 25. d 26. c 27. a 28. d 29. d 30.b
31. b 32. c 33. b 34. c 35. c 36. d 37. d 38. a 39. c 40. b
41. a 42.c 43. d 44. a 45. c 46. a 47. d 48. d 49. a 50. b

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Chapter 11
EMERGING TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY
Learning Objectives

• Artificial Intelligence (AI)

• Big Data
• Internet of Things (IoT)
• Cloud Computing
• Grid Computing
• Blockchains

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the ability of machines to perform tasks that typically
require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-
making, and language translation. Artificial Intelligence endeavours to simulate the natural
intelligence of human beings into machines, thus making them behave intelligently. An
intelligent machine is supposed to imitate some of the cognitive functions of humans like
learning, decision making and problem solving. In order to make machines perform tasks
with minimum human intervention, they are programmed to create a knowledge base and
make decisions based on it.
Examples of AI in everyday life include:
• Personal assistants like Siri, Alexa, and Google Assistant, which use natural language
processing and machine learning algorithms to understand and respond to user
requests.
• Recommendation systems used by Amazon, Netflix, and YouTube that analyze user
behavior and make personalized recommendations.
• Autonomous vehicles like self-driving cars that use computer vision, sensors, and AI
algorithms to navigate roads and make driving decisions.
• Fraud detection systems used by banks and credit card companies that use machine
learning algorithms to detect fraudulent transactions.
• Image and speech recognition technologies used by social media platforms and
smartphone apps that can identify and tag people in photos or transcribe spoken words
into text.
MACHINE LEARNING
Machine Learning is a subset of Artificial Intelligence that involves training algorithms to
learn patterns from data and make decisions or predictions without being explicitly
programmed.

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In other words, machine learning is a technique that allows computers to learn from data
and improve their performance over time. Instead of being programmed with specific rules
or instructions, the computer is trained on a large dataset and learns from patterns in that
data to make predictions or decisions.
For example, a machine learning algorithm can be trained on a dataset of emails to
distinguish between spam and non-spam emails. Once the algorithm is trained, it can make
predictions on new emails it has never seen before, based on what it has learned from the
training data.
Machine learning has many practical applications, including image and speech recognition,
recommendation systems, fraud detection, and self-driving cars. As more data becomes
available and algorithms become more sophisticated, the possibilities for machine
learning are endless.
Machine Learning algorithms are called models, are first trained and tested using a
training data and testing data, respectively. After successive trainings, once these models
are able to give results to an acceptable level of accuracy, they are used to make
predictions about new and unknown data.
NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING (NLP)
Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a branch of Artificial Intelligence that focuses on
enabling computers to understand and interpret human language.
In simpler terms, NLP allows computers to analyze, process, and generate human
language data such as text or speech. NLP algorithms are designed to recognize patterns
in language, identify the meaning behind words and phrases, and even generate human-
like responses.
For example, NLP is used in virtual assistants like Siri and Alexa to understand spoken
commands and respond with helpful information or actions. NLP is also used in search
engines to help users find the most relevant results based on their search queries, and in
sentiment analysis to determine the emotional tone of social media posts or customer
feedback.
NLP is a rapidly growing field, and its applications are becoming more sophisticated every
day. As computers become better at understanding human language, the potential for NLP
to transform industries such as healthcare, finance, and education is immense.
IMMERSIVE EXPERIENCES
With the three-dimensional (3D) videography, the joy of watching movies in theatres has
reached to a new level. Video games are also being developed to provide immersive
experiences to the player. Immersive experiences allow us to visualise, feel and react by
stimulating our senses. It enhances our interaction and involvement, making them more
realistic and engaging. Immersive experiences have been used in the field of training, such

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as driving simulators, flight simulator and so on. Immersive experience can be achieved
using virtual reality and augmented reality.
(A) VIRTUAL REALITY
Virtual Reality (VR) is a technology that creates a simulated environment or experience
that can be interacted with using special equipment such as a headset or gloves.
In other words, VR is a way to experience a completely digital world that looks and feels
real. By using VR equipment, users can move around and interact with objects in a virtual
space as if they were really there.
For example, in a VR game, a player can use a headset to enter a completely digital world
and interact with the environment and characters within it. In a VR training simulation, an
employee can practice handling hazardous materials or performing a complex task in a
safe, controlled environment.
VR technology is becoming more accessible and popular, and its applications are
expanding to include fields such as education, healthcare, and entertainment. With VR, the
possibilities for immersive experiences are endless, and it has the potential to transform
how we learn, work, and play. It is a comparatively new field and has found its applications
in gaming (Figure 3.3), military training, medical procedures, entertainment, social science
and psychology, engineering and other areas where simulation is needed for a better
understanding and learning.

