MIA 1.

Embedded Systems
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Introduction to embedded systems

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Embedded systems are specialized computing systems designed to perform specific functions
within a larger mechanical or electrical system. They are often found in everyday devices such as
smartphones, household appliances, automotive systems, medical equipment, industrial
machinery, and more. Here's a brief introduction to embedded systems:

1. Definition: An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software specifically

designed to perform a dedicated function or task within a larger system. Unlike general-
purpose computers, embedded systems are optimized for specific applications and are often
built with constraints such as size, power consumption, and cost in mind.

2. Components: Embedded systems typically consist of three main components:

Microcontroller/Microprocessor: This is the central processing unit (CPU) of the

embedded system. It executes the software instructions and interacts with the system's
peripherals.
Memory: Embedded systems have both volatile (RAM) and non-volatile (ROM, Flash
memory) memory for storing data and program instructions.
Peripherals: These are devices or components connected to the microcontroller that
help the system interact with the external environment. Examples include sensors,
actuators, communication interfaces (e.g., UART, SPI, I2C), and display units.

3. Design Considerations: Developing embedded systems requires careful consideration of

various factors:

Real-time Constraints: Many embedded systems are required to respond to external

events in real-time or within specific timing constraints.
Power Consumption: Embedded systems are often battery-powered or have strict
power requirements, so optimizing power consumption is crucial.
Size and Cost: Embedded systems are frequently deployed in space-constrained
environments and mass-produced, necessitating compact designs and cost-effective
solutions.
Reliability and Safety: Embedded systems used in critical applications like medical
devices or automotive systems must be highly reliable and meet stringent safety
standards.

4. Development Tools: Designing and programming embedded systems require specialized

tools and software:

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 Integrated Development Environments (IDEs): Software tools like Keil, MPLAB, or
Arduino IDE provide a development environment for writing, compiling, and debugging
embedded software.
Hardware Description Languages (HDLs): For designing embedded systems with
custom hardware components, HDLs like VHDL or Verilog are used.
Simulation and Emulation: Tools such as Proteus or QEMU allow developers to simulate
and emulate embedded systems to test their functionality before deploying them in real
hardware.

5. Applications: Embedded systems are ubiquitous and are found in various industries and
products, including:

Consumer Electronics: Smartphones, digital cameras, gaming consoles.

Automotive: Engine control units (ECUs), infotainment systems, advanced driver-
assistance systems (ADAS).
Industrial Automation: Programmable logic controllers (PLCs), robotics, process control
systems.
Medical Devices: Pacemakers, insulin pumps, medical imaging equipment.
Home Automation: Smart thermostats, security systems, IoT devices.

Overall, embedded systems play a vital role in modern technology, enabling the functionality of
numerous devices and systems that we interact with daily.

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Requirements/ Components of Embedded Systems

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Embedded systems consist of several key components and requirements that work together to
fulfill their intended functions. Here's an overview:

1. Microcontroller or Microprocessor:

The central processing unit (CPU) of an embedded system.

Microcontrollers are commonly used in embedded systems due to their integration of
CPU, memory, and peripherals on a single chip.
Microprocessors, which require external memory and peripherals, are also utilized in
more complex systems.

2. Memory:

Program Memory (ROM or Flash): Stores the firmware or software that runs on the
embedded system.
Data Memory (RAM): Used for temporary storage of data and variables during program
execution.
Some systems may also utilize additional storage options like EEPROM or external
memory chips.

3. Peripherals:

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 Input Devices: Sensors for collecting data from the environment (e.g., temperature
sensors, accelerometers, cameras).
Output Devices: Actuators for interacting with the environment (e.g., motors, LEDs,
displays).
Communication Interfaces: Enable communication with other devices or systems (e.g.,
UART, SPI, I2C, Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
Timers and Counters: Used for generating time delays, measuring time intervals, or
counting events.
Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs) and Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs):
Convert analog signals from sensors to digital data and vice versa.

4. Real-time Operating System (RTOS):

Provides scheduling, task management, and resource allocation functionalities to meet

real-time requirements.
Helps manage concurrent tasks and ensures timely response to external events.

