Basics Professional Practice Tendering (En)

Die Qualität eines Entwurfs muss sich in
der gebauten Realität widerspiegeln. BASICS

Das Bindeglied zwischen Planung und
Ausführung ist die Ausschreibung, die PROFESSIONAL
PRACTICE
die Anforderungen an das Objekt definiert.
Basics Ausschreibung erklärt praxisnah
die Organisation der Ausschreibungen,
wobei ihre Bestandteile, die Arten der
Vergabe, die Vergabeeinheiten und nicht TENDERING
AUSSCHREIBUNG
zuletzt die Zeitplanung eine wichtige Tim Brandt, Sebastian Th. Franssen
Rolle spielen.
ENTWERFEN
DARSTELLUNGSGRUNDLAGEN
KONSTRUKTION
BERUFSPRAXIS BERUFSPRAXIS
BAUPHYSIK UND HAUSTECHNIK
BAUSTOFFKUNDE
LANDSCHAFTSARCHITEKTUR
STÄDTEBAU
THEORIE
BASICS
www.birkhauser.com
Tim Brandt –
Sebastian Th. Franssen
Tendering
Tim Brandt –
Sebastian Th. -Franssen
Bert Bielefeld Sebastian El Khouli
Entwurfsidee
Tendering
Birkhäuser
BIRKHÄUSER
Basel
BASEL
Contents
Foreword _7
Introduction _9
Tendering requirements _10
Tender items _18
Organizing the tender _21

Timetabling the invitation to tender _21
Tendering sequence and nature of tender _24
Fixing bid units _26
Tendering style _31

Structuring an invitation to tender _35
Textual elements _35
Drawing elements _46
Other descriptive elements _47
Structuring service specifications _49

Approach to functional service specifications _49
Procedures for a detailed description of works _64
In conclusion _81
Appendix _82
Literature _82
Standards _83
Further sources of information _83
Picture credits _84
The authors _84
Foreword
Architectural quality does not derive from good and creative designs
alone, it must also be reflected in the built reality. So in architecture qual-
ity is a continual concern, from the first sketch via design and final plan-
ning to built structures and surfaces. Tendering is the link between plan-
ning and realization, defining the project requirements. The responsible
contractors use the tender specifications to familiarize themselves with
the details of the commission and can then submit a tender to carry out
the work described, which then forms the basis for the contract and the
actual building programme. In this way the tender specification, as the
final design development stage before building starts, is an important
planning component. It should therefore be compiled with the same pre-
cision and faithfulness to the concept as a design or working plan.
As students and professional beginners usually have little profes-

sional experience, they need carefully structured, practical information
about tender types, the sequence of events, and descriptions of the in-
dividual services required to help them handle their first tender specifi-
cations. The present volume starts at this early stage and works through
the subject matter with the aid of readily understood introductions and
explanations.
First of all it describes how building services are specified in a ten-

der, and explains the fundamental principles of the process. One impor-
tant practical topic is organizing tendering for a building project. It dis-
cusses types of award, fixing award units, time planning and not least the
style of the tender specification. The possibilities for describing the work
required range from the purely functional to more detailed description,
as will be shown. Readers discover the components of the tendering pro-
cess, what they are there for and how they should be compiled in detail.
This is supported by practical tips, examples and simple, clear summa-
ries that help when drawing up a tender specification. The Tendering vol-
ume of the Basics series passes on all the key background and context
needed for a sound and practical start on tendering work.
Bert Bielefeld, Editor
7
8
Introduction
Planners – this includes architects, civil engineers and specialist en- From planning
gineers – have to involve another group of people by the end of the plan to realization
submission and planning permission process at the latest. The earlier

phases of the process focused on communicating with the client and the
authorities, but now planners have to turn their attention towards the
firms who will be responsible for realizing the project: craftsmen and
women, building contractors, specialist companies.
All the information needed for realizing the project is provided to Tender content
building firms as part of an invitation to tender, in the form of descrip-
tions or drawings of the work to be done and services needed. The invi-
tation to tender must contain all the information the bidding firms need
to perform the necessary services and to submit a bid for the contract
and, where appropriate, for planning the work. ◯
◯ Hint: The tender becomes part of the contract that

the client concludes with the building contractor.
Planners can incur penalties for errors and omissions
in the bid.
Establishing fundamentals
Design plans
Planning
Planning permission
Working plans
INVITATION TO TENDER
Award
Realization
Building
Documentation
Fig. 1: Planning phases
9
Outcome of the The tendering process aims to attract as many appropriate bids as
tendering process needed to form a broad view of the market. The invitation to tender is
compiled by the planner and submitted to suitable contractors, who then
calculate prices and submit a bid, which is binding. This is then examined
by the planner and compared with other bids. The comparison gives the
planner an insight into current prices and enables the client to commis-
sion the work from the bidder who has submitted the most reasonable
offer for the particular project.
Tendering requirements
The invitation to tender collects all the requirements that have come
to light in the planning phase. These requirements are essentially laid
down by the client, but they may also relate to legal or technical matters.
They can be categorized as follows: > Fig. 2
—— Costs
—— Deadlines
—— Function
—— Scope
—— Quality
Deadlines
Costs Qualities
Client
Function Scope
Fig. 2: Tendering criteria
10
Costs Geography
e.g. building costs, e.g. plot, position,

running costs surroundings
Time Law
building period, e.g. laws,

length of use regulations
General conditions
Client’s aims
Quality Market
e.g. technology, function, e.g. finance,

design time
Function Politics
e.g. office, housing, e.g. local

manufacture interests
Scope ...
e.g. area,
number of jobs
Requirements
Building commission
Fig. 3: Definition of requirements
These criteria are used to fix the realization phase and to identify any
planning services that are still required. > Fig. 3
Costs
In most cases cost is the key criterion for or against a realization bid, Cost range
or even for or against the building project itself. Planners are obliged
to spend a client’s money on the project in the client’s best interest.
Planners generally have a prescribed budget, and must set all the costs
arising from the building work against this. This will mean drawing up
separate budgets for the various service packages or award units. > Chapter
Organizing the tender, Fixing bid units
11
Fig. 4: Range of prices as an aid to choosing a firm
For the client, keeping to the prescribed budget is often crucial to

the success of the entire project. The contractors’ concrete bids are the
◼ first check on the planner’s suggested costs in relation to real market
prices.
◼ Tip: Bids submitted in response to the first invitation

to tender are crucially important in establishing the
client’s confidence in the planner’s costing compe-
tence. If even the first bids come in outside the planned
cost framework, it is possible that the client, anxious
about keeping within the overall budge, might make
radical adjustments at an early stage that could affect
all the other criteria, e.g. a marked reduction in the
standards for the finished building.
12
An overview of the individual budgets makes it possible for planners Cost control
to control costs. If the bid for a particular unit is above the budget allo-
cated to it, planners will have to cut the budget for other units and take
this into consideration when drawing up invitations to tender, for exam-
ple by reducing quality standards or the scope of the work required. Con-
versely, if an item comes in under budget, planners can, for example,
include clients’ requirements that had previously fallen outside the cost
framework.
Clients can best ensure that costs are firmly fixed by attempting to Cost guarantees
eliminate all cost risks arising from unpredictable events during building,
from market developments, and from submitting a series of individual
tenders. One possible way of doing this is for a single contractor to take
on the whole operation, which guarantees completion costs and dead-
lines. > Chapter Organizing the tender, Fixing bid units, Package awards
Deadlines
Clients will generally set firm deadlines, or at least express their
wishes about them. Once deadlines are agreed, they are binding. ◼
Constraints on deadlines arise mainly from the planned use of the Deadline
building concerned. For example, completion dates, and thus possible constraints
moving-in dates, are crucially important for private clients building their
own home, who need to give appropriate notice on their previous, rented
accommodation. Renovation work in schools can often be carried out
only in the school holidays. Here both the starting and completion dates
are deciding factors.
◼ Tip: Planners must establish that the client’s ideas

about deadlines are realistic. This affects the services
that can be delivered by the firms involved, and the
planners’ own ability to deliver. Some events that occur
in the course of building can be influenced only slightly
or not at all. These include gaining permission from
authorities, the weather, and some product delivery
times.
13
Fig. 5: Example of a deadline plan as a bar chart
Deadlines as a Deadline requirements also influence possible construction pro

cost factor cesses and thus costs. The only realistic way of working faster is to
employ a larger workforce, more machines and materials. Contractors
could then be compelled to hire equipment or to complete the work in
overtime, working at weekends or even at night. This will result in high
bid prices, as the company factors the extra costs into the bid price.
Effects on tendering Deadline requirements also affect the way planners submit their ten-
ders. Robust and detailed planning involves investing a great deal of time,
so planners have to consider whether they will be able to submit such
plans at the appropriate time. If they cannot do so, they can transfer some
of the planning services to the contractor, by defining some aspects in
terms of functions, rather than in full detail. > Chapter Organizing the tender,
Tendering style, Tendering by function
Function
Realization range The client’s requirements establish the extent and bandwidth of the
realization variants. For example, if a private client wants to buy land and
build a home on it, this can be a terraced house, a semi-detached house
or a detached house. Function is thus one of the factors determining the
form the building will take. It is also possible to decide on particular build-
ing methods from a function description. When building a warehouse with
14
Fig. 6: Various functions
no special requirements, a choice will usually be made between favor

ably priced variants (e.g. reinforced concrete or steel construction). Thus
function is linked with a particular range of possible solutions, modified
by the client’s individual requirements.
The more strongly clients identify themselves with a commission, the Client profile
more influence they will wish to exert on planning the invitation to ten-
der. If the project is their dream house, the client could well wish to be
involved in every last detail of the planning process. The invitation to
tender will thus have to be correspondingly detailed, so that the client’s
ideas can be implemented in full. > Chapter Organizing the tender, Tendering style,
Detailed tendering
If the finished building is intended as a for-profit project, however,

clients will be mainly interested in minimum costs for maximum yield.
They will want to scale their requirements down as much as possible at
first, and will be prepared to raise their technical or aesthetic sights only
if there is a prospect of higher profits or greater marketability. If clients
are simply after a box to put something in (e.g. a warehouse or an indus-
trial production hall), they will also tend to see the commission prag
matically in terms of function, and not want to bother themselves with
too much detail.
15
Fig. 7: There are various ways of meeting requirements for a building.
Range of services
Minimum scope The range of services derives from clients’ wishes. For example, when
building an office block, clients can state how many office workstations
are intended and what other spaces are needed to serve the desired func-
tion (foyer, conference rooms, server areas, etc.). The more precise the
requirements, the more precisely the minimum project range can be
determined.
Rationalization If the project range is inappropriate to the desired cost framework,

planners can reduce costs by rationalization (for example, by using a
large number of identical elements and focusing on the same service pro-
vider as much as possible): facade design can match the facade panel
format the manufacturer produces, so that large quantities of a particu-
lar panel format can be used without cutting or having to order special
formats.
Factors open As well as the scope set by minimum standards, there are also vari-
to influence able quantities that affect the quality of the building as a rule. For exam-
ple, planners can minimize the window area, which is more expensive
than a closed facade, at the expense of user comfort, or reduce the num-
ber of workstations at the expense of subsequent flexibility.
16
Fig. 8: The relationship between function and quality
Quality
Function also affects the quality expected. Here we can speak of
technical and aesthetic criteria. > Fig. 9 Technical requirements include
building law provisions (e.g. statutes relating to assembly of persons
or the fire prevention concept), or health aspects (e.g. ventilation or
hygiene); aesthetic requirements relate to the visual impact, form and
characteristics of the building as a whole, down to individual details such
as door handles.
There are fixed minimum standards for most building services, Standards of quality
intended to guarantee the use of appropriate materials and professional
execution. Clients will have requirements for their property that go be-
yond minimum quality. As soon as the planned finish deviates from the
standard quality, planners must mention this expressly in their service
description and describe the finish or the desired result.
If requirements relating to quality of finish exceed the normal stan

