B.Sc.

III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

B.Sc. III Semester

DSC 3: Wave Motion and Optics
Unit 2
Standing Waves: Velocity of transverse waves along a stretched string (derivation), Standing (Stationary)
Waves in a String - Fixed and Free Ends (qualitative). Theory of Normal modes of vibration in a stretched
string, Energy density and energy transport of a transverse wave along a stretched string. Vibrations in rods
– longitudinal and transverse modes (qualitative). Normal Modes of vibrations in Open and Closed Pipes –
Analytical treatment. Concept of Resonance, Theory of Helmholtz resonator. (Text Book: 1-4) (8 Hours)
Standing Waves
Velocity of transverse waves along a stretched string (derivation):
Consider the portion PABQ of a string in which a transverse wave is
travelling from left to right with a velocity v. the string is also drawn towards
the left with the same velocity so that the wave is stationary.
Let AB be a small element of the string and R is the radius of curvature
of the element AB. Let T be the tension at A and B. Resolving the tension at A into two rectangular
𝜃 𝜃
components, 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 2, perpendicular and parallel to the string in the un displaced portion. Similarly
𝜃 𝜃
at B 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 2, perpendicular and parallel to the string in the un displaced portion. The parallel

components are equal and opposite. And the perpendicular components are along CO. therefore the resultant
tension along CO is
𝜃
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 2𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝜃
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 2𝑇. = 𝑇𝜃 … … (1)
2
For equilibrium position, this resultant tension provides the necessary centripetal force
(𝑚 𝛿𝑥)𝑣 2
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = … … … (2)
𝑅
From equations (1) and (2)
(𝑚 𝛿𝑥)𝑣 2
= 𝑇𝜃
𝑅
𝛿𝑥
𝑚𝜃𝑣 2 = 𝑇𝜃 ∵𝜃=
𝑅
𝑇
𝑣2 =
𝑚

𝑻
𝒗 = √ … … … . (𝟑)
𝒎

Where m is the mass per unit length of the string. This is the expression for the velocity of the transverse wave
in a string.
B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

Standing (Stationary) Waves in a String - Fixed and Free Ends (qualitative):

The standing waves are formed by the superposition of two harmonic waves of equal amplitude and
frequency travelling through the medium in the opposite direction. The standing waves are also known as
stationary waves. These waves are localised and not progressive, hence the name stationary waves.

Standing Waves
Standing waves are characterized by nodes and antinodes. The amplitude of vibration of the particle
is maximum at the antinodes and minimum at the nodes. The vibration within a string can produce a variety
of patterns. Each pattern corresponds to the vibration that takes place at a particular frequency and it is called
harmonic. The lowest frequency at which the string vibrates to form a standing wave is called the fundamental
frequency or the first harmonic. The wavelength and the speed of the wave determine the frequency of each
harmonic.

Standing Waves on an Infinite Length String:

Let us consider two harmonic waves of the same amplitude and period T and wavelength λ travelling
with the same speed in the opposite direction.

𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 – 𝜔𝑡)

𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 + 𝑤𝑡)

Considering the principle of superposition the resultant can be calculated as

𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 – 𝜔𝑡) + 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 + 𝑤𝑡)

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
sin 𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = 2. sin . cos
2 2
𝑘𝑥 – 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑤𝑡 𝑘𝑥 – 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡
𝑦 = 2𝐴. sin ( ) . cos ( )
2 2
𝑦 = 2𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡)
The equation represents the SHM of the collection of particles. Here the term 2𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥) is the amplitude of
the resultant wave.
Nodes:
The amplitude of the wave is zero for all the values of 𝑘𝑥 that give 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 = 0. It means for 𝑘𝑥 =
0, 𝜋, 2𝜋 … . . 𝑛𝜋 the amplitude of vibration of the particles will be zero. Here n is an integer.

By substituting 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆 we get

(2𝜋/𝜆)𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋
B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

𝑛𝜆
⇒ 𝑥 =
2

𝜆 3𝜆
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑥 = 0, , 𝜆 , , ….
2 2

These points of zero displacements of the particles are called the nodes.

Antinodes:
The amplitude will have a maximum value of 2𝐴 for all values of 𝑘𝑥 that give 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 = ± 1. This means for
𝑘𝑥 = 𝜋/2, 3𝜋/2 — — — (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋/2 the amplitude of vibration of the particles will be maximum.

By substituting 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆 we get

2𝜋 𝜋
( ) 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)
𝜆 2

𝜆
⇒ 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)
4

𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆
⇒ 𝑥 = , , … … ..
4 4 4

These points at which the displacement of the particles are maximum are called antinodes. The nodes and
the antinodes in a standing wave are equally spaced, the distance is equal to λ/2, where λ is the wavelength
of the wave.

