MCE 4311

FLUID MECHANICS - I

Dr. Arafat Ahmed Bhuiyan

Asst Prof, Dept. of Mechanical and production Engineering
Islamic University of Technology (IUT)
Contact: +8801712939252
E-mail: [email protected]
Fluid Flow Concepts
and Basic Equations
Chapter 5-Cengel
 Conservation of Mass
• The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a
change is expressed as msys=constant or dmsys/dt=0, which is the
statement that the mass of the system remains constant during a
process. For a control volume (CV), mass balance is expressed in
rate form as

• In fluid mechanics, the conservation of mass relation written for a

differential control volume is usually called the continuity equation
 Conservation of Momentum
• The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear
momentum or just the momentum of the body, and the momentum of a
rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity 𝑉𝑉 is m𝑉𝑉
• Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of a body is
proportional to the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to
its mass, and that the rate of change of the momentum of a body is
equal to the net force acting on the body
• Therefore, the momentum of a system remains constant only when the net force
acting on it is zero, and thus the momentum of such systems is conserved. This
is known as the conservation of momentum principle
• In fluid mechanics, Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the
linear momentum equation
 Conservation of Energy
• Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work,
and the conservation of energy principle requires that the net
energy transfer to or from a system during a process be equal to the
change in the energy content of the system
• Control volumes involve energy transfer via mass flow also, and the
conservation of energy principle, also called the energy balance, is
expressed as

• In fluid mechanics, we usually limit our consideration to mechanical

forms of energy only
 Control Volume
• A volume in space through whose boundary mass, momentum and
energy can flow. This volume is called control volume, and its boundary
is called control surface.
 Streamline and Stream-tube
• A streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the
instantaneous local velocity vector

• A streamtube consists of a bundle of streamlines much like a

communications cable consists of a bundle of fiber-optic cables
Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
One Dimensional Steady Flow
• The application of the principle of conservation of mass to a steady flow
in a stream-tube results in equation of continuity, which describes the
continuity of the flow from section to section of the stream-tube
• The derivation uses a control volume and the fluid system which just fills
the volume at a particular time t
• Consider the element of a finite stream-tube through which passes the
steady fluid
Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
One Dimensional Steady Flow cont’d

• The location of the control volume as marked by the control surface that
bounds the region between sections 1 and 2 and lies along the inner
wall of the stream tube
• The velocities at sections 1 and 2 are assumed to be uniform and to be
consistent with the assumption of one-dimensional flow
• In the tube near section 1 the cross-sectional area and fluid density are
A1 and ρ1, respectively, and near section 2, A2 and ρ2
Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
One Dimensional Steady Flow cont’d

• With the control surface shown coinciding with the stream tube walls
and the cross sections at 1 and 2, the control volume comprises
volumes I and R.
• Let a fluid system be defined as the fluid within the control volume
(I+R) at time t
• The control volume is fixed in space, but in time dt the system
moves downstream as shown
Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
One Dimensional Steady Flow cont’d

• From the conservation of system mass

• In a steady flow, the fluid properties at

points in space are not functions of time so
(mR)t=(mR)t+dt and, consequently,

• These two terms are easily expressed in

terms of the mass of fluid moving across
the control surface in time dt. The volume
of I is A1ds1, and that of O is A2ds2
 Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
One Dimensional Steady Flow cont’d

• Accordingly,
 Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
Three Dimensional Steady Flow
• Consider an elementary regular fluid parallelopiped with sides dx, dy
and dz. The velocity components in x,y and z directions are u, v, w,
respectively. Let ρ be the density of the fluid within the parallelopiped
• Now, the mass of fluid that enters per
unit time through ABOD is (ρudydz)
• Mass leaving in x direction through the
face EFGH per unit time
 Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
Three Dimensional Steady Flow cont’d

• Mass of fluid that remained in the parallelepiped in x direction per

unit time = inflow through ABCD- outflow through EFGH
 Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
Three Dimensional Steady Flow cont’d

• Since mass of water within the parallelopiped is

neither created nor destroyed
• Any increase of mass of water in this space per unit
time is equal to the net total water mass is
retained in the parallelopiped. Mass of water in the
parallelopiped is (ρ.dx.dy.dz) and rate of increase
with time
 Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
Three Dimensional Steady Flow cont’d

• By definition of conservation of energy (B)=(A)

• Dividing by (dx.dy.dz) and taking the limit that

the parallelopiped shrinks to a point (x,y,z), we
have

Which is the unsteady continuity equation in

compressible flow in three dimension
 Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation-
Three Dimensional Steady Flow cont’d

• If the flow is steady

• Now equation 5.4 becomes

Which is the steady continuity in 3-D for

compressible flow. If the fluid in incompressible
(water), ρ=const.
• Equation 5.5 becomes

Which is the continuity equation of steady flow

in three dimension
 The Bernoulli Equation
• The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible
flow where net frictional forces are negligible
• Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in steady flow.
Applying Newton’s second law (which is referred to as the linear
momentum equation in fluid mechanics) in the s-direction on a particle
moving along a streamline gives
 The Bernoulli Equation cont’d

• In regions of flow where net frictional forces are negligible, there is no

pump or turbine, and there is no heat transfer along the streamline,
the significant forces acting in the s-direction are the pressure (acting
on both sides) and the component of the weight of the particle in the
s-direction (Fig.). Therefore, Eq. 5–35 becomes

• where θ is the angle between the normal of the streamline

and the vertical z-axis at that point, m = ρV = ρdA ds
is the mass, W = mg = ρg dA ds is the weight of the fluid
particle, and sinθ=dz/ds. Substituting,
 The Bernoulli Equation cont’d