dard, costs will rise as well. For example, the amount of work and cost
involved in dry-building a wall with a high level of overall finish on the
plasterwork is considerably greater than for one that is simply smoothed
and finished at the joints.
17
Quality
Technical Aesthetic
Structural Formal
Building science Visual
Statical Tactile
Legal ...
...
Fig. 9: Division into technical and aesthetic criteria
Longer-term planning Long-term considerations should always be included in relation to

quality. For example, installing a more expensive but higher-calibre heat-
ing system can easily compensate for its greater cost through lower
energy costs over the period of use.
tender items
Building The building process involves choosing and coordinating an enor-
services and mous range of structural elements. Here, planners have a very wide range
construction products
of prefabricated items at their disposal (e.g. doors and door frames), but
can also work with individually manufactured elements (e.g. hand-crafted
door fittings). A building can be planned down to the position of the last
screw, and the shape of its head. Invitations to tender for building ser
vices relate both to parts of the planning process and also to the whole
realization process. They summarize all the services needed. The scope
of the invitation to tender will vary according to the scope of the building
project and the nature of the tender. > Chapter Organizing the tender, Tendering style
For example, if tenders are being invited for a complete building project,
starting from scratch to the very end, they can include all construction
services from digging the foundations to cleaning at the end of the con-
struction phase and handing the key over to the client. Invitations to ten-
der may also be issued for replacing a single window.
18
Fig. 10: Everything can be built into an invitation to tender
Complementary planning and services can also be included in an Planning and other
invitation to tender, as well as classical construction work or products. services
So it is possible to invite bids for specialist planning such as preparing

a sound insulation report, or services such as organizing a topping-
out party.
19
20
Organizing the tender
The possible scope of the project, and the diversity and complexity Fundamentals
of the invitation to tender, mean that it makes sense to divide the build- of organization
ing process into significant phases. To do this, planners must be familiar

with events within the construction process and the individual events’
interdependence, so that they can arrange them in the correct time ◯
sequence.
Timetabling the invitation to tender

Deadlines are an important element of the tendering process. Plan- Deadlines and
ners have to know what periods of time are realistic for realizing the pro- tendering
ject. A timetable for the planner’s and the bidding companies’ work on
the tender can be drawn up with reference to the realization deadlines,
bearing possible preliminary planning periods for specialist firms and for
the awarding procedure in mind.
◯ Note: The process following the invitation to tender,

collecting in bids and subsequently commissioning
of firms by clients, is called the awarding procedure.
Information about awarding tenders can be found in
Building projects in the European Union by Bert
Bielefeld and Falk Würfele, Birkhäuser Verlag, 2005.
Start of
tender process
Drawing up
and dispatch
Processing
and return
Assessment,
award
Preliminary
period
Realization
Completion
of work
Time to be allowed for
Fig. 11: Timetabling an invitation to tender
21
Time invested by participants
Time invested Planners need sufficient time to draw up an invitation to tender. > Fig.11
by planner Once they have compiled a list of all the client’s wishes and requirements,
they must take time to organize the invitation to tender and think how to
convey the requirements in such a way that the invitation can be formu-
lated meaningfully. Planners must establish quantities needed, to define
the scope of the services required. Any question arising must be cleared
up with manufacturers, specialist organizations or other appropriate con-
tacts. It is often necessary to provide any experts approached with doc-
uments about the general conditions, and drawings, to ensure that re-
sponses are robust and appropriate for describing the services required.
If difficult installations or complex construction processes are involved
it often makes sense for planners to cover themselves by asking manu-
facturers for written statements or opinions.
Once planners have drawn up their lists of services needed, they

must compile a list of bidders, i.e. the names of all the firms invited to
tender, in consultation with the client where appropriate. The tender
documents have to be duplicated and sent out to the companies con-
cerned, allowing an appropriate length of time for processing by the
companies.
Award
Dimensioning
on site
Workshop
planning
Approval
by planner
Materials
ordered
Pre-
production
Assembly
on site
Completion
of work
Trade preparation period
Fig. 12: Preliminary trade planning period: window production
22
Construction companies submitting bids who receive a description Time needed
of the services required have to familiarize themselves with a new build- for processing the bid
ing project, and thus need an appropriate period to work on the invita-
tion to tender. In some cases, the nature and scope of the tender may re-
quire additional planning work before the price can finally be calculated;
manufacturers or other firms and their internal price enquires may need
to be considered in their turn. The calculation must take wages, materi-
als, equipment and outside services into account. As well as these fac-
tors relating directly to the building commission, general overheads and
possible profit have to be built into the bid price. Preparing the bid can
take anything from a day to several weeks, according to the complexity
and scope of the tender. The necessary processing period is extended
correspondingly if the invitation to tender also covers planning services
or technical tests.
The time span from commissioning to the actual delivery of the ser- Preliminary planning
vices (start of building work) on the building site is the preliminary plan- period for trades
ning period for specialist firms. > Fig. 12 During this period, the firms being
commissioned can construct working plans or samples and submit them
to the planner for approval. Construction elements are often modified or
assembled in advance in the factory by the firms involved. Measurements
Start of construction
Preparatory
measures
Shell
Building
envelope
Interior
finishing
Domestic
services
Final work
Building
completed
Building period
Bauzeit
Fig. 13: Sequence of building work
23
for prefabrication may need to be made on site, which adds another fac-
tor for meeting completion deadlines, for example if masonry with aper-
tures has to be completed before fixing the dimensions of the windows
that have to be prefabricated.
Time needed When timetabling tenders it is important to know how long it will take
for realization to complete a particular piece of work, given that a possible completion
deadline has to be fixed. > Fig. 13 There is only limited scope for shorten-
ing such an individual completion time. The length of time needed can
be affected by the number of people working on the job, working hours
and the use of machines. There are natural restrictions on speeding up
work, for example the time that certain building materials take to dry or
harden (e.g. screed). Space on the building site may be at a premium, so
increasing the workforce could mean people getting in each other’s way
while working.
Tendering sequence and nature of tender

Time sequence The order for drawing up invitations to tender is usually based on the
order in which work is carried out on the building site. > Fig. 13 First bids
are invited for preparatory measures for the actual building project, fol-
lowed by bids for shell realization, exterior finish, interior finish and
fittings, down to bids for the final work needed. Sometimes the prelimi-
nary preparation period makes it necessary to deviate from the on-site
sequence when inviting to tender. For example, facade construction can
Demolition tender Demolition work
Shell tender Work on shell
Faccade tender Work on façade
Roof tender Roof work
Finishing tender Finishing work
... ...
Fig. 14: Sequential planning when awarding by trade (award by specialist lot)
24
entail a preparatory period lasting several months, which must be taken
into consideration when drawing up the invitation to tender.
The sequence described here relates to invitations to tender issued Invitations to tender
while building is in progress. > Fig. 14 For tendering in this way, all the ser while building is in
progress
vices required are drawn up in sequence, and invitations to tender issued.
For example, the interior is planned and invitations to tender are issued
after the shell has already been completed. In comparison with a blan-
ket invitation to tender > Chapter Organizing the tender, Fixing bid units, Package awards
this approach offers the advantage that an appropriate response can be
made to unexpected cost developments. > Introduction, Tendering requirements,
Costs It is also possible to accommodate changes that have occurred dur-
ing the completed building phases. For example, if the ceiling slab thick-
nesses have had to be changed for practical reasons, they can be com-
pensated for in the finished floor height. However, it is impossible to be
certain about costs until the last invitation to tender, because of the
difficulty in predicting the effect market fluctuations and other eventu-
alities could have on services offered.
Awarding to a main contractor offers greater cost security. > Chapter Blanket
Here, all the services have to
Organizing the tender, Fixing bid units, Package awards tendering
be identified in full, and submitted to the contractor with an invitation to

tender. The planning period involved is correspondingly long. Planning
previously undertaken in parallel with the building work now has to be
Contractor with detailed invitation to tender
Planner Contractor
Planning Realization
Contractor with functional invitation to tender
Planner Contractor
Planning Planning Realization
Fig. 15: Award procedure and time consumed
25
Total package award
All work awarded to one contractor
Award by lot
Whole package broken down into “lots”
Trade lot award Part lot award
With specialist subdivision With subdivision by rooms

(award by trade lot) (award by building phases)
Fig. 16: Definition of the terms for award units
completed before the first ground is dug. > Fig. 15 If there is not enough
time available for a detailed invitation to tender, planners must concen-
trate on requirements that are important to the client and describe only
these in detail > Chapter Organizing the tender, Tender style, Detailed tendering and the
rest merely functionally. > Chapter Organizing the tender, Tendering style, Tendering by
function Sometimes the pressure of time can be so great that a purely func-
tional invitation model has to be considered, giving no detail at all.
Fixing bid units

Bid unit A bid unit defines the range of service provision awarded to a partic-
ular contractor. Bid units can be itemized according to size for individual
trades (trade lots), part lots and complete packages; it is also possible
to include all the services in a total package award. > Fig. 16
Tendering by trade
Trade (specialist lots) Subdivision by trades (trade or specialist lots) is based on craft and
technical skills traditionally delivered by an individual or a firm (e.g. craft
trades such as stonemason, carpenter or screed layer). This is generally
the smallest bid unit. > Fig. 17
◯ A trade can be broken down into even smaller units if a number of

different services are provided. For example, a tender invitation for met-
alworkers could include all the services this trade offers. It is also possi-
ble to draw up several invitations to tender identifying individual items,
such as a service described under facade construction in metal, and
26
Total package award All work
Trade lot 1 Trade lot 2 Trade lot 3 …
Trade lot award All work
Trade lot 1 Trade lot 2 Trade lot 3 …
Part lot award All work
Part lot 1 Part lot 2 Part lot 3 …

Trade lot 1
Trade lot 1
Trade lot 1
Trade lot 2
Trade lot 2
Trade lot 2
…
= bid unit
Fig. 17: Bid units
another for steel staircases and banisters. The smallest possible bid unit
is a single service. > Fig. 18
So tendering by trade may include all the services performed by that ●

trade or just some of them. It makes sense to break a trade down into
smaller units if particular firms’ specialist fields are to be used.
◯ Note: The term trade is also generally applied to less ● Example: A construction company that produces and
traditional work such as structural engineering, media assembles stairs every day can offer this service more
planning or sign-making. Although these are not tradi- professionally and possibly more cheaply than a metal-
tional trades, the important feature here is that the worker who specializes in facades but theoretically
services form a unit. covers all aspects of that trade.
27
Preparatory Shell Building
measures envelope
– Building site preparation – Excavations – Carpentry and timber work

– Demolition work – Masonry work – Steel construction work
– Clearing site – Concrete construction work – Sealing work
– Excavations – Steel construction work – Roofing work
– Site preparation – Sealing work – Plumbing work
– ... – Carpentry and timber work – Heat insulation work
– Scaffolding work – Plastering
– ... – Facade work
– Metal construction work
– Glazing work
– Painting
– Scaffolding work
– ...
Finishing Domestic Final

services measures
– Plastering – Heating installation – Cleaning building

– Screed work – Ventilation installation – Installing locks
– Floor covering work – Sanitary installation – Outside areas
– Concrete block work – Electrical insulation – Clearing site
– Natural stone work – Lifts – ...
– Tiling and – Media technology
– Parquet laying – ...
– Metalwork
– Dry construction work
– Joinery
– Painting
– Scaffolding work
– ...
Fig. 18: Typical trade subdivisions
The disadvantage is that more time and effort have to be invested in

coordination when commissioning several firms, and synergies (e.g.
travel to the building site or larger delivery quantities at correspondingly
more favorable prices) could be lost.
Bundling trades It can sometimes make sense to bundle a number of trades. It seems
logical to commission a single firm to take on all the work relating to a
roof, and avoid having to coordinate a number of firms. Thus, carpentry
28
(constructing the roof truss), roof-covering work (roof construction from
insulation to the pantiles), and some metal-fitting work (fitting gutters,
protective leading) can all be done by the same firm. Many firms have
adapted to the clients’ desire to deal with a single contact person, and
advertise as providing a complete service. Note here that some firms that
seem quite large simply “buy in” services and often cannot offer them at
particularly reasonable prices. The client is then buying convenience by
paying an additional price for in-house subcontractor organization by the
firm commissioned. > Chapter Organizing the tender, Fixing bid units, Invitation to tender ◯
by part lot
Invitation to tender by part lot