Standing Waves on a String with Two Fixed Ends:

Consider a uniform string of length L which is stretched
between two fixed ends. A wave that travels in one direction along
the string reflects at the end and returns inverted because of the fixed
ends. These two identical waves travelling in the opposite direction
forms the standing wave on the string. The length of the string is
given as L so the wavelength of the wave is restricted by the
boundary condition.

2𝐿
𝜆 = ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … ..
𝑛

The standing waves are formed in the string only if the wavelength satisfies the relationship with L. If v is the
speed with which the waves travel along the string, then the frequency of the standing wave is

𝑣 𝑛𝑣
𝑓 = = 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … ..
𝜆 2𝐿

Nodes are formed at the fixed ends. In addition to the nodes, if an antinode will exist at the centre of
the string, the stretched string is said to vibrate in the fundamental frequency. The lowest resonance frequency
B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

corresponding to 𝑛 = 1 is the fundamental frequency. The higher frequencies are called the harmonics.
Harmonics are the integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Theory of Normal modes of vibration in a stretched string:

Consider a string of finite length 𝑙 clamped rigidly at both ends. Let the string be plucked at the
middle, then the identical waves travel along the string. Each particle of string is set in transverse oscillations.
These waves are reflected from the ends. The incident and reflected waves travelling in opposite direction
superimpose to form the stationary waves. Under given conditions of mass, length and tension of the string
there are a number of states of these waves which are called the normal modes of vibrations of the string.
Let 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 be the displacements of forward wave and reflected waves of string at any point 𝑥 and
at any time 𝑡.
2𝜋
𝑦1 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝜆
2𝜋
𝑦1 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥) 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝜆
The resultant wave is
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥) … … . (1)
𝜆 𝜆
The boundary conditions of string are
𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡
𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡
Applying boundary conditions 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡 in equation (1), we get
2𝜋𝑣𝑡 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
0 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⇒ 𝑎 = −𝑏
𝜆 𝜆
Under this condition equation (1) gives
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) − 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥)
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑎 {𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥)}
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) + (𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥) (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) − (𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥)
𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 { 𝜆 𝜆 } . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 { 𝜆 𝜆 }
2 2

2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
𝑦 = − 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 … … … … . (2)
𝜆 𝜆
This equation represents a stationary wave. Now applying the boundary conditions that 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 =
𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡 in equation (2), we get
2𝜋𝑙 2𝜋𝑣𝑡
0 = − 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝜆 𝜆
As 𝑎 ≠ 0, therefore for the validity of this equation for all times t, we get
B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

2𝜋𝑙 2𝜋𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 =0 ⇒ = 𝑝𝜋, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 = 1,2,3 … ..
𝜆 𝜆
2𝑙
⇒𝜆=
𝑝
Or Frequency,
𝑣 𝑝𝑣
𝑛= =
𝜆 2𝑙
As

𝑇
𝑣=√
𝑚

𝑝 𝑇
𝑛= √ … … … (3)
2𝑙 𝑚

This equation represents the frequencies of vibration of the string. These frequencies are called normal
modes of vibrations of string.
The least frequency corresponding to 𝑝 = 1 is called the fundamental frequency of the first harmonic,
while the frequencies corresponding to 𝑝 = 2, 3, 4, … … are called the first, second, third, ….. overtones
respectively.

1 𝑇
𝑛1 = √ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
2𝑙 𝑚

2 𝑇
𝑛2 = √ 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
2𝑙 𝑚

3 𝑇
𝑛3 = √ 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
2𝑙 𝑚

Energy density and energy transport of a transverse wave along a stretched string:
The general equation of a progressive wave is given by
2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … … . (1)
𝜆
The particle velocity at any instant can be obtained by differentiating equation (1) with respect to ‘t’
𝑑𝑦 2𝜋𝑎𝑣 2𝜋
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … . . (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆
Therefore the acceleration is
𝑑2 𝑦 4𝜋 2 𝑎𝑣 2 2𝜋
2
=− 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … . . (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆
To calculate P.E:
To displace the particle from its mean position to a distance 𝑦, work has to be dine against acceleration. That
B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

is the work done per unit volume for a displacement 𝑑𝑦 is

= 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑚. 𝑎. 𝑑𝑦
= 𝜌. 𝑎. 𝑑𝑦
𝑚
Where 𝜌 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 , ∴ 𝑚 = 𝜌. Substituting the value of acceleration from equation (3), we get