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(B) AUGMENTED REALITY

The superimposition of computer-generated perceptual information over the existing
physical surroundings is called as Augmented Reality (AR). It adds components of the
digital world to the physical world, along with the associated tactile and other sensory
requirements, thereby making the environment interactive and digitally manipulable.
Augmented Reality (AR) is a technology that overlays digital information onto the physical
world in real-time. In other words, AR allows users to see a blend of the real world and
digital content. By using a device such as a smartphone or tablet, users can view the
physical environment through the device's camera, and digital information such as images,
text, or animations are added to the view.
For example, in an AR game, a player can use their smartphone camera to see their real-
world surroundings, but with added virtual objects and characters that they can interact
with. In an AR shopping app, a user can view a product in their home before making a
purchase by superimposing a digital image of the product onto their physical environment.
AR technology is becoming more common, and its applications are expanding to include
fields such as education, marketing, and navigation. With AR, the possibilities for enhancing
real-world experiences are endless, and it has the potential to transform how we interact
with our surroundings. Users can access information about the nearest places with
reference to their current location. They can get information about places and choose on
the basis of user reviews. With help of location-based AR App, travellers can access real-
time information of historical places just by pointing their camera viewfinder to subjects.
Location-based AR apps are major forms of AR apps.

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ROBOTICS
A robot is basically a machine capable of carrying out one or more tasks automatically
with accuracy and precision. Unlike other machines, a robot is programmable by a
computer, which means it can follow the instructions given through computer programs.
Robots were initially conceptualised for doing repetitive industrial tasks that are boring or
stressful for humans or were labour intensive. Sensors are one of the prime components
of a robot. Robot can be of many types, such as wheeled robots, legged robots,
manipulators and humanoids. Robots that resemble humans are known as humanoids.
Robots are being used in industries, medical science, bionics, scientific research, military,
etc. Some examples are:
• NASA’s Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission is a robotic space mission to study about
the planet Mars (Figure 11.5).

Sophia is a humanoid that uses artificial intelligence, visual data processing, facial
recognition and also imitates human gestures and facial expressions, as shown in Figure
11.6.
• A drone is an unmanned aircraft which can be remotely controlled or can fly
autonomously through software-controlled flight plans in their embedded systems,
working in conjunction with onboard sensors and GPS (Figure 11.7). They are being used in
many fields, such as journalism, filming and aerial photography, shipping or delivery at
short distances, disaster management, search and rescue operations, healthcare,
geographic mapping and structural safety inspections, agriculture, wildlife monitoring or
pooching, besides law-enforcement and border patrolling.
BIG DATA
With technology making an inroad into almost every sphere of our lives, data is being
produced at a colossal rate. Today, there are over a billion Internet users, and a majority
of the world’s web traffic is coming from smartphones. Figure 11.8 shows that at the current
pace, around 2.5 quintillion bytes of data are created each day, and the pace is increasing
with the continuous evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT). This results in the generation
of data sets of enormous volume and complexity called Big Data. Such data cannot be
processed and analysed using traditional data processing tools as the data is not only
voluminous, but also unstructured like our posts, instant messages and chats,
photographs that we share through various sites, our tweets, blog articles, news items,

