ENG1015

Design and Manufacturing 1

Manufacturing

Dr Peifeng Li
(Office: RM430, JWS)

January 2024

Jan 2024 1
 Schedule
• Manufacturing – Peifeng Li
– Lectures in Weeks 1 to 5
– Laboratory in Week 5 or 6
– Tutorial questions
– Scheduled consultation hours: Wednesday afternoon
(RM430, JWS)

• Machine elements – Tijana Vuletic

– Lectures in Weeks 6 to 10
– Laboratory in Week 10 or 11

Jan 2024 2
 Assessment
• Final examination (April/May): 80%
– Manufacturing: 40%
– Machine elements: 40%

• Practical exercise and report: 20%

– Manufacturing: 10%
– Machine elements: 10%

• Types of questions in exam – Manufacturing

– Short-answer questions (make your answers clear
and short!)

Jan 2024 3
 Course content
• Manufacturing
– Metal casting
– Metal forming
– Machining
– Welding
– Powder metallurgy

Jan 2024 4
 Recommended Textbooks
• MP Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing, Wiley.
– This textbook is the main reference,
with online version available through
library – Reading Lists @ Glasgow.

• Other references
– MP Groover, Principles of Modern
Manufacturing, Wiley.
– MP Groover, Introduction to
Manufacturing Processes, Wiley.
– S Kalpakjian and SR Schmid,
Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology, Pearson.
– S Kalpakjian and SR Schmid,
Manufacturing Processes for
Engineering Materials, Pearson.

Jan 2024 5
 How is a forged aluminium wheel manufactured?

Aluminium bar

Forging Flow forming

CNC machining 1 CNC machining 2 CNC machining 3

Finished wheel
Jan 2024 6
 What is manufacturing?
• Derived from Latin: Manus (hand) + factus (make)
• Technical process: apply physical and/or chemical processes
to alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a
starting material to make parts or products.
• Economic process: transform materials into items of greater
value by one or more processing and/or assembly
operations.

Jan 2024 7
 Materials in manufacturing
• Four basic categories of engineering materials:
– Metals
– Ceramics
– Polymers
– Composites

• Materials are inextricably linked to the choice of

manufacturing process.

Jan 2024 8
 Classification of manufacturing processes
Solidification
processes

Particulate
processing
Shaping
processes
Deformation
processes
Processing
operations Material removal

Property
Manufacturing Heat treatment
enhancing
processes
Cleaning and
surface treatments
Surface
Assembly processing
operations Coating and
(next slide) deposition process
Jan 2024 9
 Classification of manufacturing processes

Shaping …
processes Alter the geometry of the
Processing
starting work material.
operations
(previous slide)
Welding

Manufacturing
Brazing and
processes
Permanent soldering
joining
Adhesive bonding
Assembly
operations
Threaded
fasteners
Mechanical
fastening
Permanent
fastening methods

Jan 2024 10
 Solidification processes
• Casting and moulding processes start with a work
material heated to a fluid or semifluid state.
• (1) Pour the fluid into a mould cavity and (2) allow the
fluid to solidify, after which the solid part is removed from
the mould.

Jan 2024 11
 Deformation processes
• The starting workpart is a ductile solid that is shaped by
the application of forces exceeding the yield strength.
• Examples: (a) forging and (b) extrusion.

Jan 2024 12
 Material removal processes
• The starting material is a solid (ductile or brittle), from
which material is removed so that the resulting part has
the desired geometry.
• Examples: machining such as (a) turning, (b) drilling and
(c) milling; grinding and non-traditional machining.

Jan 2024 13
 Particulate processes
• The starting material is powder.
• The common process consists of pressing and sintering.

Jan 2024 14
 Welding processes
• Two or more parts are coalesced at their contact surfaces
by the application of heat and/or pressure.
• Examples: arc welding, resistance welding.

Jan 2024 15
 Summary
• How a part is manufactured is an essential consideration
during the design process, and is strongly linked to the
choice of materials.

• Suggested reading:
– Chapter 1 in Groover’s “Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing” (or relevant chapters in Groover’s
other textbooks)

Jan 2024 16
 ENG1015

Design and Manufacturing 1

Manufacturing

Topic 1: Metal Casting

January 2024

Jan 2024 17
 Metal Casting: Objectives
• Casting process

• Fundamentals of metal casting

– Features of a mould, heating and pouring,
solidification and cooling, shrinkage

• Sand casting
• Other expendable-mould casting
• Permanent-mould casting

• Cast defects
• Product design considerations

Jan 2024 18
 Casting
• Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by
gravity or other force into a mould where it solidifies in
the shape of the mould cavity.

• The principle of casting:

– Melt the metal,
– Pour it into a mould,
– Let it cool and solidify.

• All variety of metals can

be cast, ferrous or nonferrous.

Jan 2024 19
 Advantages and disadvantages
• Capabilities and advantages
– Can create complex part
geometries.
– Can create both external and
internal shapes.
– Net shape or near net shape.
– Can produce very large parts.
– Some casting methods are suited to
mass production.
• Disadvantages
– Limitation on mechanical properties.
– Poor dimensional accuracy and
surface finish for some processes.
– Safety hazards to humans when
processing hot molten metals.
– Environment problems.

Jan 2024 20
 Casting processes
• Sand casting process as an example
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCyaJ8Q76U8

Jan 2024 21
 The mould in casting
• The mould contains a cavity
whose geometry determines
the shape of the cast part.

• The actual size and shape of

the cavity must be slightly
oversized to allow for shrinkage
that occurs in the metal during
solidification and cooling and
for machining allowances.

• Moulds are made of a variety of

materials, including sand,
plaster, ceramic and metal.

Jan 2024 22
 Classification of casting processes
Two broad categories according to type of mould:
• Expendable-mould casting
– The mould must be destroyed to remove the casting.
– Mould materials: sand, plaster, wax etc.
– Examples: sand casting, investment casting.
– More complex shapes are possible, but production rates
are limited.

• Permanent-mould casting
– The mould can be used over and over to produce many
castings.
– Mould materials: metals (or less commonly, a ceramic
refractory material).
– Examples: die casting, low-pressure casting.
– Shapes are limited by the need to open the mould, but
production rates are high.

Jan 2024 23
 Sand casting moulds

The basic features of a mould are

detailed in the next two slides.
Jan 2024 24
 Sand casting moulds
• Mould
– Mould consists of cope (upper half) and drag (bottom half).
– The two halves are contained in a box (flask), and
separate at the parting line.

• Cavity
– The cavity defines the external surfaces of a cast part.
– It is formed by packing sand around a pattern. The pattern
is usually made oversized (why?).
– Sand for the mould is moist and contains a binder to
maintain its shape.

• Core
– The core defines the internal surfaces of a cast part.
– It is placed inside the mould to define the interior geometry
of the part.

Jan 2024 25
 Sand casting moulds
• Gating system
– The gating system is the channel (or network of channels),
by which the molten metal flows into the cavity from
outside the mould.
– It typically consists of a downsprue, through which the
metal enters a runner that leads to the main cavity.
– At the top of the downsprue, a pouring cup is often used to
minimise splash and turbulence.

• Riser
– The riser connected to the main cavity is a reservoir in the
mould that serves as a source of liquid metal to
compensate for shrinkage during solidification.
– It must be designed to freeze after the main casting.

Jan 2024 26
 Heating and pouring
• Heating the metal
– Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to a molten
temperature sufficient for casting.
– The heat energy required is the sum of
• Heat to raise the temperature to the melting point
• Heat of fusion to convert the metal from solid to liquid
• Heat to raise the molten metal to the pouring
temperature

• Pouring the molten metal

– The metal must flow into all regions of the mould before
solidifying.
– Factors affecting pouring: pouring temperature, pouring
rate and turbulence.

Jan 2024 27
 Solidification of metals
• Solidification differs depending on whether the metal is a
pure element or an alloy.

A pure metal solidifies at a Most alloys freeze over a

constant temperature. temperature range, which
depends on the alloy system
and composition.
Jan 2024 28
 Solidification time
• Total solidification time TTS is the time taken between
pouring and complete solidification.
• It is dependent on the size and shape of the casting by
an empirical relationship (Chvorinov’s rule).
n
V 
TTS = Cm  
 A
– V = volume of the casting;
– A = surface area of casting;
– n = exponent usually taken to have a value = 2;
– Cm = mould constant, which depends on thermal
properties of mould material and casting metal.

Jan 2024 29
 What Chvorinov’s rule tells us?
• A casting with a higher V/A ratio cools and solidifies more
slowly than one with a lower ratio.

• Its use in riser design (details in the next slides)

– To feed molten metal to main cavity, TTS for riser must
be greater than TTS for main casting.
– Since mould constants of riser and casting are equal,
design the riser to have a larger V/A ratio so that the
main casting solidifies first and the effects of
shrinkage are minimised.
• Its use in directional solidification control (details in the
next slides)

Jan 2024 30
 Shrinkage during solidification and cooling
• Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting:
(0) Starting level of molten metal immediately after pouring;
(1) Reduction in level caused by liquid contraction during
cooling;

Dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity.

Jan 2024 31
 Shrinkage during solidification and cooling
(2) Reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity
caused by solidification shrinkage;
(3) Further reduction in height and diameter due to thermal
contraction during cooling of the solid metal.

Note: solidification shrinkage occurs in nearly all metals

Jan 2024 because solid phase has a higher density than liquid phase. 32
 Directional solidification and riser design
• Directional solidification
– To minimise the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is
desirable for regions of the casting most distant from the
liquid metal supply to freeze first and for solidification to
progress from these remote regions towards the riser(s).
– This is achieved by observing Chvorinov’s rule. E.g., locate
sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from the
riser.
• Riser design
– The geometry of a riser is normally selected to maximise
the V/A ratio. (details in Chvorinov’s rule)
– It is also desirable to reduce the riser volume V to minimise
waste in production.
– Note, the connection between the riser and the main cavity
must be designed such that it does not freeze before the
casting.

Jan 2024 33
 Sand casting

Sand Raw metal

Core making Preparation of

Melting
(if needed) sand

Pattern
Mould making Pouring
making

Solidification
• Nearly all alloys can be sand cast. and cooling
• Versality – wide range in part size
and production quantities. Removal of
• Sand casting includes not only the sand mould
casting operation itself, but also
pattern making and mould making. Cleaning and
inspection

Jan 2024 34
 Patterns
• A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account
for shrinkage and machining allowances (if any).
• Pattern materials: wood, plastics and metals.
• Types of patterns used in sand casting:

Solid Split Match-plate Cope-and-drag

pattern pattern pattern pattern

Jan 2024 35
 Cores
• Full-scale model of the internal surface of the part.
– It is inserted into the mould prior to pouring
– The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mould
cavity and the core to form the casting’s external and
internal surfaces.
– It may require supports to hold it in position in the mould
cavity during pouring, called chaplets.

Possible
chaplet
design

Jan 2024 36
 Sands
• Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals.
• Good refractory properties for high temperatures.
• Other important features of sands include grain size, size
distribution and grain shape.
– Small grain size provides a better surface finish on the
cast part.
– Large grain size is more permeable to allow escape of
gases during pouring.
– Irregular grain shape strengthens the mould due to
interlocking.

• Sands are held together by a mixture of water and clay

(typically 90% sand, 3% water and 7% clay by volume).

Jan 2024 37
 Quality of sand moulds
• Desired sand mould properties:
– Strength: to maintain shape and resist erosion.
– Permeability: to allow hot air and gases to pass through
voids in the sand.
– Thermal stability: to resist cracking and buckling on
contact with the molten metal.
– Collapsibility: ability to give way and allow casting to shrink
without cracking the casting; ability to remove the sand
from the casting during cleaning.
– Reusability: to reuse the sand to make other moulds.

• Sand moulds are classified as:

– Green-sand mould – contains moisture at time of pouring.
– Dry-sand mould – uses organic binders and is baked.
– Skin-dried moulds – cavity surfaces is dried to a depth.

Jan 2024 38
 Other expendable-mould casting processes
• Shell moulding
– The mould is a thin shell of sand held by thermosetting resin.
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU4_8T8Jt3I

• Expanded polystyrene process (lost foam process)

– The polystyrene foam pattern vaporises (is lost) when the molten
metal is poured into the mould.
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GYht8qVcbUs

• Investment casting (lost wax process)

– The wax pattern is melted away (lost) prior to pouring the molten
metal.
– See next slides

• Plaster-mould casting and ceramic-mould casting

– Similar to sand casting except that the mould is made of plaster
or ceramic materials.

