PHYSICS NOTES

FORM 4 SIMPLIFIED VERSION

QUICK REVISION NOTES

An Updated Well-Organized Detailed Revision Notes for the
Current Form 4 Syllabus.

SERIES 1

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Chapter One

THIN LENSES
Objectives Effect of lenses on parallel rays of light.
By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to: A lens relies on the principal of refraction of light. Therefore
a) Describe converging lenses and diverging lenses. when parallel rays are directed towards the lens the rays will be
b) Describe using ray diagrams the principal focus, refracted either by being converged or by being diverged.
the optical centre and the focal length of a thin  When the convex lens is used the rays are converged.
lens.
c) Determine experimentally the focal length of a
converging lens.
d) Locate images formed by thin lenses using ray
construction method.
e) Explain the image formation in the human eye.  If a concave lens is used then the rays are diverged.
f) Describe the defects of vision in the human eye
and how they are corrected.
g) Describe the uses of lenses in various optical
devises.
h) Solve numerical problems involving the lens
formula and the magnification.
Definition of terms
a) Centre of curvature – the centre of the sphere which the
Introduction lens is part.
Lens- Is a carefully molded piece of a transparent b) Radius of curvature (r) - the radius of the sphere of which
material that refracts light in such away as to form an the surface of the lens is part.
image. They normally operate on refractive property c) Principal axis – it is an the line joining the centres of
of light. curvature of its surfaces.
 They are made of glass, clear plastic, or Perspex. d) Optical Centre (O) - it is a point on the principal axis
 They are found in cameras human eye, spectacles, midway between the lens surfaces.
telescopes, microscope and projectors e.t.c e) Principal focus (F) – For a convex lens, is a point on the
Types of lenses principal axis where all rays converge after passing through
There are two major types of lenses, namely: the lens. While for a concave lens, is a point on the principal
1. Convex (converging) - they are thickest at the axis behind the lens from which rays seem to diverge from
middle and thinnest at the ends. after passing through the lens.
2. Concave (diverging) – they are thinnest at the f) Focal length (f) – it is the distance between the optical
middle and thickest at theends. centre and the principal focus.
Convex lenses g) Focal plane – it is a plane perpendicular to the principal
that all the rays seem to converge to or seem to appear to
diverge from. The incident rays in this case are not parallel
to the principal axis.
h) Paraxial rays- these are rays that are parallel and close to
the principal axis.
i) Marginal rays- these are rays that are parallel and far away
from the principal axis.
Concave lenses

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1.3 Image Formation
It is important to note:
 Real rays and real images are drawn in full
lines.
 Virtual rays and virtual images are drawn in
broken/dotted lines.
 To locate the image, two or three rays from
the tip of the object are drawn.
 Should the foot of the object cross the
principal axis, the method on 3 above is used
to get the foot of the image. The top is joined
1.2 Ray Diagrams
to the foot to get the image.
For one to locate the image when using a
lens, ray diagrams are of great importance. Example
There are three major rays that are used in
ray diagrams for the location of images
formed by the lens.
These rays are;
(i) A ray of light parallel to the principal
axis.  Converging and diverging lenses are
This ray passes through the principal focus represented by the symbols shown below.
(for convex lens) or seem to appear to
emerge from the principal focus (for
concave lens) after refraction by the lens

(ii) A ray of light passing (or appearing to

Characteristics of images formed by lenses
pass through) the principal focus
Converging lenses.
-the ray emerges parallel to the principal Object at infinity.
axis after refraction by the lens

(iii) A ray of light through the optical

centre
This ray passes on un-deviated The image is
(i) Real
(ii) Inverted
(iii) Diminished
(iv) Formed at F

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Object between F and lens
Object beyond 2F

The image is
The image is (i) Virtual
(i) Real (ii) Erect
(ii) Inverted (iii)
(iii)Diminished (iv) Magnified
(iv) formed between F and 2F on the other side (v) Formed on the same side as object
of the lens Diverging lenses
Object at 2F

The image is
(i) Virtual
The image is (ii) Erect
(i) real (iii)diminished
(ii) Inverted
(iii)Same size as the object Linear Magnification
(iv) Formed at 2F, on the other side of the lens
 Magnification is a measure of the extent to which
an optical system enlarges or reduces an image.
Object between F and 2F  Linear magnification is a ratio of height of image
to the height of the object OR the ratio of the
image distance to the object distance.
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Or 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
The image is 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

(i) Real 𝑉 h
Therefore, 𝑚 = 𝑢 = i
(ii) Inverted ho
(iii)Magnified The lens formula
(iv) formed beyond 2F on the other side of Consider an image formed by converging lens as shown
the lens below.