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opinion polls and their comments, audio/video chats, etc. Big Data not only represents
voluminous data, it also involves various challenges like integration, storage, analysis,
searching, processing, transfer, querying and visualisation of such data. Big data
sometimes hold rich information and knowledge which is of high business value, and
therefore there is a keen effort in developing software and methods to process and analyse
big data.
Characteristics of Big Data
Big data exhibits following five characteristics, that distinguish it from traditional data.
(A) Volume
The most prominent characteristic of big data is its enormous size. If a particular dataset
is of such large size that it is difficult to process it with traditional DBMS tools, it can be
termed as big data.
(B) Velocity
It represents the rate at which the data under consideration are being generated and
stored. Big data has an exponentially higher rate of generation than traditional data sets.
(C) Variety
It asserts that a dataset has varied data, such as structured, semi-structured and
unstructured data. Some examples are text, images, videos, web-pages and so on.
(D) Veracity
Big data can be sometimes inconsistent, biased, noisy or there can be abnormality in the
data or issues with the data collection methods. Veracity refers to the trustworthiness of
the data because processing such incorrect data can give wrong results or mislead the
interpretations.
(E) Value
Big data is not only just a big pile of data, but also possess to have hidden patterns and
useful knowledge which can be of high business value. But as there is cost of investment
of resources in processing big data, we should make a preliminary enquiry to see the
potential of the big data in terms of value discovery or else our efforts could be in vain.
DATA ANALYTICS
“Data analytics is the process of examining data sets in order to draw conclusions about
the information they contain, with the aid of specialised systems and software.” Data
analytics technologies and techniques are becoming popular day-by-day. They are used in
commercial industries to enable organisations to make more informed business decisions.
In the field of science and technology, it can be useful for researchers to verify or disprove
scientific models, theories and hypotheses.

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INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances,
and other items embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity to exchange data with
other devices or systems over the internet.
In simpler terms, IoT is a system of interconnected devices that can communicate with
each other and with the internet. These devices can be as simple as a temperature sensor
in a home thermostat or as complex as a self-driving car.
For example, a smart home may use IoT devices such as a smart thermostat, smart lights,
and smart security cameras that can be controlled and monitored from a smartphone app.
In agriculture, IoT sensors can be used to monitor soil moisture levels, weather patterns,
and crop growth to optimize farming practices.
IoT technology is becoming more prevalent and has the potential to transform industries
such as healthcare, transportation, and manufacturing. With IoT, devices can be connected
and controlled remotely, leading to increased efficiency and convenience.
At present, in a typical household, many devices have advanced hardware
(microcontrollers) and software. These devices are used in isolation from each other, with
maximum human intervention needed for operational directions and input data. IoT tends
to bring together these devices to work in collaboration and assist each other in creating
an intelligent network of things. For example, if a microwave oven, an air conditioner, door
lock, CCTV camera or other such devices are enabled to connect to the Internet, we can
access and remotely control them on-the-go using our smartphone.
WEB of Things (WoT)
Internet of Things allows us to interact with different devices through Internet with the help
of smartphones or computers, thus creating a personal network. But to interact with ‘n’
number of different devices, we need to install ‘n’ different apps. Wouldn’t it be convenient
to have one interface to connect all the devices? The web is already being used as a system
to communicate with each other. So, will it be possible to use the web in such a way that
all things can communicate with each other in the most efficient manner by integrating
them together? Web of Things (WoT) allows use of web services to connect anything in the
physical world, besides human identities on web. It will pave way for creating smart homes,
smart offices, smart cities and so on.
SENSORS
What happens when you hold your mobile vertically or horizontally? The display also
changes to vertical or horizontal with respect to the way we hold our mobile. This is
possible with the help of two sensors, namely accelerometer and gyroscope (gyro). The
accelerometer sensor in the mobile phones detects the orientation of the phone. The
Gyroscope sensors, tracks rotation or twist of your hand and add to the information
supplied by the accelerometer. Sensors are very commonly used as monitoring and
observing elements in real world applications. The evolution of smart electronic sensors
is contributing in a large way to the evolution of IoT. It will lead to creation of new sensor-