Jan 2024 39
 Investment casting
• A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material
to make the mould, after which the wax is melted away
prior to pouring the molten metal.
• Also known as the lost wax casting.
• It is a precision casting process – capable of making
castings of high accuracy and intricate detail.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S4WuKJF_76c

Jan 2024 40
 Investment casting: steps
1) Wax patterns are produced.
2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a tree.
3) The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory
material – a slurry of very fine-grained silica or other
refractory mixed with plaster.
4) The full model is formed by covering the coated tree with
sufficient refractory material to make it rigid.

Jan 2024 41
 Investment casting: steps
5) The mould is held in an inverted position and heated to melt
the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity.
6) The mould is preheated to a high temperature, the molten
melt is poured, and it solidifies.
7) The mould is broken away from the finished casting, and
parts are separated from the sprue.

Jan 2024 42
 Investment casting: advantages and disadvantages
• Advantages
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast.
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish.
– Wax can be recovered for reuse.
– A net shape process – additional machining is not normally
required.
– All types of metals, including high temperature alloys, can
be investment cast.
• Disadvantages
– A relatively expensive
process as many steps
are involved.
– Investment castings
are normally small in size.

A 2-inch long high-pressure

turbine blade
Jan 2024 43
 Permanent-mould casting process
• Basic permanent-mould (gravity) casting process
– The flow of molten melt into cavity is caused by gravity.
– See next slides

• Low-pressure casting
– The molten metal is forced into cavity under low pressure.
– See next slides

• Die casting
– The molten metal is forced into cavity under high pressure.
– See next slides

• Squeeze casting and semisolid metal casting

• Centrifugal casting

Jan 2024 44
 Basic permanent-mould casting
• Permanent-mould casting uses a metal mould
constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise
opening and closing.
– Moulds used for casting lower melting-point alloys
(e.g., Al, Mg, Cu alloys) are commonly made of steel
or cast iron.
– Moulds used for casting steels must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures.
• Metal cores can be used. If withdrawal of a metal core
would be difficult, sand cores can be used (also called
semipermanent-mould casting) – see the beginning in
the video below.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0xJMKH2Vxc

Jan 2024 45
 Basic permanent-mould casting: steps
1) The mould is preheated and coated.
– Preheating facilitates metal flow.
– Coatings aid heat dissipation and lubricate the mould
surfaces for easier separation of the cast part.

Jan 2024 46
 Basic permanent-mould casting: steps
2) Cores (if used) are inserted, and the mould is closed.
3) Molten metal is poured into the mould where it solidifies.
4) (Not in figure) As soon as the metal solidifies, the mould is
opened and the casting is removed. This is to prevent cracks
from developing in the casting due to cooling contraction.

Jan 2024 47
 Basic permanent-mould casting
• Advantages
– Close dimensional control and
good surface finish.
– More rapid solidification caused
by metal mould results in a finer
grain structure, so stronger
castings are produced.
• Disadvantages Automotive cylinder
– Generally limited to lower
melting-point metals.
– Simple part geometries
compared to sand casting
because of the need to open the
mould.
– High cost of mould (thus suited to
high volume production).
Automotive piston
Jan 2024 48
 Low-pressure casting
• The liquid metals is forced into the mould cavity under
low pressure (approx. 0.1 MPa) from beneath.
• Advantages: clean molten metals from the centre of the
ladle is introduced, thus gas porosity and oxidation
defects are minimised (improved mechanical properties)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4FUBQfLDW4

Jan 2024 49
 Die casting
• The molten metal is injected into the mould cavity under
high pressure (typically 7 to 350 MPa).
– The pressure is maintained during solidification, after
which the mould is opened and the part is removed
(why?).
– Moulds in this casting operation are called dies.
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1543I_5XMJo

• Die casting machines are

designed to hold and accurately
close the two halves of the
mould and keep them close
while the liquid metal is forced
into the cavity.
– Hot-chamber machines
– Cold-chamber machines

Jan 2024 50
 Hot-chamber die casting
• Metal is melted in an internal container attached to the
machine, and a piston injects the liquid metal under high
pressure (typically 7 to 35 MPa) into the die cavity.

• High production rate – 500 parts per hours are not

uncommon.
• Applications are limited to lower melting-point metals that
do not chemically attack the plunger and other
mechanical components.
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead and magnesium.

Jan 2024 51
 Hot-chamber die casting: steps
1) With the die closed and the plunger withdrawn, molten metal
flows into the chamber.
2) The plunger forces metal in the chamber to flow into the die,
maintaining the pressure during cooling and solidification.
3) (Not in figure) The plunger is withdrawn, the die is open and
the solidified part is ejected.

Jan 2024 52
 Cold-chamber die casting
• Molten metal from an external melting container is
poured into an unheated chamber, and a piston injects
the metal under high pressure (typically 14 to 140 MPa)
into the die cavity.

• Still high production process (although cycle rate lower

than hot-chamber die casting).
• Casting metals: aluminium, brass, magnesium alloys.

Jan 2024 53
 Cold-chamber die casting: steps
1) With the die closed
and the ram
withdrawn, molten
metal is poured into
the chamber.
2) The ram forces metal
to flow into the die,
maintaining the
pressure during
cooling and
solidification.
3) (Not in figure) The
ram is withdrawn, the
die is opened and the
part is ejected.

Jan 2024 54
 Moulds for die casting
• Materials for moulds (dies)
– Usually made of tool steel, mould steel or maraging
steel.
– Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
are used when steel and cast iron are die cast.

• Ejector pins are required to remove the part from the die
when it opens.
• Lubricants must be sprayed onto the cavity to prevent
sticking.
• Venting holes and passageways must be built into the
dies at the parting line to evacuate the air and gases in
the cavity.

Jan 2024 55
 Die casting: advantages and disadvantages
• Advantages
– Economical for large production
quantities.
– Close dimensional control and
good surface finish.
– Thin sections are possible, down
to 0.5 mm.
– Rapid cooling provides small
grain size and good strength to
the casting.
• Disadvantages
– Generally limited to lower A die casting that measures
melting-point metals. about 400 mm diagonally
– Part geometry must allow for for a truck cab floor
removal from the die.

Jan 2024 56
 Casting quality
• Misrun: a casting solidifies before completely filling the
mould cavity.
• Cold shut: two portions of the metal flow together but
there is a lack of fusion due to premature freezing.
• Cold shot: metal splatters during pouring; consequently
solid globules form and become entrapped in the casting.

Jan 2024 57
 Casting quality
• Shrinkage cavity: a depression in the surface or internal
voids in the casting, caused by solidification shrinkage.
• Microporosity: a network of small voids distributed within
the casting caused by localised solidification shrinkage or
gases (entrapped or released due to solubility limit).
• Hot tearing: the casting is restrained from contraction by
an unyielding mould.

Jan 2024 58
 Product design considerations
• Geometric simplicity
– Although casting can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design usually improves
castability.
– Avoid unnecessary complexities.
– Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, because
they are sources of stress concentrations and may cause
hot tearing and cracks.
– Section thickness should be uniform to avoid shrinkage
cavities.

Jan 2024 59
 Product design considerations
– Drafts facilitate the removal of pattern from mould in
expendable-mould casting, as well as the removal of part
from mould in permanent-mould casting.
– Design change can reduce the need for coring.

Jan 2024 60
 Product design considerations
• Dimensional tolerance and surface finish
– Dimensional accuracy and finish vary significantly,
depending on which casting process is used.

• Machining allowances
– Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the
required dimensions and part features.
– Additional material, called the machining allowance, is left
on the casting in those surfaces where machining is
necessary.
– Typical machining allowances for sand castings range
between 1.5 and 3 mm.

Jan 2024 61
 Summary
• Casting is one of the most versatile of all manufacturing
processes. Its principle involves: melt the metal, pour it
into a mould and let it cool and solidify.
• Metal casting processes divide into two categories,
based on mould type: expendable-mould casting and
permanent-mould casting.
• Casting operations result in defects in the product.
Certain design guidelines should be followed to improve
castability and avoid/minimise defects.

• Suggested reading:
– Chapters 7 and 8 in Groover’s “Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing” (or relevant chapters in
Groover’s other textbooks)

Jan 2024 62
 ENG1015

Design and Manufacturing 1

Manufacturing

Topic 2: Metal Forming

January 2024

Jan 2024 63
 Metal Forming: Objectives
• Metal forming

• Fundamentals of metal forming

– Material behaviour, flow stress, temperature effects –
cold/warm/hot work

• Bulk deformation process

– Rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing

• Sheet metalworking
– Bending, shearing (cutting), drawing

Jan 2024 64
 Metal forming
• A large group of manufacturing processes in which
plastic deformation is used to change the shape of metal
workpieces.
– The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal.
– The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry
of the die.

Jan 2024 65
 Two basic categories

Rolling
processes

Forging
Bulk processing
deformation
Extrusion
processes

Metal Wire and bar

forming drawing

Bending
operations

Sheet Deep or cup

metalworking drawing

Shearing
processes
Jan 2024 66
 Basic bulk deformation processes

Forging
Rolling

Extrusion Drawing
Jan 2024 67
 Basic sheet metalworking processes

Bending Drawing

Shearing (cutting): (1) as punch first contacts

sheet, and (2) after cutting.
Jan 2024 68
 Stresses in metal forming
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually
compressive.
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion.
• However, some forming processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses) – e.g., wire
drawing and bar drawing
– Bend the metal (tensile and compressive stresses) –
e.g., sheet metal bending
– Apply shear stresses – e.g., sheet metal shearing
(cutting)

Jan 2024 69
 Material behaviour in metal forming
• The plastic region of stress–strain
curves is of primary interest because
the material is plastically deformed.
• The metal’s behaviour in the plastic
region is expressed by the flow curve
based on true stress and true strain:
 = K n
– K: strength coefficient
– n: strain hardening exponent
• Desired material properties for metal
forming:
– Low yield strength
– High ductility log 𝜎 = log 𝐾 + 𝑛log 𝜀

Jan 2024 70
 Flow stress
• For most metals at room temperature, the strength increases
with deformation due to strain hardening.
• Flow stress Yf is the instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material (to keep the metal “flowing”).
It is the yield strength as a function of strain.
Yf = K n
• Instantaneous flow stress is used to
analyse some forming operations
T1
(e.g., forging) – forces and power.
• Average flow stress is used in other T2>T1
forming processes (e.g., rolling).
K n T2
Yf =
1+ n
– Determined by integrating the
flow curve equation.
True strain

Jan 2024 71
 Temperature in metal forming
• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on
temperature. Both strength and strain hardening are
reduced at higher temperature.
– Any deformation operation can be accomplished with
lower forces and power at elevated temperatures.
• Ductility is increased at higher temperature.
– Greater plastic deformation can be achieved at higher T.

• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:

– Cold working (at RT or below 0.3Tm)
– Warm working (>0.3Tm, and below recrystallization
temperature)
– Hot working (above recrystallization temperature, usually
0.5Tm<T<0.75Tm)

Jan 2024 72
 Bulk deformation
• Metal forming operations which cause significant shape
change by deforming metal parts.
• The initial form of metal parts is bulk (i.e., a low surface
area-to-volume ratio) rather than sheet.
– Cylindrical bars and billets
– Rectangular billets and slabs
– And similar geometries
• These processes stress the metal
sufficiently to cause plastic flow into
the desired shape.

• Performed as cold, warm and hot

working operations.

Jan 2024 73
 Importance of bulk deformation
• In hot working, significant
shape change can be
achieved.

• In cold working, strength is T1

increased (due to strain T2>T1
hardening) during shape
change. T2

• Little or no waste is produced.

Some operations are near net
shape or net shape processes True strain
(little or no subsequent
machining is required).