Object at F

The image is at infinity PO is the object distance, u, PI is the image distance, v,

and PF the focal length, f.

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OB=PH (ii) An object placed 6m from a converging lens
Triangles POB and PIM are similar. Therefore; forms an erect image that is five times
𝑂𝐵 𝑃𝑂 larger.State the type of the image formed.Find
=
𝐼𝑀 𝑃𝐼 the focal lenght of the lens.
𝑢 Solution
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
𝑣 The image is virtual since it is upright and
Similarly, triangles PFH and IMF are similar. So; magnified.
𝑃𝐻 𝑣 𝑣
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑢 = 𝑚, = 5 ⇨ 𝑣 = 5𝑢, 𝑢 = 6𝑚, 𝑣 =
𝐼𝑀 𝑢
𝑃𝐹 5 × 6 = 30𝑚
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (2) 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐼𝐹 = + , = + ,𝑓 = 5𝑚
But, PF=f 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 6 30
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑃𝐹; 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑣 − 𝑓 Relationship between magnification and focal
Substitute these values in equation (2); length
𝑂𝐵 We have;
𝐼𝑀 1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑣−𝑓 Multiply both sides by v;
Combining equations (1) and (3); 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
= +
𝑢 𝑓 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
= 𝑣 𝑣
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓 But, = 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1, therefore,
𝑢 𝑣
𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓 𝑣
=𝑚+1
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑢𝑓 𝑓
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑣 + 𝑢) Re-arranging;
𝑢𝑣 𝑣
=𝑣+𝑢 𝑚 = −1
𝑓 𝑓
1 𝑣+𝑢 𝑣 𝑢
= = +
𝑓 𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑣 To determine u and v, real-is –positive sign
1 1 1 convention is adopted. According to this
Hence 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
convention:
This is called the lens formula and holds for both I. All distances are measured from the optical
converging and diverging lens. centre.
II. Distances of real objects and real images
are positive whereas distances of virtual
Examples objects and images are negative.
(i) An object 0.05m high is placed 0.15m infront of III. The focal length of a converging lens is
a convex lens of focal lenght 0.1m.find the positive while that of diverging lens is
position and size of the image.what is the negative.
magnification?
Solution Exercise
𝒉𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎, 𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎, 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎, 𝒗 = 1. An object is placed 12cm from a converging
? , 𝒉𝒊 =? lens of focasl lenght 18cm. Find the position
1 1 1 of the image.
= + ,
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 2. An object is places 10cm from a diverging lens
1 1 1 of focal lenght 15cm. Find the nature and the
= + , 𝑣 = 0.3 𝑚
0.1 0.15 𝑣 position of the image.
ℎ𝑖 𝑣 𝑣 3. The focal lenght of a converging lens is found
= = 𝑚 ⇨ 𝒉 𝒊 = × 𝒉𝒐 ,
ℎ𝑜 𝑢 𝑢 to be 10cm.how far should the lens be placed
𝟎.𝟑 𝟎.𝟑 from an illuminatated object to obtain an
𝒉𝒊 = 𝟎.𝟏 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒎, 𝒎 = 𝟎.𝟏 = 𝟑
image which is magnified five times on a
screen?
4.

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Exercise
Graphical interprentation of the lens formula Interprete a graph of:
CASE1: 1 1
(i) 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝟏 𝟏 𝑢 𝑣
A graph of 𝒗 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝒖; (ii) 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑢𝑣
1 1 1 CASE 3:
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎, 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
1
𝑅𝑒 − 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑦 Graph of u against 𝑚
= 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 1 1 1
= +
1 1 1 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
= − + 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
𝑉 𝑢 𝑓 = +
1 1 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
= −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑢 1
𝑣 𝑓 =1+
𝑓 𝑚
1
𝑢 =𝑓 +𝑓
𝑚

Implying that 𝑓 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑓

It is a straight line that cuts the vertical axis at f.