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based, intelligent systems. A smart sensor is a device that takes input from the physical
environment and uses built-in computing resources to perform predefined functions upon
detection of specific input and then process data before passing it on.
SMART CITIES
With rapid urbanisation, the load on our cities are increasing day-by-day, and there are
challenges in management of resources like land water, waste, air pollution, health and
sanitation, traffic congestions, public safety and security, besides the overall city
infrastructures including road, rail, bridge, electricity, subways, disaster management,
sports facilities, etc. These challenges are forcing many city planners around the world to
look for smarter ways to manage them and make cities sustainable and livable. The idea
of a smart city makes use of computer and communication technology along with IoT to
manage and distribute resources efficiently. The smart building shown here uses sensors
to detect earthquake tremors and then warn nearby buildings so that they can prepare
themselves accordingly. The smart bridge uses wireless sensors to detect any loose bolt,
cable or crack. It alerts concerned authorities through SMS. The smart tunnel also uses
wireless sensors to detect any leakage or congestion in the tunnel. This information can
be sent as wireless signals across the network of sensor nodes to a centralised computer
for further analysis.
Every sphere of life in a city like transportation systems, power plants, water supply
networks, waste management, law enforcement, information systems, schools, libraries,
hospitals and other community services work in unison to optimise the efficiency of city
operations and services.
CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing is an emerging trend in the field of information technology, where
computer-based services are delivered over the Internet or the cloud, and it is accessible
to the user from anywhere using any device. The services comprise software, hardware
(servers), databases, storage, etc. These resources are provided by companies called
cloud service providers and usually charge on a pay per use basis, like the way we pay for
electricity usage. We already use cloud services while storing our pictures and files as
backup on Internet, or host a website on the Internet. Through cloud computing, a user can
run a bigger application or process a large amount of data without having the required
storage or processing power on their personal computer as long as they are connected to
the Internet. Besides other numerous features, cloud computing offers cost-effective, on-
demand resources. A user can avail need-based resources from the cloud at a very
reasonable cost.
CLOUD SERVICES
A better way to understand the cloud is to interpret everything as a service. A “service”
corresponds to any facility provided by the cloud. There are three standard models to
categorise different computing services delivered through cloud as shown in Figure

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3.12. These are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and
Software as a Service (SaaS).
(A) Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): The IaaS providers can offer different kinds of
computing infrastructure, such as servers, virtual machines (VM), storage and backup
facility, network components, operating systems or any other hardware or software. Using
IaaS from the cloud, a user can use the hardware infrastructure located at a remote
location to configure, deploy and execute any software application on that cloud
infrastructure. They can outsource the hardware and software on a demand basis and pay
as per the usage, thereby they can save the cost of software, hardware and other
infrastructures as well as the cost of setting up, maintenance and security.
(B) Platform as a Service (PaaS): The facility provided by the cloud, where a user can install
and execute an application without worrying about the underlying infrastructure and their
setup. That is, PaaS provides a platform or environment to develop, test, and deliver
software applications. Suppose we have developed a web application using MySQL and
Python. To run this application online, we can avail a pre-configured Apache server from
cloud having MySQL and Python pre-installed. Thus, we are not required to install MySQL
and Python on the cloud, nor do we need to configure the web server (Apache, nginx). In
PaaS, the user has complete control over the deployed application and its configuration. It
provides a deployment environment for developers at a much reduced cost lessening the
complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware and software.
(C) Software as a Service (SaaS)
SaaS provides on-demand access to application software, usually requiring a licensing or
subscription by the user. While using Google Doc, Microsoft Office 365, Drop Box, etc., to
edit a document online, we use SaaS from cloud. A user is not concerned about installation
or configuration of the software application as long as the required software is accessible.
Like PaaS, a user is provided access to the required configuration settings of the
application software, that they are using at present.
In all of the above standard service models, a user can use on-demand infrastructure or
platform or software and is usually charged as per usage, thereby eliminating the need of
a huge investment upfront for a new or evolving organisation. In order to utilise and
harness the benefits of cloud computing, Government of India has embarked upon an
ambitious initiative — “GI Cloud” which has been named as ‘MeghRaj’ (https:// cloud.gov.in).

BLOCKCHAINS AND CRYPTOCURRENCIES

Traditionally, we perform digital transactions by storing data in a centralised database and
the transactions performed are updated one by one on the database. That is how the ticket
booking websites or banks operate. However, since all the data are stored on a central
location, there are chances of data being hacked or lost. The blockchain technology works
on the concept of decentralised and shared database where each computer has a copy of
the database. A block can be thought as a secured chunk of data or valid transaction. Each

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block has some data called its header, which is visible to every other node, while only the
owner has access to the private data of the block. Such blocks form a chain called
blockchain. Blockchain is a digital ledger technology that is used to securely record
transactions and other data in a decentralized and transparent manner. It consists of a
network of computers that work together to validate and record transactions in a way that
cannot be easily altered or tampered with.
Cryptocurrency is a type of digital currency that is based on blockchain technology. It is a
decentralized currency that is not backed by any government or financial institution, and it
can be used to buy goods and services or exchanged for other currencies.
For example, Bitcoin is a well-known cryptocurrency that is based on blockchain
technology. Bitcoin transactions are recorded on a public ledger that is maintained by a
network of computers. Each transaction is validated by the network to ensure that the
same Bitcoin is not spent twice, and the transaction is added to the blockchain, which is a
permanent and tamper-proof record of all Bitcoin transactions.
Cryptocurrencies are becoming increasingly popular and are being used for a variety of
purposes, including as a store of value and a means of payment. The use of blockchain
technology also has potential applications in areas such as supply chain management,
voting systems, and more.