Jan 2024 74
 Rolling
• Deformation process in which the thickness of the work is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
• Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
– Pull the work into the gap between them by friction
between the work part and rolls.
– Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross
section.
• Types of rolling – workpiece geometry
– Flat rolling – used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross
section
– Shape rolling – square cross section is formed into a shape such
as an I-beam
• Types of rolling – work temperature
– Hot rolling – can achieve
significant deformation
– Cold rolling – produces
sheet and plate stock

Jan 2024 75
 Rolling

Intermediate rolled form Final rolled form

Jan 2024 76
 Rolling mill
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KR
n73gKQ2YU
• Equipment is massive and expensive.
• Rolling mill configurations:

Two-high Three-high Four-high

Cluster mill Tandem rolling mill

Jan 2024 77
 Forging
• Deformation process in which the
work is compressed between two
dies, using either impact or gradual
pressure to form the part.
• Forged products:
– High-strength components, such
as engine crankshafts,
connecting rods, gears.
– Basic metal industries use
forging to establish shape of
large parts that are then
machined to final geometry and
size.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j
F7G0feKMSA
Forged steel crankshafts
Jan 2024 78
 Classification of forging operations
• Cold vs. hot or warm forging – work
temperature
– Hot or warm forging – advantage:
significant deformation, reduction
in strength and increase in
ductility of the work metal.
– Cold forging – advantage:
increased strength due to strain
hardening
• Impact vs. press forging – the type of
equipment
– Forge hammer – applies an
impact load
– Forge press – applies gradual
force

Jan 2024 79
 Classification of forging operations
a) Open-die forging – the work is
compressed between two flat (or
almost flat) dies, allowing the metal to
flow laterally with minimum constraint.
b) Impression-die forging – the die
surfaces contain cavity or impression
that is imparted to the work part.
– Metal flow is constrained so that
flash is created.
c) Flashless forging – work part is
completely constrained in the dies.
– No excess flash is created.

Jan 2024 80
 Extrusion
• Compression forming process in
which the work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a
desired cross-sectional shape.
• Process is similar to squeezing
toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube.
• In general, extrusion is used to
produce long parts of uniform cross
sections.
• Two basic types:
– Direct extrusion
– Indirect extrusion
• Another classification is by work
temperature: cold, warm or hot
extrusion.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7
5IQksBb0M Aluminium profiles

Jan 2024 81
 Direct extrusion
• Direct extrusion is also called forward extrusion.
• Starting billet is usually round in cross section.
• Final cross-sectional shape of the product is determined by
the die opening.
• As the ram approaches the die opening, a small portion of the
billet remains that cannot be forced through the die.
– This portion, called the butt, must be separated from the
product by cutting it off just beyond the die exit.

The metal flows through

an opening in a die at the
opposite end of the
container (in the same
direction as the motion of
the ram).

Jan 2024 82
 Direct extrusion
• Hollow (e.g., tube) or semi-hollow sections are possible in
direct extrusion.
– The metal flows through the clearance between the
mandrel and the die opening.

Jan 2024 83
 Indirect extrusion
• Indirect extrusion is also called backward extrusion and
reverse extrusion.
– The metal flows in a direction opposite to the motion of the
ram. (Note: the die is mounted to the ram.)
• Limitation of indirect extrusion is imposed by
– Lower rigidity of the hollow ram.
– Difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exits the
die.

Solid cross section Hollow cross section

No friction at the container walls
Jan 2024 84
 Advantages of extrusion
• A variety of shapes are possible, especially in hot extrusion.
– Limitation: part cross section must be uniform through the
length.
• Grain structure and strength are enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion.
• Close tolerances are possible, especially in cold extrusion.
• In some extrusion operations, little or no waste of materials.

A complex extruded cross

section for a heat sink

Jan 2024 85
 Wire and bar drawing
• Cross section of a bar, rod or wire is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening.
• Similar to extrusion except that the work is pulled through the
die in drawing. (Note: the work is pushed through the die in
extrusion)
• Although drawing applies tensile stresses, compression also
plays a significant role because the metal is squeezed as it
passes through the die opening.

Jan 2024 86
 Bar drawing vs. wire drawing
• Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is stock
size.
– Bar drawing – large diameter bar and rod stock
– Wire drawing – small diameter stock – wire sizes down to
0.03 mm are possible.
• Although the mechanics are the same, the methods,
equipment and even terminology are different.

Jan 2024 87
 Drawing practice and products
• Drawing practice:
– Performed as cold working.
– Most frequently used for round cross sections.
• Products:
– Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers
and shopping carts.
– Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets and springs.
– Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging and other
processes

Jan 2024 88
 Wire drawing
• Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies
(typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums.
• Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw the wire
stock through the upstream die.
• Each die provides a small reduction, so the desired total
reduction is achieved by the series of dies.
• Annealing is sometimes required between dies to relieve work
hardening.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlWkz9hjASo

Jan 2024 89
 Sheet metalworking
• Forming and cutting operations performed on relatively
thin sheets of metal (i.e., a high surface area-to-volume
ratio).
– Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm to 6 mm.
– Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm.
• Operations are usually performed as cold working.
• Often called pressworking because these operations are
performed on presses (the machines).
– Usual tooling: punch and die.
– Parts are called stampings.
• Three basic sheet metal operations:
– Bending: strain a metal sheet or plate to take an angle
along a (usually) straight axis.
– Deep drawing: deform a flat metal sheet into a hollow or
concave shape by stretching the metal.
– Shearing: cut the sheet metal using a punch and die.

Jan 2024 90
 Basic sheet metalworking processes

Bending Drawing

Shearing (cutting): (1) as punch first A typical car body has >400
contacts sheet, and (2) after cutting. sheet metal parts made by
Jan 2024
forming. 91
 Cold working: advantages and disadvantages
• Advantages
– Better accuracy, closer tolerances.
– Better surface finish.
– Strain hardening increases strength and hardness.
– Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product.
– No heating of work is required.
– These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes. (Minimum or no machining usually required.)
• Disadvantages
– Higher forces and power required for deformation.
– Starting work surfaces must be free of scale and dirt.
– Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming
that can be done. (In some cases, the metal must be
annealed to allow further deformation. In other cases, the
metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked.)

Jan 2024 92
 Warm working: advantages and disadvantages
• Advantages
– Lower forces and power than in cold working.
– More intricate work geometries possible.
– Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated.
• Disadvantages
– Workpiece must be heated.

Jan 2024 93
 Why hot working?
• Capability for substantial plastic deformation – far more
than possible by cold working or warm working.
• Why?
– Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at
room temperature.
– Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically).
– Ductility is significantly increased.

Jan 2024 94
 Hot working: advantages and disadvantages
• Advantages
– Work part shape can be significantly altered.
– Lower forces and power required.
– Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot
formed.
– Strength properties of product are generally isotropic.
– No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening.
(This is advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming.)
• Disadvantages
– Lower dimensional accuracy.
– Higher total energy required (= the thermal energy needed
to heat the workpiece + energy to deform the metal).
– Work surface oxidation (scale), thus poorer surface finish.
– Shorter tool life.
Jan 2024 95
 Summary
• In metal forming, plastic deformation is used to change
the shape of metal workpieces.
• Desired properties include low yield strength and high
ductility. These properties are affected by temperature
(and strain rate).
• Bulk deformation processes refine the starting shapes,
sometime improving mechanical properties, and always
adding values.

• Suggested reading:
– Chapters 14, 15 and 16 in Groover’s “Fundamentals
of Modern Manufacturing” (or relevant chapters in
Groover’s other textbooks)

Jan 2024 96
 ENG1015

Design and Manufacturing 1

Manufacturing

Topic 3: Machining

January 2024

Jan 2024 97
 Machining: Objectives
• Material removal processes

• Machining processes
– Turning, drilling, milling

• Cutting tool and cutting conditions

Jan 2024 98
 Material removal processes
• A family of shaping operations, the common feature of
which is the removal of material from a starting work part
so that the remaining part has the desired geometry.

• Conventional machining – material removal by a sharp

cutting tool, e.g., turning, drilling, milling, sawing.
• Abrasive processes – material removal by hard, abrasive
particles, e.g., grinding.
• Non-traditional processes – use various energy forms
other than a sharp cutting tool to remove material, e.g.,
laser beam cutting, water jet cutting, electrical discharge
machining.

Jan 2024 99
 Material removal processes: categories
Turning and related processes

Drilling and related processes

Conventional
machining
Milling processes

Other machining operations

Grinding operations
Material removal Abrasive
process processes Other abrasive processes

Mechanical energy processes

Electrochemical machining
Non-traditional
machining
Thermal energy processes

Chemical machining
Jan 2024 100
 Machining
• Cutting action involves shear deformation of the work
material to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new
surface is exposed.
• Relative motion between the tool and work is achieved
by:
– Primary motion – cutting speed.
– Secondary motion – feed (much slower).

Jan 2024 101

 Why machining is important?
• Variety of work materials can be
machined.
– Most frequently used to cut metals.
• Variety of part shapes and special
geometrical features
– Regular geometry: cylinders, round
holes, flat planes.
– Irregular geometry: screw threads,
T-slots.
– Very complex geometry – by
computer numerical control (CNC)
• Good dimensional accuracy and
surface finish

Jan 2024 102

 Disadvantages of machining
• Wasteful of material
– Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at
least in the unit operation (although usually recycled).
• Time consuming
– A machining operation generally takes longer to
shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes.

Jan 2024 103

 Machining in manufacturing sequence
• Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging and bar drawing.
– Other processes create the general shape of the starting
work part.
– Machining provides the final geometry, dimension and
finish.
• Most important machining operations:
– Turning
– Drilling
– Milling

Jan 2024 104

 Turning
• Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating
workpiece to form a cylindrical shape.
– Speed motion is provided by the rotating work part.
– Feed motion is achieved by the cutting tool.
• Traditionally performed on a machine tool called a lathe.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EsAxOnzEms

The cutting tool moves slowly in a

direction parallel to the axis of
Jan 2024
rotation of the workpiece. 105
 Drilling
• A rotating cylindrical tool (drill bit) with two (typically) cutting
edges removes material to create a round hole.
– Speed motion and feed motion are provided by the tool.
– The workpiece is stationary.
• Customarily performed on a drill press.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f5HfRpeT7Fg

The drill is fed in a direction

parallel to the axis of rotation
into the workpiece.
Jan 2024 106
 Milling
• A workpiece is slowly fed past a rotating cylindrical tool with
multiple cutting edges to generate a plane or straight surface.
– Speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter.
– Feed motion is provided by the workpiece.
• Performed in a milling machine.

Peripheral milling Face milling

The direction of feed motion is
perpendicular to the tool’s axis of rotation.
Jan 2024 107
 Milling
• Two basic forms:
– Peripheral milling – the axis of the tool is parallel to the
surface being machined. Cutting edges on the outside
periphery of the cutter.
– Face milling – the axis of the tool is perpendicular to the
surface being machined. Cutting edges on both the end
and outside periphery of the cutter.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AxHexqN0Hr0

Jan 2024 108

 Cutting tool
• A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges, and is
made of a material harder than the work material.
– Cutting edges: separate a chip from the work material
– Rake face: direct the flow of the newly formed chip
– Flank: provide a clearance between the tool and the newly
generated work surface.
a) Single-point tools (for turning etc.)
– The point is usually rounded to form a nose radius.
b) Multiple-cutting-edge tools (for drilling and milling etc.)
– Motion relative to the workpiece is achieved by rotating.

Jan 2024 109

 Cutting conditions
• Three dimensions of a machining process:
– Cutting speed v – primary motion
– Feed f – secondary motion
– Depth of cut d – penetration of the cutting tool below the
original work surface.
• In turning, material removal rate (RMR: mm3/s) can be
calculated as

RMR = vfd

Jan 2024 110

 Roughing vs finishing cuts
• In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken on
a part, followed by one or two finishing cuts.
• Roughing – remove large amounts of material from the
starting workpiece.
– Some material remains for finish cutting.
– High feeds and depths, low cutting speeds.
• Finishing – complete part
geometry
– Final dimensions,
tolerances and
surface finish.
– Low feeds and depths,
high cutting speeds.

Jan 2024 111

 Machine tools
• A power-driven machine that performs a machining
operation (turning, drilling, milling, grinding, etc.).
• Functions in machining:
– Hold work part
– Position the tool relative to the work
– Provide power at speed, feed and depth that have been
set.
• The term also applies
to machines that
perform metal forming
operations.

