The Canadian Journal of Higher Education

La revue canadienne d'enseignement supérieur

V o l u m e X X X I I I , N o . 3, 2 0 0 3 p a g e s 1-70

The Effects of a Peer Mentoring Program on

Academic Success Among First Year
University Students

SUSAN RODGER & PAUL F. TREMBLAY

The University of Western Ontario

ABSTRACT

The present study examines the effect of participation of first-year

university students in a full-year peer mentoring program as well as indi-
vidual differences in motivation in relation to outcome measures of
retention and achievement. A sample of 983 first year students com-
pleted the Academic Motivation Inventory (Tremblay, 1998) and agreed
to provide final grades; 537 students were randomly assigned to partici-
pate in the program, while the remainder served as a control group.
Mentored students who continued to participate mid-way through the
second semester had significantly higher final grades than did students in
the control group. There was no effect on retention from year one to year
two, however data are being collected on retention and grades for all
groups for the length of their undergraduate careers. Students high in
anxiety in the mentored group showed achievement comparable to that
of low anxiety program participants, whereas students in the control
group with high anxiety scored significantly worse on achievement than
did their low anxiety counterparts.
2 S. Rodger & R F. Tremblay

RÉSUMÉ

La présente étude a examiné les répercussions de la participation

d'étudiants de première année impliqués, pendant un an, dans un pro-
gramme de mentorat de pairs, ainsi que les différents niveaux de motiva-
tion en rapport avec les résultats mesurés de rétention et de réussite. Un
échantillon de 983 étudiants de première année ont complété l'inventaire
de motivation académique (Tremblay, 1998) et ont accepté de soumettre
leurs notes finales; 537 étudiants ont été choisis au hasard pour par-
ticiper au programme, tandis que le groupe restant allait faire fonction de
groupe contrôle. Les étudiants bénéficiant de l'appui du programme de
mentorat qui sont restés j u s q u ' à la moitié du second semestre ont obtenu
des notes considérablement plus élevées que ceux dans le groupe con-
trôle. Aucun effet sur la rétention n ' a été observé entre la première et la
deuxième année, mais toutefois des données continuent d'être recueillies
dans ce domaine, ainsi que dans celui des notes obtenues par tous les
groupes au cours des quatre premières années de scolarisation universi-
taire. Les étudiants plus angoissés impliqués dans le groupe de mentorat
ont aussi bien réussi que les participants du même groupe qui l'étaient
moins, tandis que les étudiants du groupe contrôle souffrant d'un niveau
d'anxiété élevé ont considérablement moins bien réussi que leurs homo-
logues qui y étaient moins sujets.

One type of intervention that is becoming increasingly popular in

higher education is mentoring of first-year students by faculty and senior
students. This formal mentoring process is widely believed to be related
to positive outcomes for both the mentor and mentee (Ragins & Cotton,
1999, Seibert, 1999). Reasons for mentoring include institutional goals
such as recruitment and retention of students (Jacobi, 1991), pedagogical
goals such as increasing learning, and enhancing relationships with fac-
ulty and other students (Upcraft, 1989). The present study employs a rig-
orous experimental design to test the effect of mentoring on academic
achievement and retention among first year university students.
In the competition for recruitment and retention of students, colleges
and universities o f f e r a myriad of programs, support services, and

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 Peer Mentoring and Academic Success 3