We can define blockchain as a system that allows a group of connected computers to

maintain a single updated and secure ledger. Each computer or node that participates in
the blockchain receives a full copy of the database. It maintains an ‘append only’ open
ledger which is updated only after all the nodes within the network authenticate the
transaction. Safety and security of the transactions are ensured because all the members
in the network keep a copy of the blockchain and so it is not possible for a single member
of the network to make changes or alter data.
The most popular application of blockchains technology is in digital currency. However,
due to its decentralised nature with openness and security, blockchains are being seen as
one of the ways to ensure transparency, accountability and efficiency in business and as

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well as governance systems. For example, in healthcare, better data sharing between
healthcare providers would result in a higher probability of accurate diagnosis, more
effective treatments, and the overall increased ability of healthcare organisations to
deliver cost-effective care. Another potential application can be for land registration
records, to avoid various disputes arising out of land ownership claims and
encroachments. A blockchain-based voting system can solve the problem of vote
alterations and other issues. Since everything gets stored in the ledger, voting can become
more transparent and authentic. The blockchain technology can be used in diverse sectors,
such as banking, media, telecom, travel and hospitality and other areas.

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Chapter 12
NUMBER SYSTEMS
Learning Objectives

• Introduction
• Different Number Systems:
• Binary
• Decimal
• Octal
• Hexadecimal
• Interconversion
• Computer Codes
• 1’s and 2’s Compliment

DATA REPRESENTATION AND NUMBER SYSTEMS

• Data representation refers those methods which are used internally to represent
information stored in a computer.
• Computers store lots of different types of information as numbers, text, graphics, sounds,
etc.
• A number system is a system representing numbers.
• It is also called the system of numeration and it defines a set of values to represent a
quantity. E.g., 0, 1, 2, ……8 and 9 in Decimal Number System.
• Digital computers internally use the binary number system (0 and 1) to represent data
and perform arithmetic calculations.
TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS
• The number systems generally used by a computer are as follows:
1. Binary (0 and 1)
2. Decimal (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
3. Octal (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
4. Hexadecimal (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A, B, C, D, E, F)
DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
• The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is decimal number system
• It consists of 10 digits from 0 to 9.

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• These digits can be used to represent any numeric value.

• It is also known as Base 10 system and it is a positional number system. e.g. (1275)10
(10406)10.

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

• It consists of 8 digits from 0 to 7. (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
• It is also known as Base 8 system.
• Each position of the octal number represents a successive power of eight.

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BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

• This system is very efficient for computers, but not for humans.
• It contains only two unique digits 0’s and 1’ s.
• It is also known as Base 2 system.
• A string, which has any combination of these two digits (0 and 1 are called a bit) is called
binary number.
• The computer always calculates input in binary form. e.g. (10101 )2.

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

• It provides us with a shorthand method of working with binary numbers.
• There are 16 unique digits available in this system.
• These are 0 to 9 and A to F where A denotes 10, B denotes 11, ......., F denotes 15.

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• It is also known as Base 16 system or simply Hex.

CONVERSION BETWEEN THE NUMBER SYSTEMS

DECIMAL TO BINARY
• Two methods:
1. Repeated Division by 2 2. Adding the powers of 2
1. To convert decimal to binary, following steps are involved
(12) 10 = (?) 2

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Step 1: Divide the given number by 2.

Step 2: Note the quotient and remainder. Remainder should be 0 or 1.
Step 3: If quotient is not 0, then again divide the quotient by 2 and back to step 2. If quotient
= 0, then stop the process.
Step 4: First remainder is called as Least Significant Bit (LSB) and last remainder is called
as Most Significant Bit (MSB).
Step 5: Arrange all remainders from MSB to LSB.
EXAMPLE: (43)10 = (?)2

(43)10 = (101011)2

BINARY TO DECIMAL
• To convert binary to decimal, following steps are involved
• (1010011)2 = (?)10
Step 1. Multiply the all the binary digits by powers of 2.
Step 2. Add the all multiplying digits.