An engine lathe (for

turning operations)
Jan 2024 112
 Machining centres
• A machining centre is a highly automated machine tool
capable of performing multiple machining operations
under computer numerical control (CNC) in one step with
minimal human attention.

Jan 2024 113

 Summary
• Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all
manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a
diversity of part geometry and geometrical features.
• A sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material to leave
the desired part shape.
• The three principal machining processes are turning,
drilling and milling.

• Suggested reading:
– Chapter 17 (and 18) in Groover’s “Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing” (or relevant chapters in
Groover’s other textbooks)

Jan 2024 114

 ENG1015

Design and Manufacturing 1

Manufacturing

Topic 4: Welding

January 2024

Jan 2024 115

 Welding: Objectives
• Welding processes

• Types of welding processes

– Arc welding, resistance welding, friction welding

• Features of fusion welded joint

Jan 2024 116

 Welding
• A materials joining process in which two or more parts (usually
metals) are coalesced at their contact surfaces by the
application of heat and/or pressure.
– Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone,
with no pressure applied.
– Others by a combination of heat and pressure.
– Still others by pressure alone with no external heat.
• Faying surfaces – the part surfaces in contact or close
proximity that are to be joined.
• In some welding processes a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence.

Jan 2024 117

 Why welding is important?
• Provide a permanent joint.
• Usually the most economical way to join parts in terms of
material usage and fabrication costs
– Mechanical fastening usually requires additional hardware
(e.g., screws) and geometrical alternations of the
assembled parts (e.g., holes).
• Not restricted to a factory environment. Welding can be
accomplished “in the field”.

Jan 2024
Pipe welding 118
 Principal applications of welding
• Construction – buildings and bridges
• Piping, pressure vessels, boilers and storage tanks
• Shipbuilding
• Aircraft and aerospace
• Automotive
• Railroad

Jan 2024 119

 Limitations and drawbacks of welding
• Most welding operations are performed manually and are
expensive in terms of labour cost.
• Most welding processes utilise high energy and are inherently
dangerous.
• Welded joints do not allow for convenient disassembly.
• Welded joints can have quality defects that are difficult to
detect.

Jan 2024 120

 Types of welding processes
• Welding processes can be divided in to two major
categories:
• Fusion welding – joining processes that melt the base
metals by heat alone or a combination of heat and
pressure.
– In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added
to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk
and added strength to the welded joint.
– Examples: arc welding (AW), resistance welding (RW)
• Solid state welding – joining processes in which
coalescence results from application of pressure alone or
a combination of heat and pressure
– If heat is used, temperature is below the melting point of
metals being welded.
– No filler is added in solid state welding.
– Examples: diffusion welding (DFW), friction welding (FRW)

Jan 2024 121

 Some fusion welding processes
• Arc welding (AW) – melting of the metals is accomplished
by an electric arc.
• Resistance welding (RW) – melting is accomplished by
heat from resistance to an electrical current between
faying surfaces held together under pressure.
• Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) – melting is accomplished by
an oxyfuel gas such as acetylene.

Resistance spot welding Oxyacetylene welding

Jan 2024 122
 Arc welding (AW)
• A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the metals is
achieved by the heat from an electric arc between an
electrode and the work.
– An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a
gap in a circuit.
• Pool of molten metal is formed near the electrode tip, and as
the electrode is moved along the joint, the molten weld pool
solidifies in its wake.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgImySEyYHY

Jan 2024 123

 Resistance welding (RW)
• A fusion welding process that uses a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence, the heat
being generated by electrical
resistance at the junction.
• Components include
– Parts to be welded (usually sheet
metal parts)
– Two opposing electrodes
– A means of applying pressure to
squeeze the parts between the
electrodes
– Power supply from which a
controlled current can be applied
for a specific time duration.
• Weld nugget – the fused zone
between the two parts.

Jan 2024 124

 Friction welding (FRW)
• A solid state welding process in which
coalescence is achieved by frictional
heat combined with pressure.
– When properly carried out, no
melting occurs at faying surfaces.

Jan 2024 125

 Features of fusion welded joint

• Typical fusion welded joint in which a filler metal has

been added consists of:
– Fusion zone – mixture of filler metal and base metal
– Weld interface – quickly solidified base metal
– Heat affected zone (HAZ) – temperature < Tm
– Unaffected base metal zone

Jan 2024 126

 Heat affected zone (HAZ)
• Metal has experienced temperatures below melting point,
but high enough to cause microstructural changes in the
solid metal.
– Chemical composition is the same as the base metal,
but this region has been heat treated so that its
properties and structure have been altered.
– Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually
negative.
– It is here that welding failures often occur.

Jan 2024 127

 Summary
• Welding involves localised coalescence or joining
together of two metallic parts at their faying surfaces.

• Suggested reading:
– Chapter 25 in Groover’s “Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing” (or relevant chapters in Groover’s
other textbooks)

Jan 2024 128

 ENG1015

Design and Manufacturing 1

Manufacturing

Topic 5: Powder Metallurgy

January 2024

Jan 2024 129

 Powder Metallurgy: Objectives
• Powder metallurgy

• Metallic powders: production and features

• Conventional pressing and sintering

Jan 2024 130

 Powder metallurgy (PM)
• Metal processing technology in which parts are produced from
metallic powders.
• Usual PM production sequence:
– Pressing – powders are compressed into the desired
shape to produce green compact. Pressing is
accomplished in a press using punch-and-die tooling.
– Sintering – green compacts are heated to bond the
particles into a hard, rigid mass. Sintering is performed at
a temperature below the melting point of the metal.

Jan 2024 131

 Why powder metallurgy is important?
• PM parts can be mass produced to net shape
or near net shape.
• PM process wastes very little material - ~97%
of starting powders are converted to product.
• PM parts can be made with specific level of
porosity.
– Filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears
• Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by
other methods can be shaped by PM.
– Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp
bulbs are made by PM.
• Certain alloy combination and cermets can be
made by PM (difficulty if by other methods).
• PM compares favourably to most casting
processes in dimensional control.
• PM production methods can be automated for
economic production.

Jan 2024 132

 Disadvantage of powder metallurgy
• High tooling and equipment costs.
• Metallic powders are expensive.
• Problems in storing and handling
metal powders.
– Degradation over time, fire
hazards with certain metals.
• Limitations on part geometry because
metal powders do not readily flow
laterally in the die during pressing.
• Variation in density throughout the
part may be a problem, especially for
complex geometries.

Jan 2024 133

 Engineering powders
• A powder can be defined as a finely divided particulate
solid.
• Engineering powders include metals and ceramics.
• Geometric features of engineering powders:
– Particle size and distribution.
– Particle shape and internal structure.
– Surface area.

Several possible (ideal) particle shapes in PM

Jan 2024 134

 Packing, density and porosity of powders
• True density – density of the true volume of the material. It is
the density if the powders were melted into a solid mass.
• Bulk density – density of the powders in the loose state after
pouring. It is less than true density because of pores between
particles.
• Packing factor is the bulk density divided by the true density.
Typical values for loose powders are 0.5 to 0.7.
– If powders of various sizes are present, smaller powders fit
into spaces between larger ones.
– Packing can be increased by vibrating the powders,
causing them to settle more tightly.
– Pressure applied during compaction greatly increases the
packing factor of powders.
• Porosity – ratio of the volume of the pores (empty spaces) in
the powder to the bulk volume.
– In principle, porosity + packing factor = 1
– Note, possible closed pores within the particles.

Jan 2024 135

 Production of metallic powders
• Three principal methods by which metallic powders are
commercially produced:
– Atomisation (gas, water, etc.)
– Chemical
– Electrolytic

Water atomisation: High

Gas atomisation: high velocity velocity water streams flow
gas stream flows through expansion
through nozzles, rapidly cooling
nozzle, siphoning molten metal and
and solidifying molten metal into
spraying it into chamber.
Jan 2024
chamber. 136
 Conventional PM sequence
• The conventional PM sequence consists of three steps
(referred to as primary operations in PM).
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5327SSM6G0

Blending Compacting Sintering

Jan 2024 137
 Conventional PM sequence
• Blending and mixing of powders.
• Compaction – pressing into desired part shape.
• Sintering – heating to a temperature below the melting
point to cause solid-state bonding of particles and
strengthening of the part.

• In addition, secondary operations are sometimes

performed to improve dimensional accuracy, increase
density and for other reasons.
– Densification (repressing), sizing, impregnation,
infiltration, heat treatment and finishing.

Jan 2024 138

 Blending and mixing of powders
• To achieve successful results in compaction and sintering, the
starting powders must be thoroughly homogenised.
• Blending – powders of the same chemistry but possibly
different particle sizes are intermingled. Different particle sizes
are often blended to reduce porosity.
• Mixing – powders of different chemistries are combined.

Rotating drum Rotating Screw mixer Blade mixer

double-cone
Jan 2024 139
 Compaction
• Application of high
pressure to the
powders to form
them into the
required shape.

• Conventional
compaction method
is pressing, in which
opposing punches
squeeze the
powders contained
in a die.

Jan 2024 140

 Compaction
1) Filling the die cavity with powders, by automatic feeder.
2) Initial positions of upper and lower punches.
3) Final positions of upper and lower punches.
4) Ejection of the part.

• The work part after pressing is called a green compact (green:

not yet fully processed).
• The green strength of the part when pressed is adequate for
handling but far less than that after sintering.

• A further video on PM: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4-

kfSD6XJI

Jan 2024 141

 Sintering
• Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby
increasing strength and hardness.
• Usually carried out between 0.7Tm and 0.9Tm of metals.
• The primary driving force for sintering is reduction of surface
energy.
• Principal mechanism for mass transport (to create necks and
transform them to grain boundaries) is diffusion and possibly
plastic flow.
• Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size
reduction.

Jan 2024 142

 Sintering cycle and furnace

1500

1280 C
1200

Temperature ( C)
5 C/min
900

600 C
600
480 C
3 C/min
360 C
300 280 C
1 C/min

0
0 6 12 18 24
Time (hr)

Sintering process of
open-cell Inconel foams
NSK Ho et al, “The effect of slurry
composition on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of open-cell Inconel
foams manufactured by the slurry coating
technique,” Materials Science and
Jan 2024 Engineering A, 2017. 143
 Alternative pressing and sintering
• Conventional pressing and sintering
sequence is the most widely used
shaping technology in PM. Some
additional methods are available for
producing PM parts.
• Isostatic pressing – hydraulic pressure is
applied from all directions to achieve
compaction.
– Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) –
compaction performed at room
temperature.
– Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) – carried
out at high temperatures and
pressures. HIP accomplishes
pressing and sintering in one step.
• Powder injection moulding (PIM).
• Powder rolling, extrusion and forging. A schematic of HIP

Jan 2024 144

 Summary
• Powder metallurgy (PM) is a metal processing
technology in which parts are produced from metallic
powders.
• The conventional PM sequence involves pressing and
sintering.

• Suggested reading:
– Chapter 12 in Groover’s “Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing” (or relevant chapters in Groover’s
other textbooks)

Jan 2024 145

 End of Lecture Notes for
Manufacturing

Jan 2024 146

Machine Elements Introduction

Design and Manufacturing 1 ENG 1015

 Design and Manufacturing 1
Machine Elements Introduction
• Weeks 6-11
• Tijana Vuletic ([email protected])
 Schedule & Assessment of Machine
Elements part

• Schedule
• Lectures in Weeks 6- 10
• Laboratory in Week 10 or 11

• Assessment
• Examination - short questions and exercises (40% of total comes from this part of
the class)
• Coursework (10% of total) – 27th March 5pm
 Course content

Machine Elements
• Bearings
• Shafts
• Gears
• Seals
• Fasteners
 Course texts and reading

• Childs, P.R.N., 2004, Mechanical Design , Elsevier, (2nd

edition)

Useful
• Atkins A. & Escudier , 2013, M., Dictionary of
Mechanical Engineering, Oxford University Press
 Other recommended textbooks on
design

• Budynas , R. & Nisbett , K., 2014, Shigley's Mechanical Engineering

Design, McGraw Hill Education
• Pahl , G. & Beitz , W., 2007, Engineering Design, Springer, (3rd
Edition, others also)
• Pugh, S., 1990, Total Design, Addison Wesley
• Wright, I., 1998, Design Method in Engineering and Product Design,
McGraw Hill
• Cross, N., 2008, Engineering Design Methods, Wiley, (4th Edition)
• Jones, J. C., 1992, Design Methods, Wiley
 What is design?