5. Power Management:

Embedded systems often have stringent power constraints, especially in battery-powered

devices.
Power management components such as voltage regulators, power-saving modes, and
low-power MCUs are utilized to optimize energy consumption.

6. Development Tools:

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs): Software tools for writing, compiling,

and debugging embedded software (e.g., Keil µVision, MPLAB X IDE, Arduino IDE).
Compilers and Assemblers: Translate high-level programming languages or assembly
code into machine-readable instructions.
Debugging Tools: Hardware and software tools for debugging embedded systems,
including in-circuit emulators, logic analyzers, and debuggers.

7. Testing and Verification:

Techniques and tools for testing embedded systems to ensure reliability, safety, and
compliance with specifications.
This includes unit testing, integration testing, simulation, emulation, and hardware-in-
the-loop (HIL) testing.

8. Security Features:

Embedded systems may require security measures to protect against unauthorized

access, data breaches, or tampering.
This includes encryption algorithms, secure boot mechanisms, access controls, and
secure communication protocols.

These components and requirements vary depending on the specific application and constraints of
the embedded system, but they collectively enable the system to perform its intended function
reliably and efficiently.

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 You
Design Process in Embedded System

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The design process for embedded systems involves several stages, each aimed at ensuring that the
final product meets its requirements efficiently and effectively. Here's a typical outline of the design
process:

1. Requirement Analysis:

Define the functional and non-functional requirements of the embedded system,

considering factors such as performance, power consumption, size, cost, and
environmental constraints.
Identify the intended use cases, user interactions, input/output requirements, and any
regulatory or safety standards that must be met.

2. System Architecture Design:

Determine the overall system architecture, including the selection of

microcontroller/microprocessor, memory, peripherals, and communication interfaces.
Decompose the system into functional blocks and define their interactions and
interfaces.
Consider trade-offs such as performance versus power consumption, hardware versus
software implementation, and real-time requirements.

3. Hardware Design:

Design the hardware components of the embedded system, including schematics, PCB
layout, and selection of electronic components.
Consider factors such as signal integrity, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), power
distribution, and thermal management.
Prototype and test the hardware design to validate its functionality and performance.

4. Firmware/Software Development:

Develop the firmware or software that runs on the embedded system.

Write code to implement the system's functionality, considering factors such as code
efficiency, real-time responsiveness, and error handling.
Use appropriate programming languages, development tools, and coding standards to
ensure maintainability and reliability.
Test the software components individually and in integration with the hardware.

5. Integration and Testing:

Integrate the hardware and software components to form the complete embedded
system.
Conduct integration testing to verify that all system components work together as
intended and meet the requirements.
Test the system under various operating conditions, inputs, and environmental factors to
ensure reliability, stability, and performance.
Use debugging tools and techniques to identify and resolve any issues or discrepancies.

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 6. Verification and Validation:

Verify that the embedded system meets the specified requirements and performs its
intended functions correctly.
Validate the system against user needs and expectations, ensuring usability, safety, and
compliance with standards.
Perform validation testing in relevant environments and scenarios to simulate real-world
usage conditions.

7. Deployment and Maintenance:

Deploy the embedded system in its intended environment or market.

Provide documentation, training, and support materials for end-users and stakeholders.
Establish processes for monitoring and maintaining the system post-deployment,
including software updates, troubleshooting, and hardware maintenance.

Throughout the design process, it's essential to iterate and refine the design based on feedback,
testing results, and changing requirements to ensure the final product meets its objectives
effectively. Collaboration between hardware and software engineers, along with interdisciplinary
communication, is crucial for successful embedded system design.

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Introduction to microcontrollers

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Microcontrollers are compact, self-contained computing devices designed to perform specific tasks
within embedded systems. Here's a concise introduction to microcontrollers:

1. Definition:

A microcontroller is a small, integrated circuit (IC) that contains a processor core,

memory, and input/output peripherals on a single chip.
Unlike general-purpose computers, microcontrollers are optimized for embedded
applications and typically execute a single program repeatedly, performing dedicated
functions.