CASE 2
A graph of uv against 𝑢 + 𝑣
1 1 1 1 𝑣+𝑢
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑣, =
𝑓 𝑢𝑣
𝑢𝑣 = (𝑢 + 𝑣 )𝑓
In the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑓 (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) + 0
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑣 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 0
It is a graph of a straight line passing through the Exercise
origin. Interpret a graph of:
(i) m against v
(ii) V against m

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Experimental Determination Of The Focal 2. Adjust the position of the lens holder until a sharp
Length Of A Converging (Convex) Lens image of the object is formed on the screen alongside
Method (1): the object itself.
3. Record the distance between the lens and the screen.
Focusing A Distant Object Focal length----------------------cm
Apparatus
Metre rule, lens, a lens holder, screen NOTE:
Under these conditions, rays from any point on the object
Procedure will emerge from the lens as parallel rays. They are
1. Mount a convex lens on a lens holder and fix therefore reflected back through the lens and brought to
a metre rule on a bench using plasticine as a focus in the same plane as the object. The distance
shown below. between the lens and the screen now give the focal length
of the lens.

Method (3):
Using A Pin And Plane Mirror/No Parallax Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown below.

2. Place a white screen at one end of the metre

rule.
3. Move the lens to and fro along the metre rule
to focus clearly the image of a distant object,
like a tree or window frame. 2. Adjust the position of the pin up and down till its tip
4. Measure the distance between the lens and the is at the same horizontal level as the centre of the
screen. lens. A position is found for which there is no
Focal length--------------------cm parallax between it and the real image formed. For
best results, attention should be given to the tilt of the
Note: The distance between the lens and the plane mirror so that the tip of the image of the object
screen gives a rough estimate of the focal length pin appears to touch at the same level as the centre of
of the lens. This is because parallel rays from the lens.
infinity are converged at the focal point on the 3. The distance between the pin and the lens will then
screen. be equal to the focal length of the lens.
Focal length=-----------------------cm
Method (2):
Using an Illuminated Object And Plane The power of a lens
Mirror/Reflection Method Is a measure of refractive property of a lens. It is given
Procedure by
1. Set the lens in its holder with a plane mirror 1
behind it so that light passing through it can be 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
reflected back as shown below. The unit of power of a lens is dioptres (D)

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USES OF LENSES IN OPTICAL DEVICES Defects of vision
Due to their ability to converge or diverge light rays, Short sightedness (myopia)
lenses are widely used in optical devices. The devices
include;
 Human eye
 Simple microscope
 Compound microscope
 The camera
The human eye  Can only clearly see near objects
It is a natural optical instrument  Rays of near objects are focused on the retina but those for
distance objects are focused in front of the retina
Causes
 Short focal length of the eye lens
 Long eyeball
Corrected by diverging lenses as shown

1. Sclerotic layer – hard shell that encloses the eye Long sightedness (hypermetropia)
and is white.
 Can see distant objects but not near ones
The front part is transparent and spherical
 The images of near objects are formed behind the retina
known as the cornea.
Causes are:
Most bending of light entering the eye occurs
at the cornea.  Too long focal length of the eye
2. Aqueous Humour – clear liquid between the  Too short eyeball
cornea and the lens. It helps the eye maintain
shape.
3. Iris – it is the colouring of the eye. It has pupil
which regulates the amount of light entering the
eye.
4. Crystalline lens- it is a converging lens. It can
change its focal length by the action of Ciliary  It is corrected by using converging lenses
muscles
5. Vitreous humour – transparent jelly like
substance filling another chamber between the
lens and the retina
6. Retina – it is where the image is formed and
Made of cells that are light sensitive
7. Fovea – central part of the retina that exhibits best
details and colour vision at this place.
8. Blind spot – this contains cells that are not light
sensitive.
9. Ciliary muscles – these are muscles that support
the lens. They control the shape of lens by
contracting or relaxing. In relaxing the muscles it
enables the lens to increase hence focus distance
objects. In contraction the muscles reduce
tensions in the lens to increase its focal length
thus focus near objects. This process is known as
accommodation.
Near point – closest point which the normal eye can
focus. Far point - furthest point that a normal eye can
focus.