The part lot is another bid unit. Here, services are not classified in Part lot
terms of a specific trade, but structured in sections. These sections
derive mainly from a desire to be able to award to several firms when a
great deal of work is involved.
In public commissions, this can take place with the intention of Subdividing services
involving as many firms as possible in the bidding process, as the scope
of services required will then be based on the capacities of essentially
average companies.
Another sensible reason for structuring in part lots is when planning Building phases
work over a long period with possible interruptions. Building phases are
often fixed for larger building projects so that some parts of the building
can be used while others are completed at a later stage. > Fig. 19
Package awards
Bundling several trades, with only one contact person on the reali- Main contractor
zation side, as mentioned above, is pursued further in awards to a main tendering
contractor. > Chapter Organizing the tender, Fixing bid units, Invitation to tender by part lot
◯ Note: A subcontractor works for the firm with which

the client has signed the building contract. The sub
contractor has no official relationship with the client.
The commissioned firm remains responsible for com-
missioning, finish, payment and guarantees.
29
Phase 1
Phase 3
Phase 2
Fig. 19: Bidding for part lots is possible if buildings are constructed in various phases.
Here, the client commissions a single building firm to provide all the ser-
vices needed to complete the building work. A single contract is agreed,
rather than a large number of them.
Meeting deadlines It is easier for a main contractor to fix completion dates because
such a firm will be able to compensate for delays in parts of the project
by pushing the work ahead in other areas, as part of the overall coordi-
nation process. It is more difficult to set binding deadlines when com-
missioning a number of individual firms because of the large number of
mutual dependencies: individual building firms are not contractually
obliged to each other.
Main contractor A main contractor is responsible for all this, and will generally exact
supplement payment for this often voluminous coordination work, and sometimes
also risk coverage for guarantees undertaken, by building supplements
into the bid. In practice there are few firms that can cover all the services
required using in-house workers. In fact, they tend to tender the services
out to other firms, which then – if they are commissioned – work as sub-
contractors. A main contractor’s bid concludes in a guaranteed price for
which the services must be delivered by a contractually fixed deadline.
30
tendering style
A distinction is made between functional and detailed tendering, but
these are rarely separated consistently in practice. Any detailed invita-
tion to tender will always contain functional elements. For example, even
a meticulously detailed description of a plasterboard stud wall will not
contain precise information about fixing the plasterboard panels. It is
assumed that the workmen will have the appropriate technical knowl-
edge and will know the correct screws to use for fixing the panels to the
frame. A functional invitation to tender can work without detailed ele-
ments, but here, too, there will in practice be areas where the require-
ments are formulated in greater detail. The more questions the planner
asks the client about requirements, the longer the list of detailed require-
ments within the actual functional invitation will become.
Tendering by function
Functional tendering does not describe how the work is to be done
or the precise building process, but focuses on the required outcome.
The bidder takes responsibility for planning the work and thus also car-
ries the risk of achieving the required result even if there were omissions
in the original bid. As well as being responsible for possible planning
errors, the contracted firm also carries the quantity surveying risks.
Bidders are able to determine how the work is done by choosing pro-
cedures in the light of their expertise and experience. They can optimize
the entire range of services offered in terms of their own resources, as
the contract offers room for manoeuvre.
The criteria for assessing bids include price, and the way the set Assessing bids
r equirements are addressed. The bidder will have spent time and effort
on the bid, and the planner now has to assess it in some depth. Conse-
quently, clients or planners have no further influence in principle on the
subsequent execution of the process. This loss of control, which applies
to detailed planning in particular, may lead to a loss of design quality.
Functional tendering is often chosen through lack of time. > Introduc- Choosing
It thus clearly reduces the extensive plan-
tion, Tendering requirements, Deadlines functional
tendering
ning process that would have to precede award to a main contractor.
Lower client demands on the realization details may lie behind a func-
tional invitation to tender, especially as the firm to which the contract is
awarded takes on a large number of risks as well. Another reason for
choosing a functional style may be simply that the planner has no idea
how to achieve the required aims by means of a detailed invitation to
31
tender. Thus, planners will not invite tenders for the individual compo-
nents of an air-conditioning plant or the way they are assembled, but will
simply describe cooling or ventilation rate requirements.
Detailed tendering
Detailed tendering requires every detail of the work required to have
been planned in advance to the greatest possible extent. Planners do not
simply describe the required result, but also how it is to be achieved. They
thus accept the risk that the finished work will not meet demands, or that
there will be errors and omissions in the tender invitation, or it will not
be completely clear. This can lead to additional costs for additional work
(services that are needed but were not included in the original invitation
to tender).
Assessing the bids It is much simpler to assess a detailed invitation to tender, as the
choice of procedure is fixed, and only the prices have to be compared.
Choosing a detailed It always makes sense to opt for a detailed invitation to tender if the
invitation to tender client wishes to remain in control of the building process. This is the only
way of checking every detail of the realization work, and avoids disagree-
able surprises.
Depth of tender
It is fundamentally possible to mix functional and detailed tendering.
This opens up considerable creative possibilities for planners. They will
be able to submit detailed final working plans for all the areas that are
important to clients, and to describe the realization process with equal
precision. In areas that do not require so much detail they can confine
themselves to describing requirements and choose the contractor who
offers the best possible solution.
Detailed or If planners put out detailed invitations to tender they must have the
f unctional? appropriate knowledge at their fingertips. They will be responsible for
any mistakes in their description of the services they are offering. It
is therefore advisable to tender on the basis of function, bearing the
desired result in mind, for any elements about which they are not thor-
oughly informed.
Completeness Planners must always ask themselves whether the invitation to ten-
of the bid der they have prepared is complete, in other words whether the informa-
tion they have provided is unambiguous, and that there are no omissions.
For example, if they ask for an “orderly and symmetrical” pattern of
screws for securing the facade elements, they must add a diagram show-
ing the pattern of screws, to avoid contentious interpretations of this
32
requirement. As a rule, only detailed descriptions allow control of the way
the work is ultimately done. This is very time-consuming, and cannot
always be managed for every aspect of the building. Planners should
always consider carefully what degree of detailing is necessary and
appropriate. For example, requirements about formwork for an exposed
concrete wall must be much more carefully formulated than those relat-
ing to formwork for foundations that will not be visible when the building
is completed.
33
34
Structuring an invitation to tender
The invitation to tender – functional or detailed – is made up of sev-
eral elements. > Figs. 20, 21 It includes all the documents required for award-
ing a building contract. ◯
Textual elements
Textual elements mean all the descriptions couched in words and fig-
ures that provide information about the sequence and execution of the
planned building project. An invitation to tender is drawn up using these
elements, and consists of the following components:
—— General information about the project

—— Contractual conditions
—— Technical requirements
—— Information about building site conditions
—— Description of the work required
Textual elements usually make up a large proportion of a tender bid.

Words enable planners to convey information that cannot be found in the
plans.
General information about the building project

A complete tender package contains general information about the General
planned building project and the awarding procedures. This information description
is conveyed in a cover sheet or accompanying letter containing the invi-

tation to tender and other details relevant to the award, as well as the
names of the key participants and a short description of the building.
◯ Note: For an invitation to tender to be absolutely

unambiguous it is important for individual elements not
to contradict each other; this may be avoided by fixing
a rank order for the individual elements. Thus, a precise
description of the services required always ranks
higher than the technical requirements.
35
Samples, references and
examples of work realized
Plans and drawings
Description of work
Project-related conditions
Technical requirements
Contractual conditions
Building description
Preliminary letters
Fig. 20: The elements of an invitation to tender
Textual elements Drawing elements Miscellaneous elements
– Functional description – Plans – Tests

– Detailed description of work – Sketches – Samples
– Records of award, – Reference objects
Concrete elements
negotiations and meetings – Realized examples

– Building description
– Preliminary remarks
– Building site conditions
– Reports
– Special contractual
conditions where applicable
– Special technical requirements
where applicable
– Standard service text – Reference drawings – Reference drawings

– General contractual – Key details – Key details
Standardized elements
conditions – Manufacturers’ details – Manufacturers’ details

– Special contractual
conditions
– General technical
requirements
– “Accepted technical rules”
– List of manufacturers
Fig. 21: Systematizing the elements of an invitation to tender
36
Fig. 22: Example of a cover sheet
The cover sheet is both an introduction to and a summary of the con- Cover sheet/
tents of the invitation to tender. It includes brief summary of all the in- accompanying letter
formation required for the building firm to process the tender, along with
the conditions of application. The cover sheet should contain the follow-
ing information:
37
—— Details of the sender and recipient of the documents
—— Date
—— Definition of the building project
—— Location, nature and scope of the work required
—— General conditions relating to the building project
(type of award, timescales, etc.)
—— Express invitation to tender
—— Conditions of application
—— List of documents enclosed (contractual documents)
Description of the Details about the location, nature and scope of the services required
building project are needed, along with a definition of the building project, so that it can
be clearly identified. These should be as succinct as possible. If more
information about the project is required, this should be included in the
building description. > Chapter Structuring service specifications, Approach to functional
service specifications, Functional specification with designs
Information about the The awarding procedure should be clearly defined in the cover sheet
awarding procedure and must be given by public clients. > Chapter Organizing the tender, Timetabling the
invitation to tender, Time invested by participants
Viewing dates Identifying the location is also important in relation to possible view-
ing dates. Such dates should be identified on the cover sheet, giving
location and date. The same applies to planned inspection dates in other
documents not included in the tender package.
Tendering period/ Details about the tendering period, the submission date and binding
submission dates for the tender are equally important. > Chapter Organizing the tender, Time-
tabling the invitation to tender The tendering period identifies the date by which
the bid must be submitted. The bidder will be committed to the offer made
until the date given. Bidders should be informed about the essential
award criteria (e.g. price) in the cover sheet for the tender documents.
Binding nature To avoid misunderstanding, the cover sheet should include a formu-
of the bid lation stating that the bidder will incur costs as a result of bidding. The
formulation could be:
“We request your binding bid for this building project, at no cost to us
or our client ...”
Conditions of Planners can influence potential applicants through the application

application/ conditions in the accompanying letter. Possible conditions can regulate
admissibility criteria
the use of subcontractors, or admit or exclude group bidding for the
award.
38
● Example: “The ... project relates to a three-storey This example makes it clear how little the building
office building with a gross floor area of approx. description covers. It provides important information
10,000 m2, to be constructed as a reinforced concrete about the desired building method (skeleton struc-
skeleton structure with exposed concrete. The building ture with exposed concrete), the nature of the work
plot is between ... street and … street, and can be (reinforced concrete building work), size (gross floor
accessed only by the entrance at the junction of ... area, three storeys), function (office building) and
street and ... street. The precise location of the building the location of the building site (reference to the site
site can be found in the site plan.” plan).
Planners can use a request for proof of suitability and admission cri- Proof of
teria to check whether bidding companies are qualified to carry out the suitability
work. As well as an informed check on suitability, by reference to pro-

jects previously carried out, for example, it is also possible to call for in-
formation about a company’s economic situation, to ensure that it is suf-
ficiently liquid. It is also customary to ask for information about the
building firm’s capacities, its membership of professional organizations
and its liability insurance, stating the minimum sum covered.
The building description contains other general information about Building

the building project. It provides the company carrying out the work with description
a general summary of the building project, with no detailed information