4𝜋 2 𝑎𝑣 2 2𝜋
Work done per unit volume = 𝜌 [ 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)] . 𝑑𝑦
𝜆 𝜆
4𝜋 2 𝜌𝑣 2
Work done per unit volume = . 𝑦. 𝑑𝑦 ∵ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)
𝜆2
𝑦
4𝜋 2 𝜌𝑣 2
Total work done per unit volume = . ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝑦
𝜆2
0
2 2 2
4𝜋 𝜌𝑣 𝑦 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑦 2
Potential energy per unit volume = =
2𝜆2 𝜆2
2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣 2 2
2𝜋
Potential energy per unit volume = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … . . (4)
𝜆2 𝜆
To calculate K.E:
1
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = . 𝜌. (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)2
2
2
1 2𝜋𝑎𝑣 2𝜋
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = . 𝜌. [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)]
2 𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣 2 2
2𝜋
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … … (5)
𝜆2 𝜆
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸
2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣 2 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐸= 2
[𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)]
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣 2
𝐸=
𝜆2
𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑛2 𝑎2 ∵ 𝑣 = 𝑛𝜆
The intensity is defined as the amount of energy transferred per unit area of cross section per unit time at a
point. If 𝑣 is the velocity of the wave per second then intensity per second is
𝐼 =𝐸×𝑣
𝑰 = 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝝆𝒏𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒗
This is expression for intensity of the progressive wave.
Vibrations in rods – longitudinal and transverse modes (qualitative):
A bar or rod means a body of homogeneous and isotropic material whose length is much greater as
compared to its cross sectional area.
A bar may be made to vibrate longitudinally or transversely. The exact mode of vibration will,
B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

however, depend upon stroking and also upon the manner in which the bar is clamped.
Longitudinal vibrations in a bar can be produced by stroking it at one end with a hammer or by
rubbing it along its length by means of a resined cloth. These vibrations travel along the rod with a velocity
which depends upon the Young’s modulus and density of material of the bar.
When the bar is set into vibrations, each cross-section of it vibrates forward and backward about its
mean position in the direction of the axis which remains un-displaced. If the bar is stretched along its length,
the increase in length is accompanied by a contraction in the cross-section. If the rod is short, the motion of
the particle near the surface is transverse as well as longitudinal. If the length of the rod is large as compared
to its diameter, the transverse vibrations are suppressed by the longitudinal vibrations and hence transverse
motion becomes negligible.
The expression for the frequencies of the harmonics in the case of rod fixed at both ends (Fixed-
Fixed rod), open at both ends (Free-Free rod) and clamped at the middle is given by \

𝑟 𝑌
𝑛𝑟 = √ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 1, 2, 3, … ..
2𝑙 𝜌

The expression for the frequencies of the harmonics in the case of rod fixed at one end free at the other end
(Fixed-Free) is given by

𝑟 𝑌
𝑛𝑟 = √ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 1, 2, 3, … ..
4𝑙 𝜌

Thus fundamental frequency of a fixed-free bar is half that of a free-free of fixed-fixed bar.
Normal Modes of vibrations in Closed Pipe:
Let 𝑙 be the length of the pipe and 𝑣 the velocity of sound
in air.
First or Fundamental mode:
In this mode the air column vibrates with a node at the
closed end, the next antinode at the open end so that the
length 𝑙 of the pipe comprises half a ventral segment (fig1).
If 𝑛1 be the frequency of the fundamental mode and 𝜆1
wavelength.
𝜆1
𝑙= 𝑜𝑟 𝜆1 = 4𝑙
4
𝑣 = 𝑛1 𝜆1 = 𝑛1 × 4𝑙
𝑣
𝑛1 = … … … (1)
4𝑙
Second mode:
1
In this mode, the pipe length comprises of1 1 2 ventral segments (fig 2). If 𝑛2 be the frequency of the second

mode and 𝜆2 wavelength.

B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

3 𝜆2 4𝑙
𝑙= 𝑜𝑟 𝜆2 =
4 3
4𝑙
𝑣 = 𝑛2 𝜆2 = 𝑛2 . 3
3𝑣
𝑛2 = … … … (2)
4𝑙
Third mode:
1
There will be 2 2 ventral segments (fig 3) in the length 𝑙 of the pipe. If the frequency be 𝑛3 and 𝜆3 wavelength.
5 𝜆3 4𝑙
𝑙= 𝑜𝑟 𝜆3 =
4 5
4𝑙
𝑣 = 𝑛3 𝜆3 = 𝑛3 . 5
5𝑣
𝑛3 = … … … (3)
4𝑙
From equations (1), (2) and (3), 𝑛1 : 𝑛2 : 𝑛3 : 1: 3: 5. Therefore in the case of a closed pipe the frequency of
the fundamental to those of the harmonics are as odd natural numbers (only the odd harmonics are present).
Normal Modes of vibrations in an Open Pipe:
Let 𝑙 be the length of the pipe and 𝑣 the velocity of sound
in air.
First mode:
In this mode there is an antinode at each end with a node
midway (fig 1). The length of the pipe comprises one
ventral segment (two half ventral segments).
𝜆1
𝑙= 𝑜𝑟 𝜆1 = 2𝑙
2
𝑣 = 𝑛1 𝜆1 = 𝑛1 × 2𝑙
𝑣
𝑛1 = … … … (1)
2𝑙
Second mode:
In this mode there are two ventral segments in the length 𝑙 of the pipe. If 𝑛2 be the frequency of the second
mode and 𝜆2 wavelength.
𝑙 = 𝜆2
𝑣 = 𝑛2 𝜆2 = 𝑛2 𝑙
𝑣 2𝑣
𝑛2 = = … … … (2)
𝑙 2𝑙
Third mode:
There will be 3 ventral segments (fig 3) in the length 𝑙 of the pipe. If the frequency be 𝑛3 and 𝜆3 wavelength.
3 𝜆3 2𝑙
𝑙= 𝑜𝑟 𝜆3 =
2 3
B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