• ‘A goal directed problem solving activity’ (Archer 1965)

• ‘Finding the right physical components of a physical structure’ (Alexander 1963)
• ‘Decision making, in the face of uncertainty, with high penalties for error’ (Asimow 1962)
• Simulating what we want to make (or do) before we make (or do) it as many times as
necessary to feel confident about the result (Booker 1964)
• Engineering design is the use of scientific principles, technical information and
imagination in the definition of a mechanical structure, machine or system to perform pre
specified functions with maximum economy and efficiency (Fielden 1963)
• The performing of a very complicated act of faith (Jones 1966)
• A creative activity it involves bringing into being something new and useful that has not
existed previously (Reswick 1965)
 What is design?

• “The task of engineers is to apply engineering knowledge to the

solution of technical problems within the requirements and constraints
set by material, technological, economic, legal, environmental and
human related considerations.”
Abbreviated from Pahl and Beitz (2007),
‘Engineering Design’
Total design process
Systematic design process

Adapted from Pahl, G., Beitz, W., 1996. Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach, second ed. Springer, London
 Some definitions

• Product: Something produced by industrial and mechanical processes (e.g., a car, toaster,
elevator).
• Component: A single piece of a larger assembly (e.g. a shaft).
• Part: Not well defined. A constituent part of a product. It can also be a product in its own right (e.g.
a gearbox).
• Machine: An assembly of linked parts or components with a drive system intended to undertake a
specific application.
• Machine Element: A basic mechanical part or component. Machine elements form the building
blocks of machines. Although they may be unique to an application, they are typically standardised
to common sizes.
• Most engineering products consist of a number of parts made from a variety of materials, such as
pens (several parts) and jet engines (tens of thousands of parts).
 Bearings

• Bearings facilitate the transmission of loads,

whilst allowing relative motion.
 Shafts

• A (usually) rotating component for the transmission of power.

• Typically, of circular cross section, though there are obvious common
exceptions.
 Seals

• The purpose of a seal is to prevent or limit the flow of fluids (or

passage of particles) in between two components.
• Seals are of two general categories:
• Static Seals
• Dynamic Seals
 Gears

• Transmit power between shafts.

• Many types, depending on relationship between axes.
 Fasteners

Fasteners join two or more components

• Bolts
• Nuts
• Screws
• Rivets
• Snap fasteners
• Circlips
• Adhesives
• Welding
 Summary

• Design focuses on synthesizing principles, knowledge, methods and

tools from a broad spectrum of disciplines rather than focusing on
analysis.
• It is, however, dependent on those other predominantly analytical
engineering activities.
• It can be described as ‘the total activity necessary to provide a
product that meets a market need’.
Thank you!

#UofGWorldChangers
@UofGlasgow
Bearings

Design and Manufacturing 1 ENG 1015

 What will you learn today

• Purpose of bearings
• Range of applications of bearings
• Classification of bearings and their components
• Which type of bearing is better suited for an engineering application
• Basic design calculations on bearings and material characteristics
 Bearings - Applications

• Bearings are found in numerous engineering applications:

• Automotive industry
• Wind Energy
• Shipping
• Aviation
• Office equipment
• Bicycles/roller skates
• many more…
 Bearings - Definition

• The term bearing is derived from the verb “to bear”, as bearings are
designed to bear radial and thrust loads or a combination of the two
• Contacting surfaces through which load is transmitted, whilst allowing
relative motion between two elements of a machine.
 Types of bearings

• Generally, of two types:

• Sliding (known as ‘plain surface’, ‘plane’, ‘hydrodynamic’ or
‘journal’) bearings
• Rolling element (or ‘rolling contact’ or ‘antifriction’) bearings
• Both usually are assisted by lubrication
Plain, Plain Surface, or Journal Bearings
Plain, plane surface or journal bearings
 Journal bearings: Typical loads

• Typical application is to allow rotation of a shaft,

withstanding radial loads perpendicular to the axis
of the shaft
• When a tilting pad design is applied to the bearing,
axial or thrust loads applied in parallel to the shaft
axis can also be supported
 Lubrication

• Boundary Lubrication

• Full Film Lubrication

• Also can have ‘Mixed Film’ lubrication

 Hydrostatic lubrication

• Oil film dependent on feed

pressure and clearance
• The separating pressure
is supplied by an external
oil pump
 Hydrodynamic lubrication

• Hydrodynamic bearing design is a complex procedure, dependent on (amongst

other factors) speed, load, viscosity of lubricant, clearance and surface finish
• Motion of the journal generates pressure in the lubricant separating the two
surfaces
• Previously done by iteration, now typically done by dedicated software
 Self-lubricating bearings

• Metallic components with high porosity that have the ability to provide
their own lubricant
• Lubricant is impregnated within the sliding layer of the bearing
• The lubricant is released through pores in the sliding layer, lubricating
the bearing surface
 Configuration and material layers of the shell

• Solid
• Split
 Plain Bearing Performance

μ = lubricant viscosity (in Pa·s)

N = speed (typically in rpm)
P = load capacity (in N/m2)
where,

W = applied load (in N)

L = length of bearing (in m)
D = diameter of bearing (in m)
 Lubrication in Plain Bearings

Further reading: Wang, Yansong , and Q. Jane Wang. 2013. “Stribeck Curves.” In Encyclopedia of Tribology, 3365 70. Boston, MA: Springer
US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 0 387 92897 5_148.
 Lubricant viscosity dependence on
temperature
• Most commonly known lubricants are oils and greases
• Bearing performance is dependent on the type of lubrication occurring and the viscosity of the
lubricant
• Lubricant viscosity is highly dependent on temperature
 Design of boundary lubricated bearings

• General considerations in the design of a boundary lubricated bearing include:

coefficient of friction, load capacity, relative velocity between the stationary and
moving components, operating temperature, wear limitations and production
capability
• PV factor is an indicator of a boundary lubricated bearing to withstand frictional
energy dissipated in the bearing

• At the limiting PV value, the temperature will be unstable and failure will occur
rapidly. A practical value for PV is half the limiting PV value.
 Bearing Selection

• Determine speed of rotation, and load to be supported

• Set bearing proportions (common practice is to set the initial
ratio of diameter to length equal to between 0.5 and 1.5. If
the diameter is known as an initial trial, set L=D)
• Calculate load capacity, PV
• Determine tangential speed of journal, V= ω r (m/s)
• Calculate PV factor, and multiply with safety factor (a factor
of 2 would be typical)
• Select bearing from published data
 Example 1

• A bearing is needed to carry a radial load of 120 N on a shaft of 10 mm diameter

running at a speed of 200 rpm. Calculate the PV factor of the bearing.
 Plain bearing material selection

• Select suitable bearing material, taking into consideration the limiting PV value

A material with
limiting PV value
greater than
2*0.126=0.252
would give
acceptable
performance
Rolling Element Bearings
 Rolling element bearings

• The rolling bearing consists of 2 races (inner and

outer rings) in relative motion and between them a
row of balls (or rollers) in contact with both. Balls
enable relative motion between the races.
• Balls or rollers roll inside the raceways which can be
more or less deep
• A cage keeps the balls equi-spaced around the
bearing
• The seal can be made of metal for dust protection,
or it can be made of plastic preventing escape of
lubricant
 Common materials of rolling element bearings

• Chrome/Stainless steel
• Ceramic (hybrid and full ceramic)
• Plastic (acetal, PTFE, and nylon), carbon graphite, etc.
 Clearance

• Radial clearance • Axial clearance

 Rolling element bearings: Classification

• Rolling element bearings can be

classified according to the loading
conditions, i.e., radial, thrust (axial)
or combined
• They are also classified according to
the configuration of their rolling
elements, e.g. balls, rollers.
 Radial and thrust bearings

• Radial load • Thrust load

• Radial bearings refer to bearings that support

• A variety of radial bearings have also axial
primarily radial loads
configurations in order to withstand an axial
• Typical examples are deep groove ball
load
bearings, cylindrical roller bearings, and
needle bearings
 Ball bearings

• Among the most used bearings, mostly for radial loads, fair axial load capacity
• The raceway grooves on both inner and outer rings have circular arcs of slightly larger radius than that of balls
• Cage is made of pressed steel that gives it high load capacity and flexibility
• Ball bearings have point contact (at least in theory); each ball contacts the race in a very small patch → high contact
stresses
• Double row bearings can withstand higher radial loads.
• Self-aligning ball bearings have an inner ring with two grooves placed side by side, while outer ring has one hemispherical
groove, allowing inclination of two rings during functioning and better self-alignment.
 Angular contact ball bearings

• Inner and outer ring raceways are displaced relative to each other in the direction
of the bearing axis
• They can withstand both radial and axial loads
• Contact angles of 15°, 25° , 30° , and 40° are available
• If doubled up, they can handle thrust loading in two directions
 Cylindrical roller bearing

• Straight rollers
• Linear contact with the raceways, rather than point contact, giving them high
radial load bearing capacity and higher shock resistance
• Pressed steel or machine brass cages are usually used
• They are used when high accuracy is required, they can manage only limited
thrust loads
 Needle roller bearings

• Contain many slender rollers with a length 3 to 10 times their diameter

• Needle Roller Races
• Poor axial load capacity
• Good radial load capacity
• Thanks to their compactness, they are used when space is limited
 Spherical roller bearings

• Barrel shaped rollers

• Capable of carrying both heavy radial loads but also some axial loads in either
direction
• Suitable for low & medium speed applications
• Spherical roller bearings can accommodate misalignment
 Tapered roller bearings

• Tapered inner and outer roller races

• They can withstand both axial and radial loads
• Poor misalignment capacity
 Rolling Element Bearings:
Relative Merits

Bearing Type Radial Load Capacity Axial Load Capacity Misalignment Capability

Single Row Deep Good Fair Fair

Groove Ball
Double Row Deep Excellent Good Fair
Groove Ball
Angular Contact Good Excellent Poor
Cylindrical Roller Excellent Poor Fair
Needle Roller Excellent Poor Poor
Spherical Roller Excellent Fair/Good Excellent
Taper Roller Excellent Excellent Poor
 Radial and thrust bearings example

The loads from the application are the blue

arrows.
The pink arrows are the reaction loads that are
happening to the bearings

Double spherical roller

Spherical roller with angular contact

Spherical roller has fair to good axial load

capacity.
Bearing with angular contact has excellent load
capacity – so it will take it on.
Both bearings have excellent radial load
capacity.
 Bearing Selection: Dynamic load rating

• The dynamic load rating, C, is the constant radial load a bearing can endure for 1
x 106 revolutions without evidence of fatigue.
 Rolling element bearing selection

• Life at other loads is then given by:

• Where:
L1 = life at load P1 (number of revolutions)
L2 = life at load P2 (number of revolutions)
P = load (N)
k = 3 for ball bearings
k = 3.33 for roller bearings
 Rolling element bearing selection

• Which can be rearranged:

• Where:
C = basic dynamic load rating (N)
P = load (N)
k = bearing type factor (3.0 for ball bearings, 3.3 for roller bearings)
 Example 2

• A straight cylindrical roller bearing is to carry a load of 5.0 kN for a shaft of 25 mm

diameter and the required life is 10000 hours at 1000rpm. Determine the load
rating which should be used for selection of the bearing. Then select an
appropriate bearing from the manufacturers’ catalogue.
B

d D
Cylindrical Roller Bearing Ratings
 Bearings Supporting Shafts

• Typically, two bearings are used to support shafts

Bearings need to be
treated as simple
supports and kept
within their tolerance
of mis-alignment.
Bearings supporting shafts: Lubrication
 Modes of Failure

• Wear
• Fatigue
• Static loading
• Impact loading
• Overheating
• Corrosion
 Summary

• Bearings are machine elements used to transmit a load whilst

allowing relative motion between other elements, typically a shaft and
its support.
• Bearings are most commonly used to allow rotational motion, but can
also be used to accommodate linear relative motion.
• A wide range of standard bearings are available to suit most loadings
and environment.
 Recommended reading

Childs, P. R. N. (2019). Journal bearings. In Mechanical Design

Engineering Handbook (pp. 167 230). Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978 0 08 102367 9.00005 6

Childs, Peter R.N. 2019. Rolling Element Bearings. In Mechanical

Design Engineering Handbook, 231 94. Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978 0 08 102367 9.00006 8
Thank you!