about individual services. Bidders should complete the picture for them-
selves with construction descriptions and information about the key con-
ditions affecting costs for the building project. ●
For larger building projects it can make sense to include more pre-
cise information about the body of the building or the structure and
organization of individual building sections in the building description, so
that bidders can form a clearer picture of the possible building phases.
Contractual conditions
The invitation to tender aims to prepare the way for a contractual
relationship between the client and one or more companies realizing the
project. Against this backdrop, provisions governing contractual modal-
ities for carrying out the building work are important, as well a descrip-
tion of the services required. ◼
Planners prepare the way for the future contract appropriately in

the invitation to tender, by stating general and particular contract condi-
tions. General contract conditions are available in the form of complete
sample contracts, but as a rule special contractual conditions must be
formulated as business conditions laid down by the client.
39
◼ Tip: As the regulations involved are often very com-
plicated, it is advisable to use recommended contract
texts, drawn up by professional associations, for exam-
ple, or at least to have lawyers draw up the contract
conditions for larger projects.
General General contractual conditions are based on national or international

contractual standards for managing building projects. They contain important infor-
conditions
mation about:
—— Nature and scope of the work required (details of contract

elements and their ranking, and information about rights of
change or extension relating to the building project)
—— Compensation (provisions for dealing with claims for compen
sation in cases of deviation from the work as described)
—— Implementation (provisions for supervision of the work by the
client, for ensuring general order on the building site and the use
of on-site facilities by the company carrying out the work; provi-
sions governing rights of appeal if the company carrying out the
work has complaints about a service required by the client or the
planner)
—— Implementation documents (information about handing over the
documents relating to implementing the services required)
—— Timings (general provision, for example ensuring that building
work will begin within a stated period of time if no date was fixed
contractually)
—— Impediments (fixing procedures if impediments are in the offing.
For example, obstructions should be notified to the client in
advance and their effect described, so that counter-measures
can be taken)
—— Cancellation (provisions for cancellation by the client or the
company carrying out the work)
—— Liability (details of the contractual parties’ responsibilities)
—— Contract penalties (provisions governing modalities for contractual
penalties not covering the penalty level)
—— Acceptance (setting down timings for legal acceptance of building
work)
—— Guarantee (provisions for securing the client’s claims after the
building work has been accepted)
40
—— Settlement (details about how and in what order settlement must
take place after completion of work required, or parts of that work)
—— Work paid by the hour (provisions for dealing with remuneration
for services required that are not contained in the description of
services, for example a commitment by the firm carrying out the
work to inform the client before undertaking such work)
—— Payments (general provisions governing instalments, part-final and
final invoices, for example, timings are laid down for the duration
of the final invoice check)
—— Security (provisions governing mutual security for the contract
partners, for example in the form of guarantees or security
retentions)
—— Disputes (provisions in case of dispute, such as fixing the client’s
location as the place of jurisdiction)
Special contractual conditions can relate to the same matters as the Special
general contractual conditions and complement them in certain points. contractual
conditions
They serve as an addition to the general contractual conditions, and not
as a substitute for them. Typically, special contractual conditions are
included in the tendering documents if there is already a provision in
principle in the general contractual conditions. The following areas are
also addressed:
—— Invoices (invoices must be identified according to their purpose as

instalment, part-final or final invoices, and always numbered con-
tinuously. Other formal requirements can deal with the sequence
of the work carried out, identifying it according to the description
of work required, for example.)
—— Special payment modalities (provisions governing the client’s
payments to the company carrying out the work and the conditions
to which the payments are linked. For example, a payment plan
can be agreed, giving information about the level and date of pay-
ments. Payments are often agreed at particular times to cover the
work carried out to this point.)
—— Basis for establishing the price (the bidder’s calculations used
to determine the prices in the bid)
—— Flexible price clauses for wages or materials (provisions allowing
for contract prices to be modified if the agreed wage levels or
building material prices change during the building phase)
—— Notification of additional costs (provisions establishing that the
client be informed at an early stage of any additional costs that
may occur)
41
—— Subcontractors (subcontractors are used to provide services that
a company cannot itself cover. If the use of subcontractors is to be
excluded or is permissible only under certain circumstances, this
should be laid down in the special contractual conditions.)
—— Competition restriction (inadmissible competition restrictions
arise from prior agreements that are unfavorable to competition
between bidders relating to the submission or non-submission
of bids, to prices or profit supplements. Special contractual
conditions lay down the consequences of behavior that is
unfavorable to competition.)
—— Price reductions (are regularly agreed as a percentage and
deducted from all invoices appropriately)
—— Environmental protection (Normally no concrete environmental
protection measures are formulated. It is customary for the special
contractual conditions to refer to reduction of environmental
damage by the building measures.)
—— Changes to the contract (Contract alteration modalities should be
stipulated in the special contractual conditions. For example, it
◯ can be agreed that alterations to the contract must be in writing.)
As a rule, planning a building project and describing the work
required to realize it end when a certain degree of detail has been
reached. Everything else is fixed by the agreement on technical require-
ments. This contains instructions about the way the work is to be carried
out. For example, planners might provide a drawing of a reinforced con-
crete wall, and possibly supplement it in the text with description con-
taining details about formwork, reinforcement and concrete. But they
will not describe in detail how the formwork should be constructed,
the reinforcing steel secured in position or the concrete compacted.
Such information forms part of the specialist knowledge of the com-
pany carrying out the work, and will be conveyed by the planners to
the building firm via the technical requirements laid down in the invita-
tion to tender.
Technical requirements are available as a comprehensive package of

provisions for most services provided by different trades. > Appendix They
contain relevant stipulations for a large number of building jobs in the
form of a minimum standard. Special technical requirements are formu-
lated to define a higher standard.
General technical General technical requirements are standards that apply in terms of
requirements the generally acknowledged rules for a particular technology.
◯
42
Regulations are usually arranged specifically to trades and contain
information about the sphere of validity, the substances and materials
used, implementation, additional services that form part of the service
as a whole, and about financial settlement and hints for compiling a
description of the services.
Special technical requirements are regulations that are used either Special technical
to complement the general technical requirements or that apply to areas contractual
conditions
not previously regulated. For example, a special technical requirement
can relate to a building process not covered by the general regulations,
or can stipulate a higher dimension tolerance requirement to comple-
ment the existing minimum requirements.
Special technical requirements are based on standards, as well as

on other sets of technical regulations, manufacturer’s guidelines or pro-
visions, and instructions from interested parties.
It is also possible to agree on more demanding requirements taking

account of the current state of technology and of science and technol-
ogy for certain services; these requirements will be based on individual
licences.
Furthermore, there are special technical requirements for inter

mediate acceptance: for example, when for technical reasons certain
pieces of work have to be accepted during the building period as they will
be inaccessible at a later stage because of building progress.
◯ Note: If certain provisions apply to one particular ◯ Note: The generally acknowledged rules of technol-
building project, they should be addressed in the con- ogy are a set of regulations based on technologies
tractual conditions relating to the project, and not in that have proved their worth over a long period of time.
the special contractual conditions, which are usually A higher standard is set by a level of technology that
formulated to cover several building projects. represents the latest technical progress, but need not
be tried and tested. A further step upwards is offered
by a level of science and technology that takes the
most recent scientific insights into account.
43
Project-related contractual conditions
Project-related information covers the general conditions of the
building project. They cover all the regulations of a contractual and tech-
nical nature affecting the building project as such.
Information about These particular contractual conditions have to be compiled specially

the building site for every project. They should contain the following information about
the building site:
—— Location (address and description of where the building site

is situated)
—— Access (how to reach the building site)
—— Storage space (areas that will be at the contractor’s disposal
for work on the building program)
—— Lifting equipment (lifting equipment such as cranes or hoists are
often in place on building sites and can be used by various firms
to transport their building materials)
—— Scaffolding (scaffolding may be placed at the disposal of other
firms)
—— Connections for electricity, water and sewage (the appropriate
supply points are fixed before building starts as part of the site
equipment)
—— Sanitary facilities (if available)
—— Waste disposal
—— Telephone connections
Apportioning general The general building site costs can be contractually apportioned to
building site costs all the contractors involved. Costs for setting up site signs, using on-site
equipment and waste disposal can also be apportioned in the project-
related contractual conditions.
Implementation Stipulations about the time available for the work are particularly im-
period/contract portant. All statements relating to this are fixed in relation to the project.
deadlines
They include statements about the beginning and end of the building work.
These periods are binding for later implementation of the building com-
mission, and if not observed they represent a breach of contract with the
possible consequence of claims for damages, or a contract penalty. Only
contractual periods that the company undertaking the work has acknowl-
edged in the project-related contract conditions are legally binding. If
intermediate deadlines other than the starting and finishing deadlines
are agreed contractually with the company undertaking the work, these
must be identified as individual fixed periods in the project-related con-
tract conditions.
44
If contract deadlines are not met, this usually means claims for dam- Contract penalty
ages by the client against the company undertaking the work. Here, only
loses that have actually resulted can be considered. If other provisions
are also made for handling breach of contract, these must be indicated
appropriately in the project-related contract conditions with reference
to a contract penalty.
It is also possible to agree on other project-related contractual

c onditions if required, for example stipulations about parallel services
by other contractors, or provisions for clearing and cleaning the building
site.
Tender specification
The tender specification is the key element in an invitation to tender.
The distinction between functional and detailed tendering is based solely
on the nature of the tender specification. A directory of services is used
for a detailed tender specification, and a program of services is drawn
up for a functional tender specification. In exceptional cases, building
descriptions are used as functional tender specifications. > Fig. 23
The procedure for drawing up a detailed or functional tender speci-

fication is discussed in detail in the final chapter.
Work description
Detailed Functional
With work list With work program Building description
Own Standard
text text
Fig. 23: Tender specification types
45
Drawing elements
The plans, drawings or sketches appended to an invitation to tender
should make it easer for the contractors to compile their bid in terms of
the services to be calculated. They will therefore need all the planning
documents necessary for general geometrical orientation, and for under-
◯ standing the services required.
Range of drawn The spectrum of drawn descriptive elements extends from simple
descriptive elements hand-drawn sketches to technical drawings, with plan content varying
from site plans to scaled implementation details. > Figs. 24, 25
References The architect can use references to particular planning details in the
tender specification to identify particular points that do not emerge
directly from the descriptive text or that are more easily conveyed by
a drawing.
Fig. 24: Sketch by hand
Fig. 25: Representing complex spatial connections
46
◯ Note: Building work is done on the basis of the archi-
tect’s working plans, not of the tender specification.
The tender specification forms the basis for compiling
the tender bid. If information in the tender specification
contradicts the plans, each case should be examined
individually, following the contractually fixed hierarchy
where applicable.
Other descriptive elements

If texts and drawings cannot define the services required adequately, Specimens
specimens can be used. For example, if the reinforced concrete requires
a particular surface structure that is not covered by the general regula-
tions and definitions for surface quality in exposed concrete, it makes
sense to construct a specimen surface and make this accessible to bid-
ders or even enclose it with the invitation to tender (e.g. a related wood
veneer that is already in the building).
If a specimen is available, the invitation to tender text need not em-

bark on a full description, but concludes with the formulation “Finish as
per specimen ...”
Markings can also be addressed in the invitation to tender. Markings Markings

need to be considered in the case of materials such as natural stone, as
the appearance of stone can vary considerably. Here, verbal descriptions
and drawings are almost impossible. The company carrying out the work
should be required to lay a representative area of the material, so that
the crucial criteria such as color, shade and the nature and distribution
of inclusions can be fixed according to the sample.
It is also possible to set up show rooms in which the client can see
and assess the effect made, from surface materials to individual pieces
of furniture and fittings in context.
Reference items are particularly important when building in existing Reference items,
stock, or in the case of ensembles. For example, when designing the examples of finish
exterior of a building, the choice of brick can be specified to be the same

as the existing buildings, with the same pattern of joints, without the plan-
ner needing to explain format, coloring or bond. Reference to buildings
that are already in existence and the quality achieved there can also form
the basis for describing building work.
47
48
Structuring service specifications
We distinguish between three basic starting situations for functional
or detailed service specifications. > Fig. 26
1. No design is supplied
2. Plans or planning permission are available
3. The final planning stage has been reached
Approach to functional service specifications