resources. Attempts to evaluate the impact of these programs, particu-

larly in the area of student retention, are characterized by poor method-
ological quality, making conclusions about their effectiveness difficult.
In fact, a meta-analysis of 500 retention program research studies in
college reported that only 60, or 12%, were of acceptable methodologi-
cal quality (Kulik, Kulik and Shwalb, 1983).
Similar observations have been made with respect to the research on
the effects of mentoring in college. Jacobi (1991) reviewed the literature
on mentoring and undergraduate academic success and concluded that
the popular opinion was that mentoring is a critical component of effec-
tive undergraduate education. Furthermore, although descriptions of
mentoring programs designed to promote academic success are common
in the higher education literature, substantially fewer systematic evalua-
tions are available, and those reports that do provide evaluation often
have methodological problems. Jacobi goes on to conclude that, "The
concept of mentoring remains unclear and imprecise, and the effective-
ness of informal or formal mentoring in promoting undergraduate acade-
mic success is assumed rather than demonstrated." (p. 526). Jacobi
(1991) highlights a number of specific methodological weakness in the
studies included in her review, including n o n - r a n d o m selection or
assignment to conditions, lack of cross-sectional research, little or no
measurement of individual differences, use of single outcome measures
administered just once, and lack of generalizability. The present study
addresses each one of these shortcomings by using a large sample of stu-
dents, random assignment of students to groups, participants from eight
faculties, and comprehensive measures of academic motivation.
The methodological weaknesses of previous studies are compounded
by an overarching problem, the lack of a theoretical explanation for why
such programs might be effective. The three most promising theoretical
explanations for the potential positive e f f e c t s of m e n t o r i n g can be
derived from social, cognitive, and motivation perspectives. The social
perspective suggests that peers can influence both persistence (that is,
staying in school as compared to dropping out) and feelings of belong-
ingness (Bank, Slavings & Biddle, 1990), the acquisition and develop-
ment of s a t i s f y i n g relationships with m e m b e r s of the organization

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4 S. Rodger & R F. Tremblay

(Allen, McManus & Russell, 1999) and satisfaction (Seibert, 1999). The
cognitive perspective emphasizes the effects of peer interaction such as
reciprocal peer tutoring on the development of cognitive skills such as
self-questioning (Fantuzzo, Riggio, Connelly & Dimeff, 1989) and study
habits (Berndt, 1999), and would account for the negative influence of
student characteristics such as lack of study skills and high levels of anx-
iety on cognitive processing (Hembree, 1988). Finally, a motivation
explanation proposes that peer mentoring influences self-efficacy and
help-seeking behaviour (Hayes, 1999; Karabenick& Knapp, 1999).
Two hypotheses were derived for the present study based on a
review of the literature on the sources of influence on educational out-
comes for first year students. First, it is expected that peer mentoring
would positively affect students' academic achievement. Second, it is
predicted that peer mentoring would increase the retention of mentored
students between freshman and sophomore years.

METHOD

Participants

A total of 983 of 4400 incoming first-year university students at The

University of Western Ontario submitted applications to be mentored by
an upper-year student (Peer Mentor). From this sample of applicants, or
volunteers, 537 students were randomly selected to participate in the pro-
gram (Peer Mentored Group). They were selected proportionally across
seven faculties (Arts, Social Science, Science, Engineering Science,
Health Science, Music, and Information and Media Studies) and across
four levels of self-reported academic motivation (Low, Moderately Low,
M o d e r a t e l y High and High), based on s c o r e s f r o m the A c a d e m i c
Motivation Inventory (Tremblay, 1998). The remaining 446 applicants
(Applicant Control Group), formed a true, randomly assigned control
group, also selected proportionally across four levels of motivation. A
third group consisting of 506 students selected at random from the total
population of first year students not applying to the program was also
included as a second control group (Non-Applicant Control Group).

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 Peer Mentoring and Academic Success 5

Measures

Demographic measures. Students self-reported the following demo-

graphic variables: age, sex, population of hometown, parents' yearly
income, number of courses taken in the last year of secondary school,
most advanced mathematics course completed, and grade in that course.
This particular grade was selected as a variable of interest because of the
perceived relationship between senior mathematics grades and subse-
quent academic achievement in science and social science programs, the
programs that accounted for the largest number of first year students at
the institution.
Motivation measures. Students were asked to estimate the number
of hours they planned to study each week in university. This question
was asked for two main reasons. First, good study habits (of which the
number of hours a student plans to study is one) has been linked to acad-
emic achievement (Lin & McKeachie, 1970). Second, the results of this
question were used later, for the purposes of educating new students
regarding what they should expect in terms of the number of hours they
should study in order to have the best chance at academic success.
S t u d e n t s a l s o c o m p l e t e d the A c a d e m i c M o t i v a t i o n I n v e n t o r y
(Tremblay, 1998). This measure consists of 128 five-point Likert scale
items divided among 12 scales, four of which are valence or incentive
dimensions (Stimulation, Mastery, Recognition, and Acquisition). The
o t h e r s c a l e s are G o a l S a l i e n c e , S e l f - E f f i c a c y , E f f o r t , A t t e n t i o n ,
Persistence, Facilitating Anxiety, Debilitating Anxiety, and Socially
Desirable Responding. A general motivation score was computed by
s u m m i n g the f o l l o w i n g related scales: Stimulation, Mastery, Goal
Salience, Effort, Attention, and Persistence. For the purpose of this
study, the general motivation score and the Debilitating Anxiety scale
were used. This anxiety scale has an alpha value of .85 and assesses the
debilitating experience of anxiety in a variety of academic situations
such as exams and presentations. The general motivation measure has a
Cronbach alpha value of .94.
Achievement measures. These consisted of the overall secondary
school grades in final year and final grades in first-year university, both
on a 100-point percentage scale as provided by the students (in the case