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Camera Compound microscope

 The camera has lenses that focus light from There are two cases under which a converging lens can
the object to form an image of the object on produce magnified images;
the film. When the object is between F and 2F.
 Focusing is done by adjusting the distance When the object is between the lens and F.
between the lens and the film .the A compound microscope combines the above two cases. It
diaphragm controls the amount of light consists of converging lenses of short focal length .The
entering the eye. focal length next to the object is called objective lens and
 The shutter allows light to reach the film the one next to the eye is called the eyepiece or ocular.
only for a precise period when the camera is The objective lens is of short focal length.
operated.
 The inside is blackened to absorb any stray
light.
Similarities between the eye and the camera
Eye Camera
Has crystalline Has a convex lens
convex lens
Choroid layer is Box painted black The eye piece is also of short focal length but longer than
black inside that of the objective lens. A compound microscope
The retina where Light-sensitive film overcomes the limitations of a simple microscope by use of
images are formed where images are objective lenses with many lenses and an eyepiece with
formed. more than one lens.
Iris which controls Diaphragm which Total magnification produced by a compound microscope
the amount of light controls the amount is given by;
entering the eye of light entering the 𝑉 𝑣
camera. (𝑓𝑒 − 1) ( 𝑓𝑜 − 1) Where 𝑣𝑜 is the image distance from I
𝑒 𝑜
and 𝑉𝑒 the image distance from I’.
Differences between the eye and the camera REVISION QUESTIONS
Eye Camera 1. The diagram below shows an arrangement of lenses, Lo
Varable focal length Fixed focal length and Le used in a compound microscope FO and Fe are
Constant image Variable image principal foci of Lo and Le respectively.
distane distance
Constantly changing Only one
pictures photograph can be
taken at at time
Simple microscope
It is sometimes referred to as a magnifying
glass. When the object is placed between a Draw
convex lens and its principal focus, the image the rays to show how the final image is formed in the
formed is virtual, erect and magnified. microscope

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Chapter Two

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Specific Objectives Content
By the end of this topic, the learner should be  The radian, angular displacement, angular velocity
able to: 𝑚𝑣 2
 Centripetal force; 𝐹 = 𝑟 , 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
 Define angular displacement and
angular velocity (derivation of formulae not required) (experimental
treatment is necessary)
 Describe simple experiments to
illustrate centripetal force  Applications of uniform circular motion
 Explain the application of uniform  Centrifuge, vertical, horizontal circles banked tracks
circular motion (calculations on banked tracks and conical pendulum
not required)
 Solve numerical problems involving 𝑚𝑣 2
uniform circular motion  Problem solving (Apply 𝐹 = 𝑟 , 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2)

Definition of Terms Convert the following into radians:

(A) Angular Displacement, 𝜽 a) 800C
It is the angle swept through a line joining to b) 1200C
the centre of circular path. It is measured in (b) Angular Velocity
radians. It is the rate of change of angular displacement. It is denoted
by Greek letter omega (ω).

 =
𝑡
Is measured in radian per second
Example
1. A particle moving in a circular path covers one
𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 revolution in ten seconds. Calculate its angular
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ velocity.
=
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑠
𝜃= Period/Periodic Time
𝑟 Is the time taken to complete one revolution.
Radian 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Is defined as an angle of sector of the 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
circumference whose length is equal to its = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒
radius or is the ratio of arc length to the radius 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
2𝜋
of a circular. 𝑇=
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜔
r𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 Frequency (f)
𝑠 1
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = Frequency, 𝑓 = 𝑇
𝑟 1 2𝜋
2𝜋𝑟 = →ω=2πf
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓 𝜔
𝑟
= 2𝜋
2𝜋 𝑟 = 3600

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Relationship between angular displacement, Centripetal Acceleration
𝜽 and angular velocity.  An object going through a circular path is said to
∆S
V = ∆t --------------------------------------------- accelerate.
------- (i)  If the velocity of such object is constant the object
∆S still accelerates because there is continuous change in
∆θ = ∆r --------------------------------------------
velocity as the object continuously changes direction.
----- (ii) From Newton’s second law of motion, the body
For small change in equation (ii) experiences a resultant force as it moves rounds path
∆𝑆
∆𝛳 = 𝑟 ---------------------------------------------- .This resultant force is directed towards the circular
--- (iii) path.
Dividing equation (iii) by ∆t  Acceleration of this body is in the direction of force
∆𝜃 ∆𝑠 applied to it i.e. it accelerates towards the centre of
= the circular of the circular path. This acceleration is
∆𝑡 𝑟∆𝑡
𝑣 called centripetal acceleration.
𝜔 = → 𝒗 = 𝝎𝒓
𝑟 The centripetal acceleration is given by the following
Anybody in circular motion has both linear equation.
velocity in m/s and angular velocity in rads/s. 𝑣2
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑟
But 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
Examples 𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑟
1. A turn table rotates at the rate of 60
revolutions per minute. What is its Centripetal Force
angular velocity in rads/s Is a force that is required to keep a body moving in a circular
2. A model car moves around a circular path and is directed towards the centre of the circular path.
path of radius 0.6m at 25 Rev/s. If an object moving through a circular path is released
Determine its; suddenly it flies off tangentially.
(a) period
(b) Angular velocity (𝜔)
(c)Speed (v) Factors Affecting Centripetal Force.
3. The car moves with uniform velocity of 1. Mass of the object, m- the heavier the object the more
3m/s in a circle of radius 0.2m. Find its
the centripetal force needed to maintain it in circular path.
angular velocity and frequency. 2. Angular velocity of the object, 𝝎- an increase in
centripetal force needed to maintain the object in circular
4. Distinguish between angular and linear path.
velocity. 3. Radius of the path r-the shorter the radius of the path the
larger the centripetal force required to maintain the object in
circular path.