The aim of functional tender specifications is to bring all the neces- Aims
sary requirements for a building together.
Drawing up a functional tender specification can be considerably Functional

facilitated by recourse to various descriptive instruments. They include: specification
instruments
—— Building descriptions
—— Building programs
—— Room programs
—— List specifying all the work required
Construction and fittings and furnishings manuals are a further step

in relation to detail in tender specifications. Their language is not essen-
tially functional. It contains too many concrete requirements, and thus
runs counter to the open concept principle of a functional invitation to
tender. But such manuals can be used as part of a functional invitation
Detailed tender Functional tender

specification specification
Planning stage With working plans With design Without design
Ways of examining Financial approach Design, Technical

the bid (bid price) functional, and fincancial
technical approach
and financial
approach
Fig. 26: Service specification characteristics
49
Building program
Without
design
Functional tender
specification
Room program
Planning progress Requirement room book
design
With
Construction room book
Furnishing and fittings room book
specification
(realization)
Detailed
working
tender
plans
With
Furnishing and fittings room book
(documentation)
Fig. 27: Instruments for functional tender specification
to tender if a quality requirement is fixed beyond further discussion and

is to be implemented when furnishing or decorating certain rooms, for
example. > Fig. 27
The instruments listed either serve as a basis for drawing up a func-

tional tender specification, or become part of the specification them-
selves. Without a design, only a building or room allocation program can
be drawn up; a design must be made available if a book listing all the work
required for the rooms (“room book”) is to be compiled.
Whether a design is available or not, nothing changes the basic prin-

ciples of functional tender specification. The aim is to define everything
the client requires, although more creative input is required from the bid-
der if no design is provided.
◯ Note: Building program and room allocation program

can be used for functional tender specification even
when a design is provided, as long as they do not con-
tradict it. But it is customary to provide a more detailed
description of services required in terms of rooms,
structural elements and construction products.
50
Functional tender specifications without a design
A building program and a room allocation program, offered without
a design, simply describe requirements for the building as a whole, for
individual parts of a building or for areas intended for a particular use.
The bidder is responsible for design, technical, use-oriented and eco-
nomic planning. ◯
A building program makes basic statements about a building. It first Building

gives details of the property, for example covering use, office size, office program
type, the number of floors, number of offices per floor, or cellarage.
No. Field Requirement

I Area Sample street 12, 00001 Sample town
II Requirement (description) Inner-city office complex
III Nature of project Conversions
IV Use Office, canteen
V Plot size 10,000 m2
VI Number of floors 3
VII Cellars yes (1 floor)
VIII Building structure 2 Main building office
1 Ancillary building, canteen
IX Office space from … m2 to … m2

X Canteen space from … m2 to … m2
XI Office type Individual offices and open-plan office
XII Individual offices from … m2 to … m2
XIII Open-plan office from … m2 to … m2
XIV Access The building is to be connected to
public utilities and transport
XV Parking Underground car park in cellar, parking

spaces on the north side of the building,
1 parking space per workspace
XVI Waste Central waste disposal

XVII Open spaces Park with pond
XVIII Rules and regulations Development plan, local building
requirements
Fig. 28: Sample structure for a building program
51
Building programs contain information about the building project in
general, supplying additional information about connections to public
services (sewerage, water, gas, electricity and telecommunications), the
transport system and access to outside areas.
Building programs must specify requirements for the prescribed

a reas of use. These requirements can be differentiated and concretized
in part. For example, it is possible even at this stage to fix sound insula-
tion requirements for an area with individual offices. > Fig. 28
Room allocation A room allocation program provides a more refined definition of the
program requirements. It will give information about rooms and use areas, and
also about how they are placed and linked together. The bandwidth of
possible information in a room allocation program depends on the plan-
ning stage reached. Sensible subdivision of the areas according to the
following criteria forms a good basis for a description system:
—— Use
—— Number
—— Size
—— Position and orientation > Fig. 29
Function scheme A function scheme shows how individual areas relate to each other with-
out illustrating the areas required. Essential links between individual
areas are indicated in order to clarify the sequence of events arising from
a particular use. > Fig. 30
Graphic room Information from a tabular room program and function scheme can
allocation be summarized in a graphic room allocation program. This can contain
program
basic elements of the architectural design that have already been deter-
mined: formal statements are presented, taking the areas and rooms
◼ required and the way they relate to each other into account. > Fig. 31
◼ Tip: Symbols can be used to add further information,

such as data about the required lighting (daylight/arti-
ficial light), to graphically presented room programs.
52
Use Number Size Position and orientation
Reception foyer 1 150 m2 Ground floor north side/west side
Canteen 1 200 m2 Ground floor north side/east side
Kitchen 1 80 m2 Ground floor center/east side
Office 4 each 25 m2 Ground floor south side/west side
Events room 3 1 × 200 m2 Ground floor south side/east side
2 × 50 m2
Fig. 29: Example of a tabular room allocation program
Deliveries
Stack (A) Equipment Store Staff Post
and access
Small Workroom Workroom Photo-

Staff reading Staff
(A) (B) copier
room
Lecture
room
Open access stack Open access area
Large reading room

Seminar
Stack (B)
room (A)
Magazines
Seminar
Catalogues room (B)
Textbooks PC pool
Microfilm Staff
Large lecture room Small

Staff Cafeteria Staff lecture
Lending
room (A)
Reception
Small
Cloakroom News- lecture
First Aid papers room (B)
Fig. 30: Example of a function scheme
53
Other means of description are suitable as well as building and room
allocation programs. A building description for drawing up a functional
tender specification without a design is one of these.
Building The building description essentially provides a rough idea of the build-
description ing project as a whole, but can also convey functional details. > Chapter
Structuring an invitation to tender, Textual elements, General information about the building
project Unlike the room allocation program, which is based on spatial
rganization, a building description is structured in terms of construc-
o
tion or trades. This is also why it is only very roughly suitable as a basis
for functional tender specification. Saying “reinforced concrete hall, area
2,000 m2” is a very rough description, but it is perfectly appropriate for
use as an element in a functional description. Specifying “reinforced con-
crete” rules out alternative construction elements, such as steel girders.
Canteen
Reception 150 m2
Access …
…
25 m2
200 m2
Office Kitchen
…
80 m2
Access
30 m2
Events and seminar area
Access
30 m2
Access
50 m2
…
Access
25 m2
4 ×25 m2
1 × 200 m2 2 × 50 m2
Fig. 31: Example of a graphic room program
54
The more specifically the building description addresses a particular
construction method, the more effectively unwanted elements will be
ruled out as alternatives for bidders.
Functional specification with design

If a design is available, definite requirements for the building project
are already in place, and these are shown in plans. But the functional
character of a tender specification with design supplied is still guaran-
teed, as it remains possible to define the quality of individual construc-
tion systems, structural components or construction products. In this
context, using a room book – a set list of all the services required to
complete a particular room – is a helpful device for systematizing
requirements.
A room allocation program can be addressed in greater detail by in- Room book
troducing room books at an appropriate point in the planning phase. This
is a system that makes it possible to supply information about any
planned room. A room book sums up the space required systematically
and defines use requirements. Each room book should contain the
following information to ensure unambiguous identification and simplify
further use of the information provided:
—— Room number, following a defined system for structuring

the building project
—— Definition of the room
—— Information about the nature of the area
—— Information about requirement or furnishing characteristics ◯
◯ Note: Room books can be used for different pur

poses: identifying planning needs for a design; forming
the basis of a function tender specif ication; as sales
documents for marketing buildings; supporting the site
management teams during the construction phase;
recording the state of affairs when work is completed
to provide a guarantee; or in relation to running the
building. They also provide a useful basis for planning
as a stocktaking device for future extension or conver-
sion measures.
55
Room book types There are three different kinds of room book, fulfilling different pur-
poses and so requiring different planning levels:
—— Requirement room books

—— Construction room books
—— Furnishing and fittings room books
Room book
Requirement room book Sheet: 05
Building project: Weinreich Versicherungen, Musterstadt South (P45/145)
Building type: Office complex
Date: 05.03.2007 Prepared by: Mr Müller

Approved: Ms Sanders
Room description: Office Floor: 1st floor

Room number: 1.304
Area Requirement Statistics
Statics Maximum deflection f = l/300
… … …
Fire prevention as per Structural component at least
Building science DIN 4102 F30
… … …
Requirements by function
… … …
Design requirements
… … …
Financial requirements
… … …
Ecological requirements
… … …
Fig. 32: Example of a requirement room book
56
A requirement room book plays a key part for a functional tender Requirement room
specification with design supplied. A sheet with a table of all the known book
requirements is drawn up for every room or area. > Fig. 32
A construction room book offers another form of description, pro- Construction room
viding a detailed description of the construction, but not the fittings and book
furnishings in a particular room. > Fig. 33
Room book
Page: 05
Construction room book Building project: Oberstrasse 1

Furniture and fittings room book 12345 Dorla
Building type:
Date: 05.03.2007 Prepared by: Mr Müller
Approved: Ms Sanders
Room description: Office Room height: 3.00 m
Room number: 1.304 Area: 20.60 m2
Floor: 1st floor Type: Use
No. Element Fixtures/Structure Properties Quantity

1 Floor Reinforced concrete slab in C20/25 1
site-poured concrete PE sheet
Impact sound insulation
Separating layer ZE 20, d = 50 mm
Screed, carpet
2 Ceiling Reinforced concrete slab in C20/25 …

site-poured concrete …
…
False plasterboard ceiling …
Grouted joints …
Paint
…
3 Wall … … …
4 Window … … …
5 Doors … … …
6 Lighting … … …
7 Power … … …
supply
8 Heating … … …
9 Ventilation … … …
Fig. 33: Example of a furnishing and fitting and construction room book
57
◯ Note: A furnishing and fittings room book giving
detailed information about every room is suitable pri-
marily for preparing a detailed tender specification with
a complete list of technical and general requirements
for each trade. Care should be taken to ensure that the
services are listed in relation to trades, and not in
relation to rooms.
Furnishing and fittings A furnishing and fittings room book simply provides a complete
room book escription of the furniture and fittings for every room. It lays down which
d
elements are to be fitted in each room, and in what quality and quantity.
Each element is listed by number and manufacturer’s description, or in
◯ comparable detail.
Structuring a functional tender specification

Building breakdown The building should be broken down in order to systematize a tender
specification by function offering a general program of services – in
contrast with a trade-oriented tender specification with a complete list
of services. Rooms are recorded clearly and systematically, and num-
bered consecutively, following their position in a part of the building and
a storey.
Part of building
Floor
Room
Part of
building
Structural
element
Fig. 34: Building breakdown
58
For further breakdown, a list of use or function areas should be drawn
up. At this level, it is already appropriate to provide information about
individual supply and technology elements, foundations, the loadbearing
structure, the facade and the roof. If individual uses are known or in-
tended, requirements can even be defined on the basis of structural com-
ponents, such as a non-loadbearing wall between two offices. > Fig. 34
No design With design
Client’s aims Client’s aims with design
Function Part of building:

foundation
Quality Function
Costs Quality
Deadlines Costs
Scale Deadlines
Scale
Part of building:
loadbearing system
Design Function
Quality
Costs
Finish
Deadlines
Scale
Function
Quality
Costs
Deadlines
Scale
Finish
Fig. 35: Plane of reference
59
A building project needs to be broken down only to a certain extent:
it must be possible to define different requirements on the basis of the
client’s intentions and the known general conditions. If the client pre-
scribes a function specifically, it does not make sense, and it is usually
not possible, to break such a function down into its individual compo-
● nents. > Fig. 35
Breakdown by The above-mentioned building program, room allocation program and

uilding or room
b room book are structured to provide a breakdown. They can be used in
allocation program
and by room book relation to the different breakdown levels as a function tendering speci-
fication with program of services, by allocating requirements. They do
not have to be used, however. All that is fundamentally necessary is to
establish a plane of reference for defining requirements. This could be a
part of the building, or a construction component.
Drawing up a requirement profile