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6 S. Rodger & P. F. Tremblay

of high school grades) and the university (in the case of final grades at
the end of the first year of study). Students who received grades lower
than 45 were assigned a grade of 45 for this study to eliminate the spuri-
ous effect of outliers.
Level of participation. This measure applies to the Peer Mentor
group only and was provided by the peer mentors halfway into the sec-
ond semester. The peer mentors were asked to assign a numerical rating
of 0 to 5 to each student in their group reflecting level of participation in
Peer Mentor-First Year Student activities and events. Surveys were then
collected and results tabulated. The rating system, with higher numbers
indicating higher levels of participation and each level subsuming the
previous one, was defined in the following manner: A "0" indicated that
students had not contacted their peer mentors at all; 1 indicated that the
first year student attended only the first large-group event (the program
kick-off); " 2 " was defined as attending only the 3 large-group events
(the k i c k - o f f e v e n t plus a large p i z z a - a n d - s t u d y g a t h e r i n g held in
November and late January); a rating of "3" indicated that the first year
student attended at least 3 other regularly scheduled small-group meet-
ings; a rating of "4" indicated that students were meeting their peer men-
tor at least once per month; a rating of " 5 " indicated that first year
students met with their peer mentors at least once every two weeks for
the academic year.
Retention. The number of students from each of the three groups
who returned and those who did not return for their second year of uni-
versity studies w e r e c o u n t e d . It should be noted that f o r the N o n
Applicant Control Group, only retention data and grades were obtained;
in other words, this group did not complete the Academic Motivation
Inventory or the demographic survey.

Design and Procedure

Applicants for the peer mentorship program completed a question-

naire providing demographic and biographic data (as described above).
All applicants signed an informed consent form granting permission to
the researchers to examine past and future grades and retention data.
Applicants attended an information session prior to the beginning of the

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 Peer Mentoring and Academic Success 1

academic year and were asked to complete the Academic Motivation

Inventory on a voluntary basis, with the understanding that refusal to
complete the inventory would in no way affect their chances of being
selected for peer mentorship. Applicants were told that they were not
guaranteed entry into the program, but rather that there would be a ran-
dom selection taking place across faculty.

Selection and training of peer mentors.

The Position Analysis Questionnaire ( M c C o r m i c k , Jeanneret &

Mecham, 1989) was used to analyze the positions of Peer Mentor and
Mentor Team Leaders, and this information was used to write the j o b
descriptions as well as to guide the selection and training processes. Peer
Mentors were selected from a pool of applicants and received both initial
and on-going training. Support was provided by Mentor Team Leaders and
a Program Coordinator. Each Peer Mentor was assigned a group of five to
seven students. The 95 Peer Mentors were in the same faculty, and in most
cases the same program, as their students and shared long-term academic
and/or career goals such as graduate study or professional careers. Small
groups of Peer Mentors were also matched with one of 21 Mentor Team
Leaders, consisting of 4th year students who were members of the same
faculty. Furthermore, a total of 22 Faculty Mentors (professors) volun-
teered to meet with the groups and their Mentor Team Leaders periodi-
cally.