2. Components:

CPU (Central Processing Unit): The processor core executes instructions and controls
the operation of the microcontroller.
Memory:
Program Memory (ROM or Flash): Stores the firmware or software code that runs
on the microcontroller.
Data Memory (RAM): Used for temporary storage of variables, registers, and stack
during program execution.
Peripherals:
Input/Output (I/O) Ports: Enable communication with external devices, sensors,
and actuators.

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 Timers and Counters: Provide timing and counting capabilities for tasks such as
generating delays, measuring time intervals, and controlling periodic events.
Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs) and Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs):
Convert analog signals from sensors to digital data and vice versa.
Communication Interfaces: Facilitate communication with other devices via
protocols like UART, SPI, I2C, USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.

3. Architecture:

Microcontrollers are available in various architectures, including:

Harvard Architecture: Separate memory spaces for program and data, allowing
simultaneous access to instructions and data.
Von Neumann Architecture: Unified memory space for program and data, leading
to potential data hazards.
Common microcontroller architectures include ARM, AVR, PIC, and 8051, each with its
own instruction set and features.

4. Programming:

Microcontrollers are typically programmed using low-level languages such as assembly

language or high-level languages like C/C++.
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) and toolchains provide software
development tools for writing, compiling, and debugging microcontroller code.
Firmware or software code is typically stored in non-volatile memory (ROM or Flash) and
executed upon power-up or reset.

5. Applications:

Microcontrollers are found in a wide range of embedded systems and electronic devices,
including:
Consumer Electronics: Smartphones, digital cameras, home appliances.
Automotive: Engine control units (ECUs), infotainment systems, dashboard displays.
Industrial Automation: PLCs, robotics, process control systems.
Medical Devices: Pacemakers, insulin pumps, patient monitoring systems.
IoT (Internet of Things): Smart sensors, wearable devices, home automation
systems.

Microcontrollers play a crucial role in enabling the functionality of embedded systems, offering a
cost-effective and efficient solution for a diverse array of applications. Their compact size, low power
consumption, and integration of essential peripherals make them ideal for tasks requiring real-time
control and sensing capabilities.

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8051 Architecture

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The 8051 microcontroller is a popular architecture introduced by Intel in the 1980s. Despite its age,
it remains widely used in various embedded systems due to its simplicity, versatility, and extensive

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 ecosystem of development tools. Here's an overview of the 8051 architecture:

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit):

The CPU of the 8051 architecture is an 8-bit processor.

It operates at a clock frequency typically ranging from a few kHz to several MHz.
The CPU executes instructions fetched from memory, performs arithmetic and logical
operations, and controls the operation of the microcontroller.

2. Memory:

Program Memory (ROM or Flash):

Stores the firmware or program code that the CPU executes.
The size of the program memory varies depending on the specific 8051 variant but
is typically limited to a few kilobytes.
Data Memory (RAM):
Used for storing data, variables, and the stack during program execution.
The amount of data memory also varies depending on the specific 8051 variant but
is generally limited to a few hundred bytes.
Special Function Registers (SFRs):
A set of registers used for controlling the operation of the microcontroller,
configuring peripherals, and accessing I/O ports.
SFRs are memory-mapped and can be accessed like RAM locations.

3. Peripherals:

The 8051 architecture includes several on-chip peripherals:

I/O Ports: Typically multiple bidirectional ports used for interfacing with external
devices, sensors, and actuators.
Timers/Counters: Usually multiple timers/counters for generating timing delays,
measuring time intervals, and controlling periodic events.
Serial Communication Interface (UART): Enables asynchronous serial
communication for interfacing with external devices, such as computers, sensors, or
other microcontrollers.
Interrupt Controller: Manages interrupts from external sources and prioritizes
interrupt requests.
Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts analog signals from sensors to digital
values for processing.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): Generates pulse-width modulated signals for
controlling motors, lights, or other analog devices.