After establishing a breakdown system the use profile (client’s aims
and general conditions) can be applied successively to the smallest unit
selected (a room or a construction component).
Rough description of It is recommended that the first step should be to allocate the
the function of a planned building project to a function group:
building
—— Housing construction
—— Office building
—— Department store
—— School, college
—— Factory
—— Hospital
Requirement catego- The use profile can be differentiated further by identifying design
ries and aspects (social and aesthetic), technical, functional, financial, and other catego-
ries if required. Each category will contain coherent requirement aspects.
For example, building science and construction are both requirement
aspects within the technical requirement category.
Individual Further subdivision is also possible on the basis of individual aspects.

requirements These again refer to certain subsections of the requirement aspects, and
and ratings
can be fixed more precisely in terms of ratings. Individual requirements
regularly contain references to standards and regulations laying down
certain minimum values. One possible individual requirement in terms of
building science is fire protection for a door that can be fixed at a mini-
◯ mum rating of F30.
60
Individual
Requirement category Requirement aspect requirement Statistics
e.g. Technical e.g. Building science e.g. Fire prevention e.g. F60
requirements ...
... ...
...
e.g. Statics ... ...
...
... ...
...
e.g. Aesthetic ... ... ...
requirements
... ... ... ...
Fig. 36: Example of a system for recording service program requirements
The individual requirements and the ratings that lie behind them can
be compiled clearly using the breakdown system shown in Fig. 36.
However, summing up requirements in a service program is not the Possible ways

only descriptive language available. Requirements can also be defined in of presenting a
functional tender
continuous prose, so long as this retains concrete allocation of the specification
requirement to a particular element (e.g. a part of the building or a room).
Requirements should be defined in full and unambiguously with a Defining

view to the client’s wishes and the general conditions of the building pro- requirements
ject. Possible requirements are explained in greater detail with reference

to this below, following the categories identified above.
● Important: Considerable variations are possible in ◯ Note: Ratings provide a clear, measurable basis
the depth of analysis required to describe a client’s for individual requirements. If no ratings are given, or
intentions. It is possible that a client will simply identify if they are defined only qualitatively (e.g. enhanced
an output value for a production plant. It is then up to sound insulation), this may give undesirable scope for
the bidder to investigate all other criteria within the the bidder’s interpretation.
general conditions, which cannot be changed. If this
procedure is being followed, it is neither possible nor
appropriate to break the building project down.
61
Design The design requirement category includes both aesthetic and social
requirements aspects. The content of this category is largely a matter of the client’s
sensibilities, and includes aspects like convenience, privacy and comfort
in the social sphere, and architectural quality, elegance and prestige in
the aesthetic sphere.
These subjective requirements might include specifying high quality

building materials or imposing public areas (for example a spacious
atrium).
Function-oriented Functional requirements are also determined by the client’s aims.

requirements Mere allocation to a general function group (e.g. school) identifies key
features of the intended function. The requirement aspects within this
category provide information about the function grid, ceiling spans, the
number of floors, floor area, usable area, variability for the ground plan,
or possible changes of use for the building. Various requirements of a
technical nature also follow from the building’s function.
Technical Technical requirements are derived directly from the function, from
requirements standards and regulations, or from the client’s express wishes. Essen-
tially, all the areas relating to loadbearing capacity, stability and building
science (e.g. heat and sound insulation, fire protection and waterproof-
ing) are defined more fully by requirements.
For example, a technical requirement may follow from a client’s wish

for air-conditioned office spaces, and would have to be accounted for in
the functional specifications.
Financial Financial aspects applying to a building are also largely determined

requirements by the client’s aims. Aspects such as investment costs, building mainte-
nance costs, running costs or yields from use are directly linked to the
client’s intentions and the function and technology of the planned build-
ing. One of the client’s strategic aims could be to use alternative rather
than fossil fuels in his or her building, which could mean higher invest-
ment costs, but lead to savings in the long run.
Ecological Themes like recycling potential, environmental soundness of the

requirements building materials used or implementation of an environmentally friendly
energy concept are covered in the ecological requirement category. The
general conditions for this category are primarily of a legal nature, but
they can also be determined by the client’s aims. The client may view
state subsidies for environmentally friendly technologies as a reason for
using them. However, the client may ask for a low-energy building with-
out going into any further detail. Other examples of ecological require-
62
External requirements
Regulations (legal)
Guidelines and standards
(technical)
Minimum standards
General
Description and definition
Requirements arising of the building project
from design Structure of the building project
Existing planning Work limitations
Use
Functional tender
Financial requirements specification with Local conditions
Costs and prices program of work Shape and position of the plot
Operating and maintenance costs Climate
Warranty periods Soil
Profit from use Other environmental
influences
Ecological requirements
Environmental soundness Function-related
Energy concept requirements
Design requirements Recycling
Form and shape Nature of use
Appearance Nature and purpose of work
Aesthetic quality, colour Performance (performance data and
and surface structure operating energy)
Dimension tolerances Dimension tolerances
Dimensioning Flexibility and possible interchange
Privacy Technical requirements Functioning, nature of business
Comfort Statics Serviceability
Convenience Fire prevention Safety precautions
Effects of gas or air Durability
Damp protection
Heat and cold insulation
Light
Sound insulation
Electricity
Fig. 37: Requirement criteria
ments arise from long-term considerations in terms of pollution-free con-

version or demolition of the planned building.
Other information not contained in the program of services is Other information for
important for a functional tender specification over and above the a functional tender
specification
requirements that have already been mentioned. It includes details of
legal and technical regulations, a rough description of the building,
from which it should be possible to discover the local conditions for the
project, and establish which works do not have to be included in the
tender bid.
Figure 37 sums up the most important points to illustrate the possi-

ble requirements.
63
Requirements must be clearly presented in the program of works.
The presentation can be in the form of continuous prose, lists or tables.
This largely depends on the way the program of works is broken down. If
the program runs from the building as a whole to the individual room, a
table of requirements can be systematized as follows:
Requirements for the building as a whole:

—— Two storeys
—— Solid construction
—— Minimum requirement low-energy building in accordance
with current regulations
Requirements for individual parts of the building:

—— Conservatory finish with overhead glazing
—— Natural ventilation
—— Maximum summer temperature in rooms: 29 °C
Requirements for individual rooms:

—— Study facing the garden
—— Staircase with natural lighting
—— Bathroom with separate toilet
Systematic listing of this kind quickly produces a program of works

that is very highly differentiated in individual areas. Individual require-
ments can be formulated down to a particular rating, but design require-
ments are difficult to formulate precisely. It is perfectly clear to stipulate
that all the rooms in a hotel must have a sea view, but descriptions like
“comfortable atmosphere” or “lounge style” are very much governed by
individual ideas and experience, and serve little purpose unless they are
not made more specific.
Procedures for a detailed description of works

Aims The most economical bid for required work can be compiled with a
detailed description of works. The tendering pathway must be described
to bidders in detail, and in full, on the basis of the completed working
plans. A tried-and-tested system is available to planners.
Structure The tender specification is a general structural system that makes it

possible to record individual works coherently. The individual works are
itemized in tables, giving quantities by batch, trade and title. In practice,
the tender specification breakdown shows the work to be done expressed
by location and specialist fields. > Fig. 38
64
Tender specification with list of work
Lot 1 Trade 1 Phase 1 Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 …

Phase 2
…
Trade 2
Lot 2
Fig. 38: Breakdown system for a tender specification
Subdivision by location or room is familiar from the procedure for a

function tender specification. Subdivision by trades is another possible
way of systematizing the work required.
The principle behind the tender specification is that it aims to make Tender specification
a direct enquiry about prices for the smallest descriptive elements, item and unit price
contract
by item. Bidders should provide unit prices for the items, which are de-
scribed precisely by nature, quantity and quality. ◯
The total price for an item is arrived at by multiplying the planned

quantities by the unit price in each case. The sum of all the totals is the
net total for the bid. When invoicing work after it has been carried out,
the unit prices are quoted, but not the planned quantities. A unit price
contract of this type is usually billed in terms of the quantities actually
used.
◯ Note: Unit prices are prices based on a unit, for

example EUR 10/m2.
65
Drawing up If a description of the work required is needed with a tender specifi-
a tender cation, the information has to be systematically converted from the plans
specification
into individual subjobs arranged by trade, as plans are, by their very
nature, structured according to construction components.
If individual subjobs are to be listed with absolute clarity, it is first

necessary to consider the sequence of work and the construction method.
Adopting this approach makes it easier to identify subjobs of the same
nature in more detail, and allot them to a trade. Identifying the subjobs,
allocating them to individual traces and also actually describing the work
required can be based on answering the following simple questions:
—— What are the construction elements for which subjobs have to be

described?
Ceiling; wall; foundations ...
—— What are the construction types for which subjobs have to be de-
scribed?
Masonry; reinforced concrete ...
—— What are the processes for which subjobs have to be described
Earth moving; reinforced concrete work ...
—— What connections are there between the building phases and
the trades?
Excavations = earth moving; foundations = reinforced concrete
work ...
—— What subjobs can be allocated to particular trades and
construction components?
◼ Reinforced concrete ceiling = formwork, reinforcement,
concrete ...
The next step is to record more detail about the individual subjobs.
Here we recommend that the relevant standards, guidelines and regu
lations are summed up, to provide a frame of reference for describing
◼ Tip: A useful instrument for compiling a tender speci- ◯ Note: Information about professional execution of
fication with list of works is a room book detailing building work can be found in the trading standards.
furnishings and fittings. This gives the number of rooms These standards also contain information about classi-
with a detailed description, as well as information fying the work, the building materials and construction
about areas. Certain jobs can thus be recorded quickly components used, the units to be used as a basis, the
and systematically in terms of quality and quantity for appropriate subjobs, and for invoicing and drawing up
further description in the tender specification. the tender specification (see Appendix).
66
each subjob in detail in terms of a sound, expert source of information
about building materials, construction components for listing the works ◯
required.
The tender specification for all jobs can be drawn up stage by stage
on this basis.
Lot
The lot is a complete award unit allocated to a company. Lots are to
be seen as independent subprojects that can be defined equally on the
basis of criteria relating to spaces (part lot) or to expert services (spe-
cialist lot, trade).
Subdivision into lots by area usually only takes place for large build- Part lot
ing projects, and would allow for dividing a road-building project up into
several phases or street construction contract sections. If the client per-
haps intends to commission only part of the building work and allocate
subsequent work to other firms, he or she must draw up appropriate lots.
If the client is awarding the contract by breaking down trades, the Specialist lot
term specialist lot is used. > Chapter Structuring an invitation to tender A trade can
be split up into several specialist lots. For example, one metalworker can
be commissioned to make railings and another to work on the facade. ◯
Title and subtitle