• Canceling dA from each term and simplifying,

dP/ρ+gdz+VdV=0
Euler’s equation of
motion

• Since the last two terms are exact differentials. In the case of
incompressible flow, the first term also becomes an exact differential,
and integration gives
 The Bernoulli Equation cont’d

• The Bernoulli equation can also be written between any two points on
the same streamline as

• We recognize V2/2 as kinetic energy, gz as potential energy, and P/ρ as

flow energy, all per unit mass. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation can
be viewed as an expression of mechanical energy balance and can be
stated as follows
 The Bernoulli Equation cont’d

• P is the static pressure (it does not incorporate any dynamic effects);
it represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is
the same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables
• ρV2/2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the pressure rise when
the fluid in motion is brought to a stop isentropically
• ρgz is the hydrostatic pressure term, which is not pressure in a real
sense since its value depends on the reference level selected; it
accounts for the elevation effects
• The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called the
total pressure. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation states that the total
pressure along a streamline is constant
 The Bernoulli Equation cont’d

• The sum of the static and dynamic pressures is called

the stagnation pressure, and it is expressed as

• The stagnation pressure represents the pressure at a

point where the fluid is brought to a complete stop
isentropically. The static, dynamic, and stagnation
pressures are shown in Fig.
• When static and stagnation pressures are measured
at a specified location, the fluid velocity at that
location is calculated from
 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy
Grade Line (EGL)
• It is often convenient to represent the level of mechanical energy
graphically using heights to facilitate visualization of the various terms
of the Bernoulli equation. This is done by dividing each term of the
Bernoulli equation by g to give

• P/ρg is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column

that produces the static pressure P.
• V2/2g is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a
fluid to reach the velocity V during frictionless free fall
• z is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid
• Also, H is the total head for the flow
 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy
Grade Line (EGL) cont’d

• If a piezometer (which measures static pressure) is tapped into a

pressurized pipe, as shown in Fig., the liquid would rise to a height of
P/ρg above the pipe center. The hydraulic grade line (HGL) is obtained
by doing this at several locations along the pipe and drawing a curve
through the liquid levels in the piezometers. The vertical distance above
the pipe center is a measure of pressure within the pipe
 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy
Grade Line (EGL) cont’d

• Similarly, if a Pitot tube (measures static + dynamic pressure) is

tapped into a pipe, the liquid would rise to a height of P/ρg + V2/2g
above the pipe center, or a distance of V2/2g above the HGL. The energy
grade line (EGL) is obtained by doing this at several locations along the
pipe and drawing a curve through the liquid levels in the Pitot tubes
 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy
Grade Line (EGL) cont’d

• Noting that the fluid also has elevation head z (unless the reference
level is taken to be the centerline of the pipe), the HGL and EGL are
defined as follows: The line that represents the sum of the static
pressure and the elevation heads, P/ρg + z, is called the hydraulic
grade line. The line that represents the total head of the fluid, P/ρg +
V2/2g + z, is called the energy grade line. The difference between the
heights of EGL and HGL is equal to the dynamic head, V2/2g
 Problem 1
• Water is flowing from a garden hose (Fig. 5–39). A
child places his thumb to cover most of the hose
outlet, causing a thin jet of high-speed water to
emerge. The pressure in the hose just upstream of
his thumb is 400 kPa. If the hose is held upward,
what is the maximum height that the jet could
achieve?
• Assumptions 1 The flow exiting into the air is
steady, incompressible, and irrotational (so that the
Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The surface
tension effects are negligible. 3 The friction between
the water and air is negligible. 4 The irreversibilities
that occur at the outlet of the hose due to abrupt
contraction are not taken into account
Problem 1 cont’d
 Problem 2
• A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with
water to a height of 5 m from the outlet tap (Fig.).
A tap near the bottom of the tank is now opened,
and water flows out from the smooth and rounded
outlet. Determine the maximum water velocity at
the outlet
• Assumptions 1 The flow is incompressible and
irrotational (except very close to the walls). 2 The
water drains slowly enough that the flow can be
approximated as steady (actually quasi-steady
when the tank begins to drain). 3 Irreversible
losses in the tap region are neglected
Problem 2 cont’d
 Problem 3
• A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal
water pipe, as shown in Fig., to measure static and stagnation
(static 1 dynamic) pressures. For the indicated water column
heights, determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.
Problem 3 cont’d
 Problems
• Water is flowing at the rate of 0.03 m3/s through a tapered pipe having
diameters 189 mm and 90 mm at section 1 and 2 respectively. The
section 1 is 6.5 m above datum and section 2 is 4.5 m above datum. If
the pressure at section 1 is equal to 400 kPa, find the intensity of
pressure at section 2.
• A certain oil of specific gravity 0.82 is flowing through a pipeline as
shown in the fig. The flow rate of oil is 60 l/s and the head loss between
point 1 and 2 is 1.5 m of oil. If the pressure at point 1 is 450 kPa, find
the pressure at point 2.
• Water is flowing at the rate of 310 m3/h through a turbine, which is
developing 15 kW. Find the height H, considering no head loss.
 Problems cont’d

• Water is pumping at the rate of 50 l/s from a tank. The pump delivers 9
kW of power to the flow. Find
i. The pressure at point 2 and 3 considering no loss
ii. The pressure at point 3 if a total loss equal to 2 times the velocity head
at point 3 takes place
• Find flow rate of water if the pump develops 5 Kw on the flow. The
deflection in the mercury manometer is 1 m.