2𝑙
𝑣 = 𝑛3 𝜆3 = 𝑛3 . 3
3𝑣
𝑛3 = … … … (3)
2𝑙
From equations (1), (2) and (3), 𝑛1 : 𝑛2 : 𝑛3 : 1: 2: 3. Therefore in the case of an open pipe the frequency of the
fundamental to those of the harmonics are as the natural numbers (all harmonics are present).
Concept of Resonance:
If a body is set into vibration with the help of a periodic force then the body vibrates with the frequency of
the applied force. Its vibrations are called forced vibrations. The amplitude of vibration will be small if the
difference between the frequency of the applied force and the natural frequency of the body is large. The
vibrations die out as soon as the force is removed.
As the frequency of the applied force is gradually increased, the amplitude of vibration of the body
and hence the intensity of sound also increases. When the frequency of the applied force is equal to the
natural frequency of the body, the body vibrates with a very large amplitude. Corresponding intensity of
sound will be maximum. This phenomenon is known as resonance. The frequency at which the intensity of
the sound is maximum is called the resonant frequency.
Theory of Helmholtz resonator:
Consider a flask containing air of narrow cross section area 𝑎. let the volume of the flask
be 𝑉 and the mass of air contained in the neck be m. the pressure inside the flask is 𝑃 and
outside pressure is 𝑃0 . For equilibrium
𝑚𝑔
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + … … … (1)
𝑎
When the air in the flask is in resonance with a particular frequency, the air contained in
the neck moves up and down and acts like a piston on the large mass of air in the neck.
Let at any instant, the mass of air in the neck move down through a distance 𝑥. If the
compression is adiabatic, the new pressure 𝑃1 in the vessel will be,
𝑃1 (𝑉 − 𝑎𝑥)𝛾 = 𝑃𝑉 𝛾
𝛾
𝑉
𝑃1 = 𝑃 ( )
𝑉 − 𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑥 𝛾
𝑃1 = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑉 − 𝑎𝑥
𝛾𝑎𝑥
𝑃1 = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑉 − 𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝛾𝑎𝑥
𝑃1 − 𝑃 = … … … (2)
𝑉 − 𝑎𝑥
The net downward force F on the air in the resonator is
𝑚𝑔
𝐹 = [(𝑃0 + ) − 𝑃1 ] 𝑎
𝑎
𝐹 = [𝑃 − 𝑃1 ]𝑎
B.Sc. III Semester Wave Motion and Optics A D B F G College, H hall

Substituting the value of (𝑃 − 𝑃1 ) from equation (2)

𝑃𝛾𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝛾𝑎2 𝑥
𝐹 = −( )𝑎 = −
𝑉 − 𝑎𝑥 𝑉 − 𝑎𝑥
As 𝑎𝑥 is extremely small compared to 𝑉
𝑃𝛾𝑎2 𝑥
𝐹=−
𝑉

But,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝛾𝑎2 𝑥
− = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝛾𝑎2
= =−
𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑉
This represents simple harmonic motion. Therefore frequency of oscillation is,
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
1 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝛾𝑎2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑐
𝑓= √ = √ 2
= −𝜔2 𝑦; = −𝜔2
2𝜋 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 2𝜋 𝑚 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠

But, velocity of sound in air is,

𝛾𝑃
𝑣=√
𝜌

𝛾𝑃 = 𝑣 2 𝜌

1 𝑣 2 𝜌 𝑎2
∴ 𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑚𝑉

1 𝑣 2 𝜌 𝑎2
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝜌 𝑙 𝑎 𝑉

𝑣2 𝑎
𝑓2 = 𝜌=
𝑚
; 𝑚=𝜌𝑉=𝜌𝑙𝑎
4𝜋 2 𝑙 𝑉 𝑉
𝑣2 𝑎
𝑓2𝑉 = = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
4𝜋 2 𝑙
Thus, the frequency of the resonator is inversely proportional to the square root of its volume.