Titles are a further way of breaking down the building project below Title
the level of the project as a whole. A title describes a part of a building
or a particular trade within a lot or an overall building project. It can
describe a subjob within a trade, without representing a unit that is com-
plete in itself with its own price within the bid. The function of the title,
as opposed to the lot, is to sum individual job items up in coherent
sections. Bundling individual jobs (items) that belong together in terms
◯ Note: Just like an independent building project, lots

can also be further broken down in terms of areas and
expertise to relate to parts of a building or individual
trades. Lots can also be defined on the plane of individ-
ual trades or titles, and are then awarded as a complete
package of works.
67
of speciality or physical area provides a suitable basis for establishing
prices by placing an item within the overall context.
For example, the “metalwork” tender specification may contain

t itles such as “stairs and banisters,” “doors and frames,” and “fencing,”
in order to break the work down into coherent sections. Further differ-
entiation can then be done in subtitles, such as “outdoor stairs and ban-
isters” and “indoor stairs and banisters.” Work can also be divided up
according to individual structural elements. The tender specification for
“shell construction work” can be broken down into titles such as “foun-
dations,” “floor slab,” “exterior masonry,” “interior masonry,” “ceilings”
etc., or even more fully in relation to the place where the work is to be
done, as in “kitchen tiles,” “toilet tiles” and then again into “floor tiles”
and “wall tiles.”
The number of breakdown levels is up to planners. They should break

the tender down only to the extent that the complexity of the project
requires. Breakdown by title and subtitle should always aim to form
coherent units. As well as better understanding by making it easier to
allocate the individual job items, this means that when comparing bids it
is possible to compare something other than just individual items within
the total price. In addition, planners can compare the bids in terms of the
titles. For the above-mentioned example of metalwork, it could turn out
when comparing the individual titles that one metalworker is offering the
best prices for stairs and doors, but is bidding well above the average for
◼ fencing work.
Subtitle Individual titles can be further broken down by the use of subtitles.
For example, the reinforced concrete work required for a particular job
can be summed up under a title, and the formwork and reinforcing
material it requires in subtitles.
The extent to which there is differentiation between titles and sub

titles or other breakdown levels (main titles where appropriate), and the
sequence in which subdivisions are made in terms of working area and
◼ Tip: Listing by title makes it easier to evaluate bids

for individual sections or trades. To do this, the total
prices for items under a particular title are summed up
and presented in a list of the individual titles.
68
– Earthworks – Plastering and stucco
– Drilling – Ventilated curtain facades
– Preparatory work – Tiling and slab installation
– Ramming, sieving, compressing – Screed work
– Waterpipes – Poured asphalt work
– Sewerage drains – Joinery
– Draining – Parquet work
– Spray concrete – Metal fittings
– Road and path construction – Blinds
– Landscaping – Metalwork
– Injection spraying – Glazing
– Underground cabling – Painting, varnishing, coating
– Rail construction work – Corrosion prevention for steel
– Masonry – Floor coverings
– Concreting – Wallpapering
– Natural stonework – Timber flooring
– Artificial stonework – Ventilation installations
– Carpentry and woodwork – Heating and central water-heating facilities
– Steel construction – Gas, water and drainage facilities
– Sealing – Low- and medium-frequency equipment
– Roof covering and roof sealing – Lightning protection
– Plumbing – Conveyor systems, lifts, escalators
– Dry construction work – Building automation
– Composite heat insulation systems – Scaffolding
– Concrete
Fig. 39: Listmaintenance
of different trades – Demolition and dismantling
expert fields depends on the size and complexity of the individual build-
ing project and the nature of the contract relating to it. Figure 39 shows
possibilities of breakdown that are already available on the basis of spe-
cialist allocation of individual services.
Items
A single item within a tender specification is the smallest tender unit
and represents a subjob within the building work. It is made up of
individual descriptive elements defining the work to be done and the par-
ticular service required clearly and unambiguously. The descriptive ele-
ments can be formulated as required or put together from standard
catalogues.
It is possible to include more than one activity within a particular

item, as long as they can be seen to be the same in their technical
nature, and for price calculation.
69
No. Text Item Quantity Unit UP TP
01.02.02.0001 … Formwork Floor slab … 50 m
Fig. 40: Components of a tender item
Components of Against this backdrop we recommend describing all the items sys-
a tender item tematically in a tender specification. In this context, the typical com
ponents of a tender item are grouped within the following categories:
—— No. number
—— Text descriptive text (short and long text)
—— ITy item type
—— Quantity the quantity worked out from the plans in terms of UQ
—— UQ unit of quantity
—— UP unit price (price for a unit)
—— TP total price per item (unit price × planned quantity)
These categories are applied to every item, thus producing a speci-

fication arranged by lots, trades and titles or subtitles. The bidder enters
the unit and total prices. > Fig. 40
The following information should be given in the individual catego-

ries for a tender position:
Number The number helps to make it easier to find one’s way around a ten-
der specification. Each piece of work (subjob) in the same category in
terms of techniques and pricing is identified by a particular number
according to a defined breakdown key. This number relates directly to
the way in which the project is broken down, and reflects this in the ten-
der specification. In a relatively simple project a subjob can be identified
by number as follows.
Lot Trade Title Item Index

01 01 01 0001 a
Index The index can be used to show the relationship between a basic and
an alternative item in the numbered list.
Numbering is consecutive at every level. > Fig. 41
Tender specification The tender specification text should be drawn up in long and short
text form by the planner inviting tenders.
70
01.02.01.0001 Activity 1 of title 1 in trade 2 des Loses 1



Fig. 41: Example of the use of numbering
The short text is used essentially as a short textual summary of the Short text
service required for further use in drawing up the bid and raising the in-
voice. The short form must not lead to possible confusion between items,
each item should be identified unambiguously: “masonry 36.5 cm, cellar,”
“masonry 36.5 cm ground floor,” “masonry 17.5 cm ground floor” etc.
In contrast, the long text should describe the work required unam- Long text
biguously and exhaustively, so that all the bidders understand exactly the
same thing.
In principle, texts can be freely formulated, taking legal and tech Freely formulated or
nical regulations into consideration. But to simplify this process, plan- standard texts
ners can make use of standardized sample texts, which are generally
available.
Such standard works catalogues are collections of texts that can be Standard texts
used to described work required or subcategories of it. These are struc-
tured according to predefined patterns and contain a range of infor
mation about building work, building materials, dimensions and units of
quantity for various works. ◼
The great advantage of standardized specification texts is that they

mean the same to all bidders, and so no there is no unnecessary effort
or additional risk when fixing prices. Furthermore, the usually modular
71
◼ Tip: Standardized texts are available in most coun-
tries to reduce the amount of effort needed when
drawing up tender specifications. They are arranged by
trade and constructed as modules: the descriptive text
for a required service is compiled in sequence using a
system containing several steps, with information on
building type, realization type, realization quality, struc-
tural component, type of material, quality of material
and dimensions, and possibly on the conditions of
realization as well. There is however no guarantee of
the technical correctness of the texts, as in principle
it is possible to arrive at combinations that would not
make sense.
compilation of the standard text collections and the hierarchical struc-

ture imposed facilitate the exchange of data between the compiler and
the recipient of the tender specification, because of good IT compatibil-
ity. All that remains for planners is to check the accuracy of the content.
It is possible to ensure that a description is complete to the greatest

possible extent on the basis of the prescribed system using standard
texts. But it should be noted that appropriate pattern texts are not avail-
able for all special solutions.
Building product manufacturers in particular usually offer appropri-

ate pattern texts, which can be taken over into the tender specification
very easily. Planners should remember that manufacturers do not see
this as an altruistic service, but use drawing up a tender specification as
a way of placing their own product. They are also keen to establish unique
selling points to exclude rival products from the competition. So infor-
mation can be supplied with the tender specifications containing produc-
tion-related information about the thickness of layers or alloys for a par-
ticular product that are unique to one manufacturer, but irrelevant in
terms of the product’s suitability for use and durability. This often sets
the hurdle for finding a possibly more reasonably priced alternative
unreasonably high for the tendering firm.
In any case, planners are advised to be careful when adopting a man-

ufacturer’s product descriptions. If they are not sure what a particular
formulation implies, they should consult the manufacturer or more neu-
tral institutions.
72
Fig. 42: Biased manufacturer’s description
Formulating the text freely requires a high level of expert knowledge Freely formulated
of the work to be described. This approach is also used to distinguish texts
important from less important information. A range of manufacturers,

the appropriate associations or other competent partners should be con-
sulted in order to obtain the information relevant to particular require-
ments. Planners must apply requirements arising from standards and
directives responsibly. The same applies to checking for completeness.
To ensure this, the description should cover the following points:
—— Description of the work required

—— Description of the type of work required
—— Spatial frame of reference for the work required (information about
the part of the building, but also its location in the building, if this
is not clear from the numbering)
—— Information about quality (material, surfaces, etc.)
—— Information about dimensions falling outside the reference unit ◯
◯ Note: A tender specification can be based on a refer-

ence object without excluding alternatives (e.g. “door
handle stainless steel 1076 brand FSB or of equal
standard”). Equality of standard can be checked by
requesting data sheets or samples accompanying an
alternative suggestion in the bid.
73
Systematization The following scheme systematizes the textual description of work,
and can be applied to any subsection of the work in this form. Modular
standard texts are based on similar patterns.
—— Building method, building type (production by fitting building

materials and components together)
—— Structural element (part of the building forming a room or system)
—— Building materials (required or desired building materials)
—— Dimension 1 (element dimensions, such as the thickness of a wall)
—— Dimension 2 (general dimensions, such as the installation height
● for a particular piece of work)
Supplementary It would also be possible to place other information about the pur-
information pose of the work on hints on invoicing or realization techniques in the de-
scriptive text. For example, if a building is to be in reinforced concrete,
the building method is directly influenced by the requirement to use pre-
fabricated elements. Equally, legal requirements can form part of a ten-
der specification, for example if material removed is to become the con-
◯ tractor’s property when the work in completed.
References It is customary when using texts to describe work required to make

reference to other documents, such as statical calculations, plans, sam-
ples or reports. For example, a tender specification text could contain
the formulation “reinforcement as per reinforcement plan.”
Reference to a drawing is particularly useful in the case of spatially

complex situations or complex building sections. For example, if an item
describes the construction of stairs with a banister, a drawing will help
to identify individual elements mentioned in the text and to understand
● Example:
Building method: masonry according to the This subservice can be further explained by comple-
standard xxxx menting the above description with information on
quality relating to the structural element (e.g. finished
Structural element: for the interior wall in section
as exposed masonry on both sides) or the building
EG XX/YY
material (e.g. salt-water-resistant finish) or on the
Building material: with calcareous sandstone building method (e.g. build with prefabricated wall
blocks yyy standard elements).
Dimension of element: with a thickness of 17.5 cm

General dimension: built to a height of 3.00 m
74
unambiguously the way they fit together. This means that the bidding firm
can check the completeness of the service description, and it is easier
to estimate the assembly time required.
Reference to reports makes sense in the case of special sound insu-

lation requirements, for example. In this case the relevant requirements
laid down in the report do not have to be described in the individual items,
but are defined in an appropriate reference: “Higher than usual demands
will be made on the completed building element according to the appended
sound insulation report. These requirements must be met, and considered
in the bid price.” In this way, planners avoid possible sources of error
when transferring individual requirements into the tender specification.
Different types of works positions can be used in a tender specifica- Item type (ITy)
tion. Planners identify a particular item appropriately in the “Item type
(ITy) column.”
Distinguishing between different item types makes it possible for

planners inviting tenders to test the market with a view to optional and
alternative services. For example, not all decisions will necessarily have
become final at the time the work is put out to tender (e.g. the choice of
floor coverings), or the requirements for a particular service will not have
been fixed (e.g. installing drainage). Subsequent changes can then be
addressed through contingent items. If these works are not ordered
until after the contract has been completed, the bidder’s prices given as
per tender specification are binding.
Standard items are always realized. Bidders will provide a unit price Standard item
and a total price for these in the tender specification.
◯ Note: If identical descriptions occur in different plasterboard stud wall as in preliminary note type A).
items, there are two ways of avoiding unnecessary rep- Preliminary remarks always relate to particular pieces
etitions. Planners can describe the work in full in one of work and are used exclusively in the context of
item and then refer back to this in subsequent items tender specifications listing the works in full. Funda-
(e.g. plasterboard stud wall, finish as in previous item, mentally they are the same as texts with lists of works
but with double boarding). If identical descriptions and should therefore match them in terms of content.
apply to a number of items, planners can sum them up There is no conflict with general or special contract
and identify them in their preliminary notes (e.g. finish conditions.
75
01.02.02.0001 ... Textile floor covering ... BI 30 m2
01.02.02.0001a ... Parkett ... AI 30 m2
Fig. 43: Example of alternative items
Contingency items Contingency items make it possible for planners to test the market
◯ in relation to services they may wish to use additionally.
If it is not certain that an item of this type will be realized, it is not