Interaction between peer mentors and students

In late August, applicants received letters advising them whether

they had been selected for the Peer Mentorship group. Students who
applied but were not selected were given a list of services and resources
to aid in academic transition, such as a learning skills centre. Students
who were selected were sent an invitation to a Kick-Off event, scheduled
three weeks after the beginning of classes, and were assigned to a Peer
Mentor. Peer Mentors initiated and maintained weekly contact with their
groups, either in person or via e-mail or telephone. Peer Mentors were
instructed not to tutor their first year students, but were instead encour-
aged to share their own experiences of being a first year student in their

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8 S. Rodger & P. F. Tremblay

faculty, and to help first year students prepare for the academic chal-
lenges. This message was reinforced during the training phases and
weekly meetings for Peer Mentors. Team Leaders attended, on a rotating
basis, meetings of each Peer Mentor's group with the goal of introducing
themselves and their expertise/experience to the first-year students and
checking to make sure that tutoring was not being provided by the Peer
Mentors. The withholding of any tutoring was considered to be impor-
tant for two main reasons. First, it was determined early on that one of
the goals of the program was to help students get to know the resources
at the university and develop the study skills necessary for academic
success, and tutoring by the Peer Mentor would interfere with attainment
of these goals. Second, first year students may have expected that,
because they were meeting and receiving tutoring regularly, there might
be a positive impact on their grades, and this expectation might nega-
tively influence their academic success.

Program Features

Peer Mentors met weekly with other Mentors and a Team Leader for
their particular faculty. These meetings were standard across faculties
such that weekly topics followed the flow of the academic year, such as
p r o v i d i n g study tips a b o u t 2 w e e k s b e f o r e the first set of e x a m s .
Following this weekly Team Meeting, Peer Mentors would meet with
their first year students and pass on what they had learned, so that all
attendees were getting basically the same information and resources at
around the same time, across the campus.
Regular activities varied among Peer Mentors, but ranged from reg-
ular weekly meetings featuring study tips and introductions to campus
resources such as library services, to oflf-campus trips to visit profession-
als in their field such as dentists and lawyers (for groups with these pro-
fessions as a shared goal) to e n g a g i n g in volunteer work together.
Students who had a Peer Mentor were encouraged (through modeling
and support from their peer mentor) to take advantage of the many acad-
emic resources available on campus such as learning skills workshops
and library orientation sessions, and to get involved in the campus com-
munity (first t e r m ) and the o f f - c a m p u s c o m m u n i t y (second term).

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 Peer Mentoring and Academic Success 9

Regular activities also included question and answer sessions with fac-
ulty members to inquire about areas of expertise, research interests, and
possibilities for student participation in research projects.

RESULTS

Effects of Peer Mentoring on Academic Performance

A one-way analysis of variance comparing the peer mentoring treat-

ment to the two control groups in terms of average final grade in first year
university courses revealed no significant differences, F (2, 1410) = 1.31.
Mean scores for the three groups were as follows: Peer Mentored Group
(M = 69.71, SD = 9.67), Applicant Control Group (M = 69.32, SD = 11.05),
and Non-applicant Control Group (M = 68.65, SD = 10.68).
In order to control for potential confounding effects of motivation
and previous grades, d i f f e r e n c e s were inspected in these variables
between the Peer Mentored Group and the Applicant Control Group.
The motivation measure, as noted above, was the sum of six scales of
the Academic Motivation Inventory. Data on these variables were not
available for the Non-applicant control group. Table 1 presents the
descriptive statistics for the two groups. N o significant differences were
found between the two groups in motivation, t (1,817) = 1.25, or in pre-
vious grades t (1, 817) = 1.03 (N=983). It should be noted that non-
significant differences in motivation and prior grades were anticipated at
the onset of the study, because participants were randomly assigned to
groups, with equal representation across four motivation levels. Thus the

Table 1
Motivation and Previous Grade Means and Standard Deviations for the
Peer Mentored Group and the Applicant Control Group

Group Motivation Previous Grades

M SD M SD
Peer Mentored Group 66.97 10.95 81.83 5.78
Applicant Control Group 67.77 11.03 82.35 5.96