#UofGWorldChangers
@UofGlasgow
Week 7 - Shafts

Design and Manufacturing 1 ENG 1015

Shafts
A (usually) rotating
component for the
transmission of
power.
 Shafts

• The shaft may be hollow or solid, usually (but not only) of circular cross section.
• Shafts can carry gears, pulleys and sprockets to transmit rotary motion and power
via mating gears, belts and chains.
• Press fit, keys, dowel, pins and splines are used to attach these machine
elements on the shaft.
• A shaft can be stationary and support a rotating member, such as the short shafts
that support the nondriven wheels of automobiles (spindles).
• The shaft is generally acted upon by bending moment, torsion and axial force.
 Classification of shafts

1. Transmission shafts transmit power between the source and the

machines absorbing power.
• counter shafts
• line shafts
• overhead shafts, etc.
2. Machine shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The
crank shaft is an example of machine shaft.
 Crankshafts

• Convert linear to rotary motion or vice versa.

• Usually involve eccentric loads.
 Crankshafts

Components of a crank shaft in

a 4-cylinder engine
Source: Crankshaft from an inline four-cylinder
engine with pistons, connecting rods and flywheel,
Illustration copyright
Eaglemoss publications/Car Care Magazine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HLvYTJVOWi4
 Camshafts

• Camshafts convert rotational

motion into linear (usually
reciprocating) motion.

Four stroke engine:

The camshaft controls the opening and • Intake stroke
closing of valves through the combustion • Compression stroke
process, and the crankshaft takes the • Power stroke
energy from that process and connects it to • Exhaust stroke
the rest of the vehicle.
Internal Combustion Engine

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_V_Qd89Jg8
Gearbox shafts • Input shaft
• Counter shaft
• Output (or main) shaft
• 1st gear
• 2nd gear
• 3rd gear
• Top gear (direct drive)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wCu9W9xNwtI
Gearbox shafts
 Design considerations

• Series of stepped diameters accommodating elements such as gears,

sprockets and pulleys as well as keys to prevent rotation, relative to
the shaft, of mounted elements.
 Design considerations

• Size and spacing of components

• Material
• Deflection and rigidity (stiffness)
• Bending deflection (e.g. excessive lateral deflection causes gear teeth to disengage)
• Torsional deflection
• Slope at bearings(e.g. excessive angular deflection may cause bearings to fail)
• Shear deflection strength
• Stress and strength
• Static strength
• Fatigue
• Frequency response
• Critical speed
• Manufacturing constraints
Shaft loads
 Stresses

• For bending • For torsion

𝑀 𝑀 𝑑 32𝑀 𝑇 𝑇 𝑑 16𝑇
• 𝜎= ×𝑟 = 𝜋𝑑2
× = • 𝜏 = ×𝑟 = 𝜋𝑑4
× =
𝐼 2 𝜋𝑑 3 𝐽 2 𝜋𝑑 3
64 32
• σ= bending stress (N/m2) • τ = torsional shear stress (N/m2)
• M = bending moment (N·m) • T = torque (N·m)
• I = Moment of inertia (m4) • J = Polar moment of inertia (m4)
• r = distance from neutral axis (m) • r = distance from neutral axis (m)
 Exercise 1 - Estimation of stresses in a shaft

A circular section shaft with radius 8 cm is subjected to a torque 5886 N.m and a bending moment
3924 N.m.
(a) Find the maximum shear stress when only torque is applied,
(b) Find the maximum bending stress when only the bending moment is applied.

(a) When only torque is applied (b) When only bending moment is
maximum shear stress is found in applied, maximum
the circumference of the cross bending stress is found in the
section: circumference of the cross
𝜋𝑑 4 𝜋0.164 section:
𝐽= = = 6.43 × 10−5 𝑚4 𝜋𝑑 4 𝜋0.164
32 32 𝐼= = = 3.22 × 10−5 𝑚4
𝑇 5866𝑁𝑚 64 64
𝜏 = ×𝑟 = × 0.08𝑚 𝑀 𝑀 𝑑 32𝑀
𝐽 6.43 × 10−5 𝑚4 𝜎 = ×𝑟 = × =
𝑁 𝐼 𝜋𝑑 4 2 𝜋𝑑 3
= 7,318,640.6 2 = 7.3𝑀𝑃𝑎 64
𝑚 𝑁
= 9,758,187.5 2 = 9.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚
Fatigue and the endurance limit in steels

Shape of Fatigue Failure of Steel Shaft. (K.

Gopinath, Fatigue Consideration in Design,
Machine Design II, 2007)
 σ-N curves

Class guideline DNVGL CG 0129. Fatigue assessment of ship structures . Edition October 2015.
 Fatigue in crankshafts

• Fatigue failure occurs at stress

levels below the yield stress of
the material.

Wei Li, Qing Yan, Jianhua Xue , Analysis of a crankshaft fatigue failure,
Engineering Failure Analysis,Volume 55 , 2015 , Pages 139 147
ASME approximate equation for determining shaft
diameter

Where:
• d is the shaft diameter (m)
• ns is is the factor of safety
• M the bending moment (N·m)
• σe is the endurance limit (N/m2)
• T is the torque (N·m)
• 𝜎y is the yield stress (N/m2)
 Factors of safety

1.25 - 1.5 Reliable materials under controlled conditions, subject to loads and stresses known
with certainty.

1.5 - 2.0 Well known materials under reasonably constant conditions, subject to known loads
and stresses

2.0 - 2.5 Average materials subjected to known loads and stresses

2.5 - 3.0 Less well-known materials under average conditions of load, stress, and
environment

3.0 – 4.0 Untried materials under average conditions, or well-known materials under
uncertain loads, stresses, and conditions

4.0 - ??? Untried materials under uncertain loads, (try never to be in this situation!)
Shaft design procedure for shaft strength
and rigidity

Based on Beswarick, J., 1994a. Shaft for strength and rigidity. In: Hurst, K. (Ed.),
Rotary Power Transmission Design. McGraw Hill, 135–141.
Questions and Break
Keys and keyways
Circlips
Interference fit and taper bush
Splined shafts

Straight radial splines

Involute splines
 Shaft - shaft connection

• Power transmission from one shaft to

another can be achieved by a coupling
or clutch.
• Two types of couplings: ESCO Rigid Coupling
• Rigid
• Flexible

http://www.fullmelon.net/
 Critical speeds and shaft deflection

• Critical speed is the rotational speed at which dynamic forces acting on the
system cause it to vibrate at its natural frequency.
• If the forced frequency is equal to the natural frequency, the vibrations' amplitude
increases manyfold. This phenomenon is known as resonance.
 Resonance

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8n8f-rOahNI
Resonance

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZNjbWy6c7c
 Critical speed

• Approximation for single mass:

𝑔
𝜔𝑐 = Τ𝛾

Where: ω C = the critical speed (rad/s)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
γ = the static deflection at the location of the mass (m)
 Critical speeds: several masses

• First critical speed

• Second critical speed

 Where there is more than one mass

• Rayleigh - Ritz equation

Where :
ωC = the critical angular speed (rad/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Wi= mass or weight of node I (kg or N)
γ= the static deflection at the location of the mass (m)

• Dunkerley equation
 Exercise 2 - Estimation of critical speed

• A shaft driving a gear is supported in self-aligning ball bearings and it has been
estimated that it has a static deflection of 0.21mm. What would be the critical
speed for this shaft? Suggest a safe maximum operating speed.

A safe operating speed would be around half this value

 Summary - General design considerations

• Fatigue is a major concern in designing shafts, so minimising stresses

is important.
• Keep shafts as short as possible.
• Bearings should be close to applied loads.
• Avoid stress raisers near highly stressed regions of the shaft.
• Shafts should be designed to rotate outside the region close to the
resonance critical frequencies.
 Recommended reading

Peter R.N. Childs, 7 Shafts, Editor(s): Peter R.N. Childs,

Mechanical Design Engineering Handbook (Second Edition), Butterworth
Heinemann, 2019 , Pages 295 375 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102367-9.00007-X
Thank you!

#UofGWorldChangers
@UofGlasgow
Week 8 - Seals

Design and Manufacturing 1 ENG 1015

 What will you learn today

• Review of a number of different types of seals devices

• Select a seal type for rotating, reciprocating or static conditions
• Select appropriate seal configurations for particular applications
 Seals

• The purpose of a seal is to prevent or limit the flow of fluids (or

passage of particles) between two components
• Important aspect of machine design to contain pressurised fluids
within an area of a machine, exclude contaminants , retain lubricants
• Seals are of two general categories:
• Static Seals: sealing takes place between two surfaces that do not
move relative to each other
• Dynamic Seals: sealing takes place between two surfaces that
move relative to each other (e.g. rotation or reciprocating motion).
 Applications

• Automotive
• Healthcare and medical applications
• Agriculture
• Chemical processing/petrochemical
• Construction/Engineering
• Energy
• Food/Beverage/Dairy
• Manufacturing
• Marine
• Mine and exploration
• Oil and Gas
• Paper, pulp & board
• Semiconductor/electronics
• Wate treatment and waste
Classification of seals
 Considerations in seal type selection

• The nature of the fluid to be contained or excluded

• Static pressure levels in either side of the seal
• The nature of any relative motion (e.g. rotating, reciprocating, contacting or non-
contacting ) between the seal and mating components.
• The level of sealing effectiveness required
• Operating temperatures
• Life expectancy
• Serviceability
• Total cost
 Static seals

• Static seals aim to provide a complete physical barrier to the leakage flow.
• To achieve this, the seal material must be resilient enough to flow into and fill any
irregularities in the surfaces being sealed, and at the same time remain rigid to
resist their slipping/extrusion into clearances.
 Elastomeric seals: O-Rings

• Simple, cheap and versatile type of seal with a wide range of applications
• Both static and dynamic sealing
• Large standard range of sizes and materials
• In dynamic applications where speed and pressures are not very high.
 Elastomeric seals: O-Rings

• The operation principle of O-ring sealing against a fluid at different pressures is illustrated below.
• Elastomeric seal rings require the seal material to have an interference fit with one of the mating parts of the
assembly.
• Diverse applications: sealing casings, reciprocating, oscillating and rotating components, seats in solenoid
valves and plumbing, etc.
 Elastomeric seals: O-Rings

• Specify suitable groove dimensions for a 0195 30

‘O’ ring to seal against a solid cylinder.