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EXAMPLE:
(1101.10)2 = (?)10

OCTAL TO BINARY
• Convert every digit of the number from octal to binary in the group of 3 bits.
• (10203)8 = (?)2

BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
• To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent, follow these steps:
• Step 1: Start making the group of 4 bits each from right to left from the given binary
number.
• If the left most group has less than 4 bits, put in the necessary number of leading 0’ on
the left.
Step 2: Now, each group will be converted to decimal number.

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HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
• For this type of conversion, convert each hexadecimal digit to 4 bits binary equivalent.

DECIMAL TO OCTAL
• To convert decimal to octal, following steps are involved
• Step 1: Divide the given number by 8.
•Step 2: Note the quotient and remainder. Digits of remainder will be from 0 to 7.
• Step 3: If quotient ¹ 0, then again divide the quotient by 8 and go back to step 2.
• Step 4: If quotient = 0 or less than 8 then stop the process.
• Step 5: Write each remainder from left to right starting from MSD to LSD.

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OCTAL TO DECIMAL
• To convert octal to decimal, following steps are involved
• Step 1: Multiply each digit of octal number with powers of 8.
• Step 2: These powers should be positive for integral part and negative for fractional part.
• Step 3: Add the all multiplying digits.

DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL
• To convert decimal to hexadecimal, following steps are involved
• Step 1: Divide the given number by 16.
• Step 2: Note the quotient and remainder. Digits of remainder will be 0 to 9 or A to F.
• Step 3: If quotient ¹ 0, then again divide the quotient by 16 and go back to step 2.

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• Step 4: If quotient = 0 or less than 16, then stop the process.

• Step 5: Write each remainder from left to right starting from MSD to LSD.

HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL
• To convert hexadecimal to decimal, following steps are involved.
• Step 1: Multiply each digit of hexadecimal number with powers of 16.
• Step 2: These powers should be positive for integral part and negative for fractional part.
• Step 3: Add the all multiplying digits.

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OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL
• To convert octal to hexadecimal, following steps are involved
• Step 1: Convert each digit of octal number to binary number.
• Step 2: Again, convert each binary digit to hexadecimal number.

HEXADECIMAL TO OCTAL
• To convert hexadecimal to octal, following steps are involved:
• Step 1: Convert each digit of hexadecimal number to binary number.
• Step 2: Again, convert each binary digit to octal number.

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COMPUTER CODES
• In computer, any character like alphabet, digit or special character is represented by
collection of 1’s and 0’s in a unique coded pattern.
• In computers, the code is made up of fixed size groups of binary positions.
• The binary coding schemes that are most commonly used are as follows:
1. BCD
2. EBCDIC
3. ASCII

BCD
• BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal.
• This system was developed by IBM.
• It is a number system where four bits are used to represent each decimal digits.
• BCD is a method of using binary digits to represent the decimal digits (0 9).
• In BCD system, there is no limit on size of a number.
Decimal: 1 0
BCD: 0001 0000

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ASCII
• ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
• These are standard character codes used to store data so that it may be used by other
software programs.
• Basically, ASCII codes are of two types which as follows
(i) ASCII 7: It is a 7 bit standard ASCII code. It allows 128 characters.
7 = 128 (from 0 to 127) unique symbols or characters.
1 = 0000001
2 = 0000010
A = 1000001
(ii) ASCII 8: It is an extended version of ASCII 7.
• It is an 8 bit code, allows 28 = 256 (0 to 255) unique symbols or characters.
1 = 00000001
EBCDIC
• EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
• In EBCDIC, characters are represented by eight bits.
• These codes store information which is readable by other computers.
• It allows 28 = 256 combination of BITS

UNICODE
• UNICODE uses 16 bits to represent a symbol in the data.
• It represents any non-English character, scientific symbol in any language like Chinese,
Japanese.
• Total 2 16 = 65536 unique
1’S AND 2’S COMPLEMENT
• 1’s complement of binary number is defined as the value obtained by inverting all the bits
e.g., 1’s complement of 110100 is 001011
• 2’s compliment of a number is obtained by adding 1 to the 1’s compliment.
e.g., 1’s complement of 110101 is 001010 + 1 = 2’s compliment = 001011