4. Architecture Features:

Harvard Architecture: Separate memory spaces for program and data memory, allowing
simultaneous access to instructions and data.
8-bit ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs arithmetic and logical operations on 8-bit
data.
Serial I/O (UART): Built-in support for asynchronous serial communication.
Interrupts: Supports multiple interrupt sources and prioritization of interrupt requests.
Power Saving Modes: Some 8051 variants include power-saving modes to reduce energy
consumption during idle periods.

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 5. Development Tools:

A wide range of development tools, including assemblers, compilers, and integrated

development environments (IDEs), are available for programming and debugging 8051-
based systems.
Popular programming languages for 8051 include assembly language, C, and C++.

The 8051 architecture's simplicity, along with its rich set of peripherals and development tools, has
made it a popular choice for a wide range of embedded applications, including consumer
electronics, industrial automation, automotive systems, and more. Despite the emergence of newer
architectures, the 8051 remains relevant and continues to be used in various embedded systems
worldwide.

You
Data types and directives

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In the context of microcontroller programming, data types and directives are fundamental concepts
used to define variables, allocate memory, and control program flow. Here's an explanation of data
types and directives commonly used in microcontroller programming:

1. Data Types:

Integer Data Types:

char: Represents a single byte (8 bits) and can store characters or small integer
values. It's often used for ASCII characters or small integers within the range of -128
to 127 (signed) or 0 to 255 (unsigned).
int: Typically represents a 16-bit integer, although the size may vary depending on
the microcontroller architecture. It's suitable for storing integer values within a
larger range.
short: Similar to 'int' but typically represents a 16-bit integer on most
microcontrollers.
long: Represents a 32-bit integer, suitable for storing larger integer values.
Floating-Point Data Types:
Some microcontrollers support floating-point data types like 'float' and 'double' for
representing real numbers with decimal points. However, many low-cost or
resource-constrained microcontrollers lack hardware support for floating-point
operations, making these types less common.
Boolean Data Type:
Some compilers offer a 'bool' data type, which can have values 'true' or 'false',
representing logical states.
Enumerated Data Types:
Enumerated types allow you to define a set of named constants, typically
represented as integers. They provide a convenient way to define and work with a
fixed set of related values.
Derived Data Types:

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 Derived data types include arrays, structures, and unions. Arrays allow you to store
multiple elements of the same data type sequentially. Structures and unions enable
you to group multiple variables of different data types into a single composite
variable.

2. Directives:

Preprocessor Directives:
Preprocessor directives are instructions to the compiler that are processed before
actual compilation begins. They typically start with a '#' symbol.
#include: Includes the contents of a header file in the source code.
#define: Defines a macro or symbolic constant.
#ifdef, #ifndef, #else, #endif: Conditional compilation directives used to include or
exclude blocks of code based on preprocessor macros.
Assembler Directives:
Assembler directives are instructions to the assembler to control the assembly
process.
.org: Specifies the location in memory where subsequent code or data should be
placed.
.equ: Defines a symbolic constant or equate.
.data, .code: Segments of code or data in the assembly file.
Compiler Directives:
Compiler directives are instructions to the compiler that affect the compilation
process or behavior of the generated code.
attribute((directive)): Used in C/C++ to provide additional instructions to the
compiler, such as specifying alignment, optimizing code, or controlling variable
placement.
#pragma: Compiler-specific directives used for various purposes, such as
controlling optimization settings or including/excluding specific warnings.

Understanding data types and directives is essential for writing efficient and effective
microcontroller programs, as they dictate how variables are stored in memory, how code is
compiled, and how program flow is controlled.

You
Flag bits and PSW register

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In microcontroller programming, flag bits and the Program Status Word (PSW) register are essential
components used for controlling program execution, managing interrupts, and determining the
outcome of arithmetic and logical operations. Here's an explanation of flag bits and the PSW
register:

1. Flag Bits:

Flag bits are individual binary flags that represent various conditions or statuses within
the microcontroller.
Common flag bits include:

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 Zero Flag (Z): Set when the result of an operation is zero.
Carry Flag (C): Set when an arithmetic operation produces a carry-out from the
most significant bit.
Sign Flag (S): Set when the result of an operation is negative.
Overflow Flag (V or OV): Set when an arithmetic operation generates an overflow,
indicating that the result is too large to be represented within the available number
of bits.
Parity Flag (P): Set when the result of an operation has an even number of set bits.
Flag bits are typically stored within the PSW register or a dedicated status register.