British Standards Institution, BS 4518 for diametral sealing (mm)

Variation on O-Ring seals

• A particular problem is the ability to cope with small

movements of the housing and sealing faces
• X- ring and square-ring seals have been developed
as alternative configurations
• Broader sealing area
• Resists twisting in sliding applications
• Potentially higher friction
 Aperture seals

• Typically, an elastomeric extrusion

• Low cost and automated assembly
• Seal against differential pressure, dust, water, noise
• Typical applications:
• Automotive doors
• Windows
• Cabriolet bodies
 Gaskets

• Gasket is a material (or composite

material) clamped in a (typically bolted)
joint between two components with the
purpose of preventing fluid flow
• Typically made up of spacer rings, a
sealing element, internal reinforcement,
a compliant surface layer and possibly
some form of surface antistick
treatment
• Simple gaskets use a single material
while composite gaskets use two or
more materials for better performance.
 Gaskets

• Gasket seals are widely used in flanges, to fill

the spaces and the irregularities between two
mating flanges to prevent the leakage of the
fluid as shown in the figure

• When first closed the gasket is subject to

compressive stresses

• Under working conditions, however, the

compressive load may be relieved by the
pressures generated within the assembly
Gasket types
 Gaskets in an internal combustion engine

Various types of seals used in an internal combustion engine:

Cylinder head cover gasket, head gasket, oil pan gasket, distributor O-rings.
 Seals for foodstuffs

• Particularly demanding requirements to

seal against biological contaminants such
as bacteria.
• Seal material also subject to constraints.
• The typical diameter of bacteria is of the
order of one micrometre and the
challenge in designing containers is to
exclude bacteria for the shelf-life of the
product.
 Dynamic seals

• Dynamic seals are used to limit flow of fluid between surfaces that move relative
to each other.
• Extensive range of dynamic seals for both rotary and reciprocating motion.
• Conflicting requirements of high seal pressure with low friction and wear, requiring
compromise
• Dynamic seal performance may be substantially affected by a number of
operating environmental factors e.g. seal swell in fluids, lubrication, system
pressure, thermal cycling and friction.
 Seals for rotary motion

• They retain working fluids (such as lubricants) and prevent contamination from
dirt and dust.
• The selection of seal type depends on the shaft speed, working pressure and
desired sealing effectiveness
• Seals for rotary motion include:
• ‘O’ rings
• lip seals
• face seals
• sealing rings
• compression packings and
• non-contacting seals such as bush and labyrinth seals.
Seals for rotary motion: V-ring seals

• V- Ring (also known as axial shaft seal ) is a rubber ring for

shafts requiring a dynamic seal in the axial direction
• It seals axially against a counter face and normally rotates
with the shaft
• The body of V seals holds itself in position by its elastic fit
on the shaft.
• Sealing is produced by the contact between the lip and the
counter face
• The purpose of V rings is to exclude contaminants whilst
retaining lubricants in the application.
Seals for rotary motion: Lip seals

• Often referred to as an oil seal (or rotary shaft seal ), as

preventing oil from leaking is its typical use. It also
excludes contaminants such as dirt and dust
• Moderate speeds and low-pressure applications
• Also used for reciprocating motion in some applications
• The outer case should be retained in the housing by an
interference fit
• The garter spring maintains a uniform radial force on the
shaft ensuring contact between the sealing ring and the
shaft.
Seals for rotary motion: Sealed bearings

• Rotary shaft seals or lip seals are also used to

protect bearings
• Incorporate single or dual seal
• Can be ‘lubricated for life’ bearings.
 Seals for rotary motion: Applications of
Oil Seals and V-Rings

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8Hsnw89USA
 Seals for rotary motion: Mechanical face seals

• For applications where low leakage, high reliability, low wear are important
• Consists of two sealing rings, one attached to the rotating member and one attached to stationary
component to form a sealing surface, usually perpendicular to the shaft axis. Frictional rubbing
contact between the sealing faces is maintained mechanically, for example, through a spring
• Rubbing action between the surfaces produces heat and wear. Lubrication is used to minimise this
• Applications: pumps, compressors, gearboxes and domestic washing machines.
 Mechanical face seals

https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=YCPCZX
v9rVw
 Seals for rotary motion: Sealing glands
(Compression packings)
• Uses compressible seal packing
material
• Compression packing consists of a
number of rings and is usually
made from relatively soft, pliant
materials
• Compression packings are inserted
into the annular space (stuffing
box) between the rotating or
reciprocating member, and the
body of the pump or valve
• Low leakage at moderate speeds,
but require maintenance
 Seals for rotary motion: Labyrinth seals

• Interstitial seals allow unrestricted relative motion between the

stationary and moving components (i.e. no seal to shaft contact).
A type of interstitial seal is labyrinth seal.
• A labyrinth seal consists of a series of fins and corresponding
chambers causing a restriction to the flow and an expansion of
the volume, respectively
• Radial fins restrict axial flow through close control of clearance.
• As it passes through the annular restriction, the fluid accelerates.
• After passing through, the fluid expands and decelerates with
the formation of separation eddies
• These turbulent eddies dissipate some of the energy of the flow
reducing the pressure
• Some leakage inevitable
 Seals for rotary motion: Labyrinth seals
applications

• Turbo machines
to reduce
leakage flow

• Bearings to
help prevent
the leakage of
the oil or
contamination
 Reciprocating pressure seals

• Reciprocating pressure seals

• They include commonly packings and piston rings
 Reciprocating pressure seals: packing seals

• Packing seals consists of a cup, V, U or X section of leather,

solid rubber or fabric reinforced rubber
• Sealing principle: direct contact with the reciprocating
component

Packing seals
 Reciprocating pressure seals: Piston rings

• Piston rings seal cylinders (e.g. automotive) at operating temperatures above the limit of
elastomeric, fabric or polymeric materials
• They seal the combustion chamber/cylinder head, transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder
walls, and control the oil flow.
 Reciprocating pressure seals: Piston rings

• Typically machined from a fine

grain alloy cast iron
• Conventionally they are split
into three piston rings to allow
Piston rings
for assembly over the piston,
with two compression rings
sealing the high pressure and
one oil control ring to control
the flow of oil.
 Dykes ring

• Uses low spring pressure than other piston rings,

allowing cylinder pressure to provide sealing force.
• Now rare in engines, but still appropriate in some
compressor applications.
Seal selection
 Seal failure root causes

• Out of specification temperature may damage sealing material or alter lubricant

properties
• Contamination
• Misalignment
• Poor installation may cause non uniform loading which will lead to premature
failure
 Conclusions

• Seals provide a means of preventing or limiting the flow of fluid from one region
of a machine to another
• Seals generally represent a trade-off between quality of seal and other factors
such as speed, friction and maintenance.
• Some applications can take advantage of standard solutions (oil seals, o rings,
etc.), but others require application specific design.
 Recommended reading

Peter R.N. Childs, Seals, Mechanical Design Engineering Handbook (Second

Edition), Pages 657 717,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102367-9.00014-7
Thank you!

#UofGWorldChangers
@UofGlasgow
Week 9 - Gears

Design and Manufacturing 1 ENG 1015

 What will you learn today

• Functions and typical applications of gears

• Types of gears
• Gear parameters
• Involute profile
• Failure causes
• Types of gear trains (simple, compound, reverse and epicyclic or planetary gear
trains)
• Preliminary design of gear trains
 Gears

• Toothed cylindrical (or

occasionally conical) wheels
for the transmission of
mechanical power from one
rotating shaft to another.

• Typically used where the

distance between the shafts
is not large.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 =
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
 Torque

𝑃
𝑇 = ; T- Torque (Nm), P- Power (1Watt = 1kgm2/s3), ω- Angular velocity (rad/s)
𝜔
• The speed of the pinion is higher than the speed of the gear, the output torque is higher than
the input torque
• Conservation of energy (assuming no energy losses in the system)
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
 Functions and typical applications of gears

• Transmit power from one location to (Low

speed)

another
• Match the torque and speed of a
driving and a driven machine
component
• Change the direction of a rotating
component
• Synchronise the motion of one
rotating component with another.
 Roller Drive

• Change in angular velocity and torque (inversely proportional).

• Power transmission limited by friction at roller contact point.
 Primitive Gears

• Primitive gear trains consisted of teeth or pegs located on discs

• Velocity ratio not constant, changing through meshing cycle
 Classification of gears by relation of shafts

• Parallel Axes
• Non-parallel co-planar
(intersecting axes)
• Non-parallel non
coplanar (non-
intersecting axes)
 Gear Parameters

• Pitch circle diameter (d)

• Circular pitch (p)
• Addendum (a)
• Dedendum (b)
• Base circle
• Centre distance (D)
𝐷𝑃 +𝐷𝐺
• 𝐷= 2

• Module (m)
• Pitch dia./ no of teeth
𝑑
• 𝑚=𝑁
Gear tooth size as a function of the module
Gear Parameters (cont)

Pitch diameter:
𝑑 = 𝑚𝑁
Circular pitch:
𝜋𝑑
𝑝 = 𝜋𝑚 =
𝑁
• d: pitch diameter (mm)
• m: module (mm)
• N: number of teeth
• P: circular pitch (mm)
 Gear Parameters

• Pressure Angle ( φ)
• the angle through which forces are
transmitted between meshing gears
• Radial component of force pushes shafts
apart
• Typical angles 25°,20°, and (now rather rare)
14.5°
 Involute Profile

• Involute profile maintains constant velocity ratio between

meshed gears. Pitch diameter
• Procedure to determine geometry of meshing gears (pinion
and gear):
1. For given module (m) and number of teeth: draw the pitch
diameters
2. For given pressure angle: draw pressure line A0 Og
A1
3. Draw perpendicular lines OgB and OpA A2 Pressure
4. Draw base circles A3 line
A4
5. Divide base circles into equal parts
6. Construct radial lines OgA0 , OgA1 ,.. B Pressure
angle
7. Construct perpendiculars to radial lines with length equal to
A0A1 , A0A2 , A0A 3
8. Curve constructed through these points is the involute of the A
gear, involute of the pinion is constructed in the same way.
9. Then, calculate circular pitch p= π m.
Op
10. Width of teeth and spaces are ½ the circular pitch
11. Draw addendum and dedendum
12. Mirror involute profile
 Straight Cut Gears

• Also referred to as ‘spur gears’

• For parallel shafts
• Simplest, cheapest, most common
• Produce noise and are less compact than helical
cut gears of the same capacity
 Helical-Cut Gears

• They can be designed for both parallel shafts, but also non-parallel, non-coplanar shafts
• Generally, more expensive than straight cut gears.
• Typically, quieter than straight-cut gears.
• Smaller than straight cut for same capacity.
• Produce (generally unwanted) axial force.
 Crossed Helical Gears

• Helical gears can be used with crossed axis shafts, (non-parallel,

non-intersecting).
 Worm Gears

• Transmit drive between non-parallel non-coplanar shafts

• Very high reduction ratio
• 90°configuration most common.
• High friction losses compared to other gears.
 Straight Bevel Gears

• Non-parallel, co planar shaft axes.

• Straight teeth, they can be made in smaller sizes (module of as small as 0.5)
• Potential tolerancing difficulties to ensure correct engagement.
 Spiral Bevel Gears

• Spiral bevel gears offer similar

advantages to helical gears
• Strength and noise level
advantage over straight bevel
gears
• Applications that require high
speed and high torque
• Reduced risk of overheating
• However, they produce an axial
thrust load
 Hypoid Gears

• Hypoid gears similar to spiral bevel

gears but allow non-coplanar shafts.
• Stronger as load is applied to
multiple teeth simultaneously
• Very low noise levels
Useful Ranges (Guideline)
 Gear Failure Causes

Typical causes
• Bending stress fatigue in the teeth
• Number of teeth
• Pressure angle
• Bearing fatigue on tooth surfaces
 Gear Trains

• One or more pairs of gears operating together to transmit power.

• Simple
• Compound
• Reverted
• Epicyclic

Epicyclic
(Planetary)
Simple Compound Reverted
 Simple Gear Train

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑠
=
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝑁1
𝑛2 = − 𝑛
𝑁2 1
n1 = Speed of gear 1 (driver) in RPM
n2 = Speed of gear 2 (driven, or follower) in RPM
N1 = Number of teeth on gear 1
N2 = Number of teeth on gear 2
Additional relationships:
𝜔𝑝 𝑛𝑝 𝑁𝐺 𝑑𝐺
= =− =−
𝜔𝐺 𝑛𝐺 𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑝
Where: ωp and ωG are the angular velocities of the pinion and gear, respectively (rad/s);
np and nG are the rotational speeds of the pinion and gear, respectively (rpm);
Np and NG are the number of teeth in the pinion and gear, respectively;
dp and dG are the pitch diameter of the pinion and gear, respectively (mm)
 Compound Gear Train

𝑁1
𝑛2 = − 𝑛1
𝑁2

𝑁2
𝑛3 = − 𝑛2
𝑁3

𝑛4 = 𝑛3

𝑁4
𝑛5 = − 𝑛4
𝑁5

𝑁4 𝑁2 𝑁1
𝑛5 = − 𝑛1
𝑁5 𝑁3 𝑁2
 Reverted Gear Train

• In a reverted gear train, the axes of the first

gear (i.e. first driver) and the last gear (i.e.
last driven or follower) are co axial.
• A Reverted Gear Train has :
• Two gear pairs
• Two shafts
• The input and output shafts are co axial
• Clearly, at least one gear must not be
keyed to the shaft.
 Example 1

• Determine the output speed if the pinion has N1=22 teeth and is being driven at
2650 rpm, clockwise. The gear wheel has 72 teeth.