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10 S. Rodger & P. F. Tremblay

nonsignificant group differences provide a check on the efficiency of

random assignment. Furthermore a second analysis of variance was con-
ducted of the same two groups, entering Motivation and Previous Grades
as covariates. First year grade differences between the Peer Mentored
Group (M = 70.12) and the Applicant Control Group (M = 69.21) were
again non-significant, F ( 1,815) = 2.89.
O n e p o t e n t i a l r e a s o n f o r t h e lack of s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
between groups is participation level in peer mentoring. That is, some
students in the Peer Mentored Group did not attend all the peer men-
tored activities or meet with their peers on a regular basis. In order to
investigate this hypothesis, the Peer Mentored Group was modified to
include only students who had received scores of 4 or 5 out of 5 on
the participation rating. Recall that a score of 4 indicated that students
were meeting their peer mentor at least once per month and a rating of
5 indicated that they met with their peer mentors at least every two
weeks. A total of 231 students obtained scores of 4 or 5. (Of these,
222 provided their final g r a d e s . ) T h i s n e w g r o u p w a s labeled the
Modified Peer Mentor Group. O n e potential c o n f o u n d in selecting
individuals with high participation is motivation. For example, if one
h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e s e l e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e M o d i f i e d Peer
Mentored G r o u p would have higher grades than individuals in the
control groups, the differences may be due to academic motivation
and not necessarily participation in peer mentoring activities. To test
whether motivation was a potential confound we calculated the corre-
lation between participation scores and motivation, and we found a
nonsignificant correlation, r = .06. Furthermore the mean motivation
score for the Modified Peer Mentor Group was 67.74 and did not dif-
fer significantly f r o m the m e a n motivation score of the Applicant
Control Group ( M = 67.77).
This suggested that motivation was not a confound, and an analysis
of variance was conducted c o m p a r i n g the Modified Peer Mentored
group to the two control groups. The analysis revealed significant differ-
ences among the groups (F (2,1126) = 3.29, g < .05). Tukey HSD tests of
group means revealed that the Modified Peer Mentored Group ( M = 70.86,
SD = 9.86) differed significantly from the Non-applicant Control Group

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 Peer Mentoring and Academic Success 11

( M = 68.65, SD = 10.68, a (3, 1126) = 3.63, p < .05), but not from the
Applicant Control Group (M = 69.32, SD = 11.05), a = 2.44, g < .05).

Interaction of Debilitating Anxiety and Peer Mentoring

The impact of debilitating anxiety on academic performance was

also investigated. A median-split debilitating anxiety score was com-
puted. An analysis of variance was conducted with the Anxiety level
Mentoring treatment (Peer Mentoring vs. Applicant Control) as the inde-
pendent variables and academic performance (final grades) as the depen-
dent v a r i a b l e . T h e a n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d a s i g n i f i c a n t a n x i e t y e f f e c t ,
F (1, 828) = 15.52, g < .01. The low Anxiety group had a mean grade of
70.74 (SD = 10.10) while the high Anxiety group had a mean of 68.21
( S D = 10.15). A s i g n i f i c a n t interaction b e t w e e n A n x i e t y and the
Mentoring treatment was also found, F (1, 828) = 6.28, g < .05. Posthoc
tests of m e a n s (Tukey, H S D ) revealed no significant differences in
grades among Low and High Anxiety students in the Peer Mentored
group (<j = 1.55, n.s.), but significant differences in grades among Low

Figure 1
Grade as a function of peer mentoring and anxiety.

76 -i
74 -

72 - Jzl<LLL
70 -

68 -

66 -

64 -

62 -

60
Peer Mentored Group Control Group

Q Low Anxiety | High Anxiety

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12 S. Rodger & P. F. Tremblay

and High Anxiety students in the Control Group (çj = 6.01, p < .01).
Figure 1 illustrates the nature of the mean differences.