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APPENDIX 1
HARDWARE DEVICES
• CPU Central Processing Unit
• CU Control Unit
• ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit
• GPU Graphics Processing Unit
• BIOS Basic Input Output System
• CRT Cathode Ray Tube
• VDU Visual Display Unit
• VGA Video Graphics Array
• LCD Liquid Crystal Display
• LDU Liquid Display Unit
• LED Light Emitting Diode
• CD Compact Disc
• CD-R Compact Disc Recordable
• CD-ROM Compact Disc Read Only Memory
• CD-RW Compact Disc Rewritable
• CD-R/W Read/WriteRead/Write
• DAC Digital to Analog Convertor
• ADC Analog to Digital Convertor
• RAM Random Access Memory
• DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
• SRAM Static Random Access Memory
• VRAM Video Random Access Memory
• ROM Read Only Memory
• PROM Programmable Read Only Memory
• EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Only Memory
• EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
• DVD Digital Video Disc/Digital Versatile Disc
• DVD-R Digital Video Disc-Recordable
• DVD ROM DVD Read Only Memory

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• DVD RW DVD Rewritable

• DVR Digital Video Recorder
• EDSAC Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
• ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
• UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer
• HDD Hard Disk Drive
• SSD Solid State Drive
• MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
• OCR Optical Character Recognition
• OMR Optical Mark Reader
• NIC Network Interface Card
• PSU Power Supply Unit
• UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
• PSU Power Supply Unit
• UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
• USB Universal Serial Bus
• ULSI Ultra Large Scale Integration
• VLSI Very Large Scale Integration
• UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair
• STP Shielded Twisted Pair

PROTOCOLS
•ARP Address Resolution Protocol
•RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
•MAC Media Access Control
•PAP Password Authentication Protocol
•PPP Point-to-Point Protocol
•RIP Routing Information Protocol
•SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
•IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
•POP Post Office Protocol
•SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol

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•MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions

•TCP Transmission Control Protocol
•IP Internet Protocol
•FTP File Transfer Protocol
•HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
•CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
•TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
•FIFO First In First Out
•LIFO Last In First Out
• WAP Wireless Application Protocol
•Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
•WPA Wi-Fi Protected Access
•ZIP Zone Information Protocol

UNITS
•BPS Bits Per Second
•BPI Bytes/Bits Per Inch
•DPI Dots Per Inch
•PPM Pages Per Minute
•LPI Lines Per Inch
•FPS Frame Per Second
•FLOPS Floating Point Operations Per Second
•Mb Megabit
•MB Megabyte
•Gb Gigabit
•GB Gigabyte
•Kb Kilobit
•KB Kilobyte
•KHz Kilohertz
•Kbps Kilobit Per Second

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FILE FORMATS
•BMP Bitmap
•GIF Graphics Interchange Format
•JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group
•MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group
•PNG Portable Network Graphics
•PDF Portable Document Format
•RTF Rich Text Format
•XML eXtensibleMarkup Language

INTERNET AND NETWORKING

•Cc Carbon Copy
•Bcc Blind Carbon Copy
•API Application Program Interface
•HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
•MMS Multimedia Messaging Service
•URI Uniform Resource Identifier
•URL Uniform Resource Locator
•WWW World Wide Web
•GSM Global System for Mobile communication
•ISP Internet Service Provider
•SIM Subscriber Identification Module
•WLL Wireless Local Loop
•BPL Broadband over Power Line
•DSL Digital Subscriber Line
•WiMax Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
•PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
•ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
•LAN Local Area Network
•MAN Metropolitan Area Network
•PAN Personal Area Network

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•VLAN Virtual Local Area Network

•WAN Wide Area Network
•WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
•VPN Virtual Private Network

MISCELLANEOUS
•ALGOL Algorithmic Language
•BASIC Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
•COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
•FORTRAN Formula Translation
•BCD Binary Coded Decimal
•ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
•EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
•CAD Computer Aided Design
•DLL Dynamic Link Library
•DMA Direct Memory Access
•DOS Disk Operating System
•FAT File Allocation Table
•GUI Graphical User Interface
•CLI Command Line Interface
•GIGO Garbage In Garbage Out
•OOP Object Oriented Programming
•OS Operating System
•OSS Open-Source Software
•OLE Object Linking and Embedding
•SaaS Software as a Service
•SQL Structured Query Language
•DBA Database Administrator
•DBMS Database Management System
•RDBMS Relational Database Management System

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Thanking You
Yours Truly
TAWQEER UL ISLAM

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