Answer:

𝑁1
𝑛2 = − 𝑛1
𝑁2

22
𝑛2 = − −2650 = 809.7𝑟𝑝𝑚
72

counterclockwise
 Example 2

• Consider the gear train shown below and calculate the output speed, with the
following characteristics: N1=20, N3=30, N4=50, N5=40 and 𝑛1=3000𝑟𝑝𝑚
Answer:
𝑁1
𝑛2 = − 𝑛1
𝑁2
𝑁2
𝑛3 = − 𝑛2
𝑁3
𝑛4 = 𝑛3 (𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡)
𝑁4
𝑛5 = − 𝑛4
𝑁5

𝑁4 𝑁2 𝑁1 𝑁4 𝑁2 𝑁1
𝑛5 = − − − 𝑛 =− 𝑛
𝑁5 𝑁3 𝑁2 1 𝑁5 𝑁3 𝑁2 1
50 × 20
=− −3000 = 2500𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
40 × 30
 Gear Design: Number of Teeth

• For a given diameter, the greater the number of teeth, the finer the pitch and
hence the weaker they are.
• In general, choose the maximum number of teeth consistent resistance to
failure.
• Integer ratios mean that the same teeth engage on each revolution, (a bad
thing…)
• Use of ‘hunting’ tooth for wear equalisation. (Only possible where change in
speed is acceptable)
• Tooth systems are standards that define the geometric proportions of gear
teeth
Simple gear selection procedure
Break and Questions
 Epicyclic or planetary gears

• A system of gears consisting of a central sun gear,

planet gears (on a carrier) and outer ring or
annulus.
• Without holding one element stationary the system
has two degrees of freedom.
• A variety of ratios can be achieved dependent on
which element is held stationary
• Spur, helical or bevel gears typically
• Often used in automobiles for automatic
transmission
Epicyclic or planetary gears
Epicyclic or planetary gears
Epicyclic or planetary gears

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARd-Om2VyiE
 Epicyclic or planetary gears

• For typical applications where nR = 0 (i.e., ring is fixed)

𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑁𝑅
= + 1 (Typically between 3:1 and 9:1)
𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑁𝑆

• So, for a reduction ratio of 5:1

𝑁𝑅
5= +1
𝑁𝑆

𝑁𝑅
=4
𝑁𝑆
Thus, for example we could choose NS =15 NR = 60
 Epicyclic or planetary gears

• However, considering that two gears in order to mesh, they need to have the same
module, m:
dR=mNR
𝑁𝑅 𝑑𝑅 1st trial
dS=mNS =4 = 4 𝑑𝑅 = 4𝑑𝑆 NS=15
𝑁 𝑆 𝑑𝑆
NR = 60

• Now, the pitch diameter of the planet gear (as shown in the figure):
4−1 𝑑𝑃 𝑁𝑃
𝑑𝑃 = 𝑑𝑆 = 1.5 = 𝑁𝑃 = 1.5𝑁𝑆 = 22.5 Not integer!
2 𝑑𝑆 𝑁𝑆
• As you must have an integer number of teeth, we need to try alternative solutions,
such as:
• NS=16, NR=64, NP=24 or
• NS=12, NR=48, NP=18
 Epicyclic or planetary gears

• Note also that for equispaced planetary gears:

𝑁𝑆 + 𝑁𝑅
= 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑠

• Thus, for NS= 16, NR= 64, best number of planet wheels would be four, but for
NS= 12, NR= 48 best number would be three.
Gear manufacturing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XZgsV0AZJJ0
Gear Inspection

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDbcYiGjEzs
 Summary - General design considerations

• Gears offer a compact, high efficiency, and (where required) high

speed drive.
• Gears also offer a wide range of configurations (depending on the
position of their axes), to meet a variety of design requirements and
constraints.
• A gear train consists of one or more pairs of gears operating together
to transmit power.
 Recommended reading

• Peter R.N. Childs, 8 Gears, Mechanical Design Engineering Handbook (Second

Edition),Pages 377 434,
c
Thank you!

#UofGWorldChangers
@UofGlasgow
Week 10 - Fasteners

Design and Manufacturing 1 ENG 1015

 What will you learn today

• Typical applications and forms of fasteners

• Threaded fasteners
• Bolt strength
• Power screws
• Rivets
• Adhesives
• Welding
• Snap fasteners
 Typical application of Fasteners

• Structures for buildings and

bridges
• Automotive, aerospace,
electrical and marine
assemblies
• Domestic and office
appliances
• Machine tools
• Pipework and ducting
• Furniture
 Forms of Fastening

• Non-permanent • Permanent
• Screws • Welding, brazing and
• Bolts soldering
• Keys • Adhesives
• Pins • Rivets
• Nuts
 Design Considerations

• Strength
• Weight
• Cost
• Corrosion
• Magnetic properties
• Life
• Maintenance
• Assembly
 Threaded fasteners

Bolts vs Screws
• Many differing definitions but the concern here is with non-tapered, externally threaded fasteners,
intended to engage with a matching internally threaded nut or other component.
• A ‘bolt’ may or may not have a section of plain shank.
• A ‘machine screw’ will generally be threaded for its full length to the head.
• With the exception of the last usage above, a ‘screw’ will generally have a taper, and a thread
designed to cut into the material in which it engages.
Bolt Types
Bolt Types
Bolt Types
Bolt Types
 Terminology

• Pitch
• Crest
• Root
• Flank
• Major diameter
• Minor diameter
• Pitch (or effective) diameter
• Thread angle
 Thread Profile

• ISO metric thread:

designated by the
letter M, followed by
the nominal diameter
and the pitch required
(in mm), e.g., M6 × 1.5
 Bolt Strength: Tensile

• Movement of the joint members is prevented or

limited by generating a tensile preload
• General design case is for predominantly tensile
loading.
 Bolt Strength: Tensile

• Most of the bolt load taken on the first few threads

of the bolt, greatly increasing the stress intensity
• Minimising the stress amplitude can be achieved
by a number of techniques, e.g., by maximising
the flexibility of the bolt compared to the joint
 Bolt Strength: Tensile stress and stress area

• Simple method would be to take minor diameter, however this has

been shown to be pessimistic. Testing of threaded rods in tension
shows that their strength is better defined by the average of minor
and pitch diameters.
• Area for tensile stress:
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑡 = 𝑑 + 𝑑𝑟
16 𝑝
• And tensile stress:
𝐹
𝜎𝑡 =
𝐴𝑡
Where dp – pitch diameter; dr – minor diameter; F – tensile load
 ISO Metric Threads

• For ISO threads:

𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑 − 0.6495𝑝
and
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑 − 1.2269𝑝
Where:
d - nominal bolt diameter
p = pitch
 Bolt Strength: Tensile

• Pre-load for reusable joints:

𝐹𝑖 = 0.75𝐴𝑡 𝜎𝑝 ; where 𝜎𝑝 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡, 𝐴𝑡 − 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

• Pre-load for permanent joints:

𝐹𝑖 = 0.90𝐴𝑡 𝜎𝑝 ; where 𝜎𝑝 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 , 𝐴𝑡 − 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

• If detailed information concerning the proof strength is not available, it can be approximated as:
𝜎𝑝 = 0.85𝜎𝑦 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 Bolt Strength: Torque

• Once the pre-load is determined, then the torque can be calculated from:
𝑇 = 𝐾𝐹𝑖 𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟; 𝐾 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 Example 1

• An M10 ×1.5 bolt has been selected for a re-useable application. The proof stress of the mild steel
bolt is 310 MPa. Determine the recommended pre-load on the bolt, and the torque setting.
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑 − 0.6495𝑝 = 10 − 0.6495 × 1.5 = 9.026𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑 − 1.2269𝑝 = 10 − 1.2269 × 1.5 = 8.160𝑚𝑚
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝐴𝑡 = 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑑𝑟 = 9.026 + 8.160 = 57.99𝑚𝑚2
16 16

• For a re-usable joint:

𝐹𝑖 = 0.75𝐴𝑡 𝜎𝑝 =13.45kN
• Taking K=0.2:
𝑇 = 𝐾𝐹𝑖 𝑑 = 0.2 × 13.48 × 103 × 0.01 = 26.96𝑁𝑚
 Elasticity in Bolted Joints

• The relative stiffnesses of the bolt and joint affects what happens when an
external load is applied to a joint.
• If the bolts are relatively stiff, most of the additional force, above the clamping
load, is taken by the bolt and the bolt should be designed to take the clamping
force and any additional force. Such a joint can be classified as a soft joint
 Elasticity in Bolted Joints

• But if the bolts are relatively flexible compared to the joint, then, most of the
additional force, above the clamping load will initially go towards decreasing the
clamping force until the components separate.
• The bolt will then carry all of the external load.
• This kind of joint is classified as a hard joint.
 Elasticity in Bolted Joints

• Final force in the bolt:

𝑘𝑏
𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝑖 + × 𝐹𝑒
𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘𝑐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐹𝑏 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐹𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐹𝑒 − 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑘𝑏 − 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑐 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Final force in the component:
𝑘𝑐
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑖 − × 𝐹𝑒
𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘𝑐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐹𝑐 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 Example 2

• Six M8 ×1.25 bolts are to be used to provide a clamping force between two components. If the
joint is subjected to an additional load of 18kN after an initial pre load of 8.5kN per bolt has
been applied, determine the stress in each bolt if the stiffness of the components is three times
that of the bolts.
• Final force in the bolt:
𝑘𝑏
𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝑖 + × 𝐹𝑒
𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘𝑐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐹𝑏 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐹𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐹𝑒 − 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑘𝑏 − 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑐 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

1 1800
𝐹𝑏 = 8500 + × = 9250𝑁
4 6
 Example 2 (continued)

• The stress in each bolt is estimated as

𝐹𝑏
𝜎=
𝐴𝑡
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑡 = 𝑑 + 𝑑𝑟
16 𝑝

𝑑𝑝 = 8 − 0.649 × 1.25 = 7.188 𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑟 = 8 − 1.2269 × 1.25 = 6.466 𝑚𝑚
𝜋
𝐴𝑡 = 7.188 + 6.466 2 = 36.61𝑚𝑚2
16
9250
𝜎= = 252.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
36.61 × 10−6

• If the proof stress of the low carbon steel bolt material is 310MPa, the tensile stress is 82% of the proof
stress. The bolts are therefore safe.
 Bolt Strength: Shear

• In other typical applications, shear

loading largely transmitted through
friction of bolted faces.
• Where bolt is explicitly designed for
shear load, use ‘fitted’ bolt shank.
 Fitted Bolts

• Specifically for shear load applications

• Fitted bolts are installed in pre-drilled or pre
tapped holes, typically in a joint that
requires a high degree of accuracy and
alignment
Questions & Break
Power Screws
 Rivets

• Non-threaded, permanent fasteners

• On installation, the rivet is placed in a drilled hole of the material to be joined, and
the other end of the rivet, called tail is deformed, and expands to about 1.5 times
the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in place.
• Made from ductile material such as carbon steel, aluminium and brass. A variety
of coatings are available to improve corrosion resistance.
 Design Factors for Riveted Joints

• Rivet
• Size
• Type
• Material
• Joint
• Type
• Spacing
Riveted Joints
Joint Types
 Adhesives

• Adhesive joints are achieved by bonding with natural or synthetic substances which
form a rigid or semi rigid interface without the use of mechanical fasteners
• Advantages
• More uniform distribution of stresses over the bonded area
• Stiffer structures
• Smooth surface finishes
• Fatigue resistance, low temperature fabrication, etc.
• Disadvantages
• Lower strength
• Decreasing strength with temperature
• Oxidation
• Not easy to dismantle
 Types of Adhesives

• Anerobics • Plastisols
• Cyanoacrylates • Polyurethanes
• Acrylics • Polyvinyl Acetates
• Ceramics • Rubber adhesives
• Epoxies • UV Curable
• Hotmelts • Silicones
• Phenolics
Adhesive Joints
 Welding

• Joining achieved by heating metals to

the point of being molten or plastic.
• Equivalent process applicable to
thermoplastic polymers.
• Brazing and soldering use dissimilar
fillers such that the parent material
remains well below the melting
temperature.
Welding
Snap Fits
 Summary

• Permanent, non-permanent fasteners

• The choice of fasteners is not generally independent of the design of
the components being joined.
• Fasteners are generally bought in, off the shelf items, and in an
industrial context the suppler will be able to provide critical data for
the design process.
 Recommended reading

• Peter R.N. Childs, 16 Fastening and power screws, Mechanical Design

Engineering Handbook (Second Edition),Pages 773 832,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102367-9.00016-0
Thank you!

#UofGWorldChangers
@UofGlasgow