2. Program Status Word (PSW) Register:

The PSW register is a special register used to store flag bits and other status information
related to program execution.
While the specific format of the PSW register varies depending on the microcontroller
architecture and instruction set, it typically includes flag bits along with other control bits.
In addition to flag bits, the PSW register may include other control bits for configuring
interrupt enable/disable settings, specifying the current addressing mode, or controlling
the operation of specific peripherals.
Accessing and manipulating flag bits in the PSW register allows the microcontroller to
make decisions based on the outcome of previous operations, such as branching to
different parts of the program code, handling interrupts, or performing error detection
and correction.

Here's an example of how flag bits and the PSW register might be used in a microcontroller
program:

#include <8051.h>

void main() {
unsigned char a = 0x0A;
unsigned char b = 0x05;
unsigned char result;

// Add two numbers

result = a + b;

// Check carry flag to determine if there was a carry-out

if (CY == 1) {
// Handle carry-out condition
// This code will execute if the addition resulted in a carry-out
} else {
// Handle no carry-out condition
// This code will execute if the addition did not result in a carry-out
}

// Check zero flag to determine if the result is zero

if (result == 0) {
// Handle zero condition
// This code will execute if the result is zero
} else {
// Handle non-zero condition
// This code will execute if the result is non-zero
}

// Other operations and control flow based on flag bits and PSW register
}

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 In this example, the program performs an addition operation and then checks the carry flag (CY)
and zero flag (Z) in the PSW register to determine the outcome of the addition and adjust the
program flow accordingly.

You
register bank and stack

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In microcontroller programming, especially in architectures like the 8051, register banks and the
stack play crucial roles in managing data, subroutine calls, and interrupt handling. Let's delve into
each:

1. Register Banks:

Microcontrollers like the 8051 often have a limited number of general-purpose registers.
To expand this capacity, they utilize multiple register banks.
In the 8051 architecture, there are typically four register banks, numbered 0 to 3.
Each register bank contains eight general-purpose registers: R0 to R7.
Switching between register banks allows the microcontroller to access different sets of
registers, expanding the number of available working registers.
The register bank to be used is controlled by the Bank Select (RS0 and RS1) bits in the
PSW (Program Status Word) register.

2. Stack:

The stack is a region of memory used for temporary storage of data during subroutine
calls and interrupt service routines (ISRs).
It operates on a last-in, first-out (LIFO) basis, meaning that the most recently stored data
is the first to be retrieved.
The stack pointer (SP) register points to the current top of the stack.
When a subroutine is called, the return address and other relevant data are pushed onto
the stack. When the subroutine completes, this data is popped off the stack to return
control to the calling function.
Similarly, when an interrupt occurs, the processor automatically saves the current
execution context (including the program counter and register contents) onto the stack
before jumping to the ISR. Once the ISR completes, this saved context is restored from
the stack.

Here's a simplified example of how register banks and the stack might be used in an 8051 program:

assembly

; Example 8051 Assembly Code

ORG 0x0000
MOV A, #10 ; Load value 10 into accumulator A
PUSH ACC ; Push accumulator A onto the stack
CALL subroutine ; Call subroutine
; After subroutine call, accumulator A contains the result
; Pop the result from the stack into accumulator A
POP ACC
; End of program

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 SJMP $

subroutine:
; Subroutine to multiply accumulator A by 2
MOV R2, A ; Move value of accumulator A to register R2
ADD A, A ; Multiply accumulator A by 2
RET ; Return from subroutine
END

In this example:

The value 10 is loaded into accumulator A, pushed onto the stack, and then the subroutine is
called.
Inside the subroutine, the value in accumulator A is doubled.
Upon returning from the subroutine, the result is popped from the stack back into
accumulator A.

Register banks and the stack are essential features of microcontroller architectures like the 8051,
enabling efficient management of data and control flow in embedded systems.

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