The Effect of Peer Mentorship on Retention After First Year

In order to determine whether Peer Mentorship has an effect on post

Year 1 university retention rates, the study investigated the proportions
of students across the three groups (Peer Mentored, Applicant Control,
and Non Applicant Control) who returned to university in the second
year. A Chi square test of independence revealed no significant differ-
ences among the three groups, X2 (2) = 2.08, ns. Proportions of students
in the Peer Mentored, Applicant Control, and Non Applicant Control
who returned to university in the second year were 84.5 %, 81.4%, and
84.4%) respectively.
The above analysis was repeated c o m p a r i n g the Modified Peer
Mentored Group to the two control groups. Recall that the Modified Peer
Mentored Group consists of those students who obtained mentorship
participation scores of 4 or 5. A Chi square test of independence revealed
no significant differences among the three groups, X2 (2) = 2.83, ns.
Proportions of students in the M o d i f i e d Peer M e n t o r e d , A p p l i c a n t
Control, and Non Applicant Control who returned to university in the
second year were 86.1 %, 81.4%, and 84.4% respectively.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

T h e results of this study p r o v i d e d only partial support f o r the

hypothesis that peer mentoring would have a positive effect on achieve-
ment. No support was found for this hypothesis when the Peer Mentored
Group was compared to the two control groups. However, when partici-
pation level among Peer Mentored students was taken into account, a
positive effect was detected. In terms of future research, then, looking
more carefully at participation in this type of research is of paramount
importance. There are clearly individual differences in level of participa-
tion in a peer mentoring program because students are free to attend or
not to attend the organized activities. This study revealed that participa-
tion is not contingent on level of academic motivation, and given that

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 Peer Mentoring and Academic Success 13

students with high levels of participation (Modified Peer Mentor Group)

experienced significantly higher grades, more research is needed to iden-
tify what influences participation.
The results comparing the Peer Mentored Group and the Applicant
Control Group revealed an especially intriguing finding with respect to
the interaction with a student individual difference - debilitating anxiety.
T h e overall n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n x i e t y and a c a d e m i c
achievement reported by Hembree (1988) was supported by the results
in this study, but the interaction between peer mentoring, test anxiety
and achievement may provide an explanation of the ways mentoring can
influence student achievement. In the Peer Mentored Group, students
high in anxiety experienced grades comparable to those of their low anx-
iety counterparts, while in the Applicant Control Group, students with
high a n x i e t y did s i g n i f i c a n t l y w o r s e t h a n low a n x i e t y s t u d e n t s .
Explanations for this interaction could include the possibility of an alle-
viation of anxiety in that peer mentors were encouraged to share per-
sonal experiences regarding their early university studies and academic
success, specifically examples that featured poor academic results and,
later, improved results, suggesting that success may be attributable to
(unstable) effort and persistence and not (stable) ability. Research sup-
ports this possible explanation in so far as the relation between high anx-
iety and locus of control. High anxiety is linked to an external locus of
control (Hembree, 1988), and students with an external locus of control
who receive attributional retraining (where students were exposed to a
professor recounting stories about a bumpy undergraduate career, and
reassured by the professor that he or she had survived and eventually tri-
umphed over academic challenges) achieved grades significantly higher
than that of their external locus of control counterparts who did not
receive attribution retraining (Perry & Penner, 1990).
An explanation for the cognitive influence of mentoring may be that
the first year students received study tips or other cognitive skill training
from their peer mentor. Research suggests that high anxiety students,
compared to their low anxiety counterparts, have lower levels of study
skills (Culler & Holahan, 1980) and information processing skills
(McKeachie, 1984). Further, there is evidence supporting the notion that

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14 5". Rodger & P. F. Tremblay