provided with a total price in the tender specification and thus not in the
final bid price either. If the client orders a contingency item after the con-
tract is concluded, its price will be calculated on the basis of the unit
price entered by the bidder. If they are not commissioned, contingency
◼ items are omitted without claim to remuneration.
Basic and Basic items are items that are fixed for realization. Enquiries can also
alternative items be made about alternative items. Thus, a basic item is considered to be
a component of this service to be carried out, and must be provided with
a unit and a total price.
Alternative items can replace basic items if the service described is

to be realized in an alternative way. As for a contingency item, an alter-
native item must also be identified appropriately and provided with a unit
price only by the bidder. > Fig. 43 Planners can use such items to make the
best financial decision about a service. The basic item is always realized
◯ unless the client expressly orders the use of the alternative item.
◯ Note: Contingency items should be used only for ◼ Tip: Contingency items are often not checked care-
subsidiary works that are not essential to the overall fully enough when examining the bid, as they are not
success of the building project. It would make sense included in the bid total. This can lead to accepting
to use contingency items if certain items have not been inflated unit prices that have to be kept to when order-
fixed before building starts because of insufficient ing the realization of contingency items.
information about the soil conditions on the building
site.
76
01.02.02.0001 ... Excavation soil class 3–5 ... 1000 m2
01.02.02.0001a ... Excavation soil class 6 ... SI 200 m2
Fig. 44: Supplementary item
Supplementary items are a different item type. They identify poten- Supplementary item
tial impediments or additional work needed in relation to a standard item.
Bidders provide a unit price and a total price for supplementary items in
the tender specification. The corresponding standard item then covers
something like a basic finish for the item, and the supplementary item
describes a higher standard or a special installation situation. The price
for a supplementary item is calculated from the difference between the
price for a higher standard and the basic finish. ●
An example shows the possibilities arising from using a supplemen-

tary item. Figure 45 presents two variants for describing the same work
for applying exterior rendering.
The first variant shows the rendering in two standard items, sepa-
rated for the high and the low building. The other provides a tender spec-
ification with a standard item for the whole building project and a
supplement for the higher areas, for which scaffolding costs may have
to be quoted. The second variant has the advantage that a bid will not be
made for the ground floor of the high-rise building at a higher price be-
cause of additional scaffolding costs. ◼
◯ Note: An alternative item offers the possibility for ● Example: The example in Figure 44 clarifies the prin-
contractors to propose their own solution for imple- ciple behind a supplementary item. The work described
menting a basic item (e.g. “Masonry to be produced in item 01.02.02.0001 covers excavating 1000 m3 of
according to previous item, but realized according to soil in classes 3–5. The appropriate supplementary
the bidder’s choice.”) A description of the proposed item enquires about the price if the problem arises
f inish must be appended. from “excavating class 6 soil” to the extent of 200 m3.
Thus the price contains only the proportion (supple-
mentary price) for dealing with the problem, and does
not represent a price in its own right for excavating
class 6 soil. Hence the areas (200 m2) are already
included in the standard item.
77
A. B.
Standard item for rendering Standard item for rendering

on low building on full project
and and
Standard item for rendering Standard item for rendering on
on high-rise building high-rise building from 1st floor
Fig. 45: Example of supplementary item
Quantity Quantities can be expressed in various units. But the unit of quan-
and units of quantity tity (UQ) should always relate meaningfully to a particular subservice.
Thus, it is possible to calculate reinforcement in cubic meters (m3),
although this is a disadvantage in terms of the form reinforcement bars
will take and the industry standard of calculating in tones to determine
prices. Sensible units are tones, or where applicable square meters (m2)
◯ for steel mats and meters for steel bars.
The unit of quantity fixed for an item forms the basis for quantity
s urveying and is the reference value for bidders when fixing prices for
subsections of the work.
◼ Tip: Supplementary items often differ only very ◯ Note: The general and special requirements contain
slightly from the corresponding standard positions. In guidelines for the use of units of quantity. For example,
such cases the descriptive text can be reduced to the wall areas are calculated by area (m2) for rendering
essential changes, there is no need to repeat textual work and soffits by length (m).
elements that remain unchanged. It is sufficient to
write “supplement to item xxx for double boarding.”
78
Lengths
(e.g. length of a wall)
Areas
(e.g. area of a wall) = length × height
Areas × 2
×2 (e.g. forming area or rendering on both sides)
Volume
(e.g. quantity of concrete for a wall)
= area × thickness
Tonnage
(e.g. reinforcement quantity for a wall)
= volume × proportion of steel
Fig. 46: Quantity surveying procedures
Quantities relate to the quantities required for completing a piece of

work on the scale required. The quantity is given as a preliminary esti-
mate representing the quantities required for completing the work
according to plan. They are derived directly from the working plans, or in
the case of refurbishment work also by on-site estimates, and built into
the tender specification by the planner inviting tenders. It is fundamen-
tally advisable to record the quantities for a work item within a particu-
lar frame of reference (total building project, part of building, floor, etc.)
and to color code the corresponding structural elements in the plan ap-
propriately to avoid redundancies. Quantities can also be worked out by
using appropriate construction software (e.g. CAD). The degree of auto-
matic quantity calculation extends from simply working out area to a com-
plete component-oriented list of quantities using a 3D model.
Conscientious quantity surveying also makes it easier to account for

building works at a later stage.
The unit price (UP) is calculated by unit quantity by the bidder on the Unit price (UP)
basis of the description of the subservice and built into the tender spec-
ification. As a rule the unit price is fixed and usually forms the basis for
later invoicing for the work. Unit prices are changed only if quantities vary
considerably or content deviates from the work as described.
79
Total price (TP) The total price is arrived at primarily from the product of unit price
and preliminary estimate (planned quantity). Bidders should work it out
for all items basic and supplementary items intended for realization and
include it in the tender specification in the appropriate place. The sum of
all the intermediate totals for a building project is the net final tender
price. Adding VAT at the statutory rate gives the gross price the bidder is
offering for the commission to provide the services described in the var-
ious lists. Total prices are not stated for alternative and contingent items,
as it is not clear at the point the bid is being made whether these items
will be realized or not.
Subservices are invoiced on the basis of the total prices for the indi-
vidual items and the quantities actually realized.
80
In conclusion
Tendering is not usually one of the activities planners find themselves
looking forward to with particular glee. This is understandable, as the
charms of a beautiful design, a magnificent view and even carefully
planned details seem incomparably greater. The large proportion of text
alone often detracts from the allure of the tendering process.
But planners who take the trouble to tender carefully for the ideas in
a design will gain some very sound insights into their own planning and
the necessary sequences of events needed to realize it.
It is only the invitation to tender that will ensure a high standard of

planning is also reflected in outstanding realization.
So this volume is intended to spur planners on to formulate their own

invitations to tender comprehensibly, and to structure them meaningfully.
If the contractors understand the invitation to tender, the planners have
not let themselves down.
81
Appendix
Literatur
Bert Bielefeld, Lars-Philip Rusch: Building projects in China, Birkhäuser
Verlag, Basel 2006
Bert Bielefeld, Falk Würfele: Building projects in the European Union,
Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel 2005
Chartered Institute of Building (ed.): Planning and Programming in
Construction, Chartered Institute of Building, London 1991
CIRIA: The Environmental Handbooks for Building and Civil Engineering:
Vol 1. Design and Specification, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1994
Sandra Christensen Weber: Scheduling Construction Projects.
Principles and Practices, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 2005
Institution of Civil Engineers, Association of Consulting Engineers and
Civil Engineering Contractors Association: Tendering for Civil
Engineering Contracts, Thomas Telford Ltd, 2000
Richard H. Neale, David E. Neale: Construction Planning, Telford,
London 1989
Jay S. Newitt: Construction Scheduling. Principles and Practices,
Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2009
82
Sample international contracts
FIDIC Fédération internationale des ingénieur communauté

NEC New Engineering contract
Additional sources of information
ISO International Organization for Standardization

(http://www.iso.org)
CEN European Commitee for Standardization
(http://www.cen.eu)
In addition to the above-mentioned sources, there are a number of national and international
associations and institutions that offer leaflets, examples of additional technical contractual
terms, as well as sample tender texts for certain items of work. Sample tender texts that can be
used by all types of contractors can be found on the following Internet sites:
Internet sites
http://publications.europa.eu
http://www.neccontract.co.uk
http://www.fidic.org
Tendering portal
http://ted.europa.eu
83
Picture credits
Figure 6 left: aboutpixel.de
Figure 6 center right: PixelQuelle.de
Figure 7: PixelQuelle.de
Figure 8: PixelQuelle.de
Figure 10 centre left: aboutpixel.de
Figure 10 right: aboutpixel.de
All other figures: The authors
the Authors
Tim Brandt, Dipl. Ing., is a civil engineer in Dortmund, specializing in
contract and change management; he also works in site and
project direction.
Sebastian Th. Franssen, Dipl. Ing. Architect, is proprietor of an
architectural practice in Dortmund, specializing in managing
private and public building projects.
84
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Die Qualität eines Entwurfs muss sich in

der gebauten Realität widerspiegeln. BASICS

Organizing the tender _21

Structuring service specifications _49

As students and professional beginners usually have little profes-

First of all it describes how building services are specified in a ten-

Bert Bielefeld, Editor

submission and planning permission process at the latest. The earlier

◯ Hint: The tender becomes part of the contract that

Fig. 1: Planning phases

Fig. 2: Tendering criteria

e.g. building costs, e.g. plot, position,

building period, e.g. laws,

e.g. technology, function, e.g. finance,

e.g. office, housing, e.g. local

Fig. 3: Definition of requirements

For the client, keeping to the prescribed budget is often crucial to

◼ Tip: Bids submitted in response to the first invitation

◼ Tip: Planners must establish that the client’s ideas

Deadlines as a Deadline requirements also influence possible construction pro­

no special requirements, a choice will usually be made between favor­

If the finished building is intended as a for-profit project, however,

Rationalization If the project range is inappropriate to the desired cost framework,

If requirements relating to quality of finish exceed the normal stan­

Building science Visual

Fig. 9: Division into technical and aesthetic criteria

Longer-term planning Long-term considerations should always be included in relation to

So it is possible to invite bids for specialist planning such as preparing

ing process into significant phases. To do this, planners must be familiar

Timetabling the invitation to tender

◯ Note: The process following the invitation to tender,

Fig. 11: Timetabling an invitation to tender

Once planners have drawn up their lists of services needed, they

Fig. 12: Preliminary trade planning period: window production

Tendering sequence and nature of tender

Demolition tender Demolition work

Shell tender Work on shell

Faccade tender Work on façade

Roof tender Roof work

Finishing tender Finishing work

be identified in full, and submitted to the contractor with an invitation to

Contractor with detailed invitation to tender

Contractor with functional invitation to tender

Planning Planning Realization

Fig. 15: Award procedure and time consumed

All work awarded to one contractor

Whole package broken down into “lots”

Trade lot award Part lot award

With specialist subdivision With subdivision by rooms

Fig. 16: Definition of the terms for award units

Fixing bid units

◯ A trade can be broken down into even smaller units if a number of

Trade lot 1 Trade lot 2 Trade lot 3 …

Trade lot award All work

Trade lot 1 Trade lot 2 Trade lot 3 …

Part lot award All work

Part lot 1 Part lot 2 Part lot 3 …

Fig. 17: Bid units

So tendering by trade may include all the services performed by that ●

Deadlines as a Deadline requirements also influence possible construction pro

no special requirements, a choice will usually be made between favor

If requirements relating to quality of finish exceed the normal stan

Furthermore, there are special technical requirements for inter

exterior of a building, the choice of brick can be specified to be the same

Approach to functional service specifications

type, the number of floors, number of offices per floor, or cellarage.