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Example Examples of Uniform Circular Motion
The figure below shows the diagram of set up to A car rounding a level circular bend
investigate the variation of centripetal with the When a car is going round in a circular path on a
radius r, of the circle in which a body rotated horizontal road, the centripetal force required for a
circular motion is provided by the frictional force
between the tyres and the road
𝑚𝑣 2
Therefore- 𝐹𝑟 = 𝑟
If the road is slippery then frictional force may not be
sufficient so to provide centripetal force
To prevent skidding the car should not exceed certain
speed limits referred to as the critical speed

This critical speed depends-

Radius of the bend i.e. one may negotiate the a bend at
Describe how the set up can be used to carry out higher critical speed the radius of the bend is big
Condition of the tyre and the nature of the road surface
the investigation
this will produce the frictional force need to negotiate
 Keep angular velocity 𝜔 constant;
the bend
 Centripetal force provided by mg;
 Fix the mass m and measure of m; Banked tracks
 Repeat for different values of m; Condition in which a road is raised gradually from the
inner side of the bend.
The above factors are proofed using a turntable.
The turntable has the following features
 Increase in speed of the turn table
increases length of the spring (increase in
centripetal force)
 When using a shorter spring there is more
extension of the spring than using along
spring.
 When using a heavier metal bar will
produce more extension than using a
lighter ball.
This is a proof to the above factors.
The graph of force against the square of angular
velocity is a straight line through the origin.
𝑀𝑉 2
𝐹∝
𝑟
𝐾𝑀𝑉 2
𝐹=
𝑟
𝑀𝑉 2
When k=1,𝐹 = 𝑟 , but 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
𝑚𝜔2 𝑟2
Hence,𝐹 = , thus,𝐹 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
𝑟

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𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 -Is the horizontal component which is BY principle of moments
responsible for providing centripetal force. R.x = Fry
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 -Is the vertical component that is 𝑥 𝑚𝑣 2
=
responsible for balancing the weight of the 𝑦 𝑟𝑚𝑔
𝑥 𝑣2
vehicle. =
𝑦 𝑟𝑔
If a vehicle of mass m is travelling a long a 𝑣2
circular path of radius r at uniform speed v, Tan 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
then Making v the subject of the formula
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣 = √𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛳
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑟 Tan 𝜃=
𝐹𝑟
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖) 𝑚𝑔
Divide (i) by (ii) Mg tan 𝜃 = Fr
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑚𝑣 2 1 Fr = µR
= × Mg tan 𝜃 = µ mg
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟 𝑚𝑔
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Tan 𝜃 =µ
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 Where µ is coefficient of friction
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣2 Skidding occurs when tan 𝜃 is greater than µ
Hence tan 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
The maximum speed required for a body
moving in a circular path whose angle of
banking is 𝜃 is given by;
𝑣 2 = 𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣 = √𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

A cyclist moving round a circular track

Frictional force (Fr) is provided by centripetal
force which is directed towards the car
however if frictional force is not sufficient to
provided centripetal force skidding takes
place. To avoid skidding the cyclist leg
inwards so that normal reaction of frictional
force produces the turning effect to the
clockwise and anticlockwise directions.
Taking moments about G

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Conical pendulum Example:

If a pendulum bob moves in such a way that (a) The figure below shows an object at the end of
the string sweeps out a cone, then the bob will a light spring balance connected to a peg using a
describe a horizontal circle. string. The object is moving in a circular path on a
smooth horizontal table with a constant speed.

(i) What provides the force that keeps the object

As it can be clearly seen, there are two forces
moving in the circular path?
acting on the pendulum bob; (ii) Indicate with an arrow on the figure the
(i) its weight (mg) direction of centripetal force .
(ii) The tension in the string. (iii) The speed of the object is constant, why is
Centripetal force is provided by the horizontal
there acceleration?
component of