both information processing and study skills can improve through treat-
ments that include both cognitive-behavioural and study skills instruc-
tion (Hembree, 1988). Finally, the social influence explanation would
hold if it was discovered that first year students in the peer mentoring
program had a greater sense of belonging, or felt more comfortable with
their peer group, and this resulted in lowering the levels of anxiety
among high anxiety students so that this did not have a negative effect
on achievement. Of course, this relationship could be explained by a
combination of some or all of these factors, and none of the possible the-
oretical implications have been ruled out.
One important practical implication of the present study is in terms
of the best use of resources. When academic departments or units are
faced with limited resources and must make choices about which pro-
grams to fund, which students to help, and what outcomes may be influ-
enced, it may be helpful to have information that provides direction and
focus for decision-makers. The present research has promise in its ability
to target students who would benefit most from a peer mentoring pro-
gram, and so use existing resources wisely. In the case where the num-
bers of participants are not limited by resources, it may be important to
know, as was found in this case, that peer mentoring worked particularly
well for some students (i.e. those high in anxiety).
The final point here is that the results of peer mentoring on retention
and academic achievement have only been evaluated in the short-term.
These students will be assessed throughout their entire university educa-
tion, to evaluate the longer term influence of mentoring, as effects may
not emerge until the 2nd, 3rd, or even 4th year of study.
These evaluations are just part of the further research that needs to
be carried out in order to make firm conclusions about mentoring pro-
grams at university. Jacobi (1991) concluded her call for further research
in this area by providing a long list of questions that have yet to be
answered about mentoring and academic outcomes, and reminds us that
until such research is done, the concept of mentoring remains unclear
and imprecise and the effectiveness of mentoring in promoting under-
graduate academic success is assumed rather than d e m o n s t r a t e d . ^

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 Peer Mentoring and Academic Success 15

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Appendix A (Description of motivation measures)

Stimulation Valence. Students who obtain a high score on this scale are
stimulated, excited, and inspired by the academic experience [e.g., "Most of my
school projects have been very stimulating experiences"^), "The lecture mater-
ial presented in courses is very dry"(-)].
Mastery Valence. Students who obtain a high score on this measure recog-
nize and value the development of new skills and knowledge [e.g., "I want to
become a very knowledgeable person"(+), "Learning just for the sake of
becoming more educated is a waste of time"(-)].
Recognition Valence. Students who obtain a high score on this measure
derive satisfaction from the recognition they receive from peers, teachers, par-
ents, and others [e.g., "1 like to impress my teachers"(+), "Recognition in uni-
versity means very little to me"(-)].
Acquisition Valence. Students who obtain a high score on this scale per-
ceive value in academic work for its possible material rewards and future
opportunities [e.g., "I value education because it is the key to my future finan-
cial success"(+), "Money motivates me very little to do well in school" (-)].
Self-Efficacy. Students who obtain a high score on this scale are confident
about their capability to do well in school [e.g., "1 have the ability to be success-
ful in university"(+), "Most of the time I feel insecure about my performance in
schooI"(-)].
Facilitating Anxiety. Students who obtain a high score on this scale are
worried and concerned about their studies and progress. However, they are not
distressed to the point where their attention is sabotaged. Instead, these students

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 Peer Mentoring and Academic Success 17

work harder in order to minimize their anxiety. Facilitating Anxiety is in a

sense, an anxiety induced mobilization of energy, and it is somewhat related to
the concept of conscientiousness in that both constructs involve a component of
responsibility. No negatively-keyed items were included in the scale because it
would be difficult to differentiate negatively-keyed words on this scale from
those on a debilitating anxiety scale [e.g., ''The fear of failing a test makes me
work hard"(+), "A little bit of anxiety really gets me going in my school
work"(+)]-
Debilitating Anxiety. Students who obtain high scores on this dimension
experience fear, worry and uncomfortable arousal during the pursuit of academ-
ic studies to the point at which further academic pursuits may be avoided [e.g.,
"I feel tense most of the time in class"(+), "I get stressed out much less than
other students in schooP'(-)]-
Goal Salience. Students who obtain a high score on this scale set challeng-
ing and clearly defined personal academic goals for themselves or accept those
set by the teacher [e.g., "I like to set goals that make me work hard"(+), "I
approach my school work day to day without planning ahead"(-)].
Effort. Students who obtain a high score on this scale expend a large
amount of energy in their academic work [e.g., "1 work very hard in school"(+),
"1 try to take courses that demand the least amount of work"(-)].
Attention. Students who obtain a high score on this scale are focused, per-
ceptive and vigilant in class [e.g., "I am attentive to everything the teacher men-
tions in class"(+), "I often find myself daydreaming in class"(-)]-
Persistence. Students who obtain a high score on this scale maintain a high
level of effort and attention over an extended period. These students manage to
bounce back quickly from distractions and delays [e.g., "1 have a lot of
endurance when doing school work"(+), "I usually lose interest in a course
when 1 encounter difficulty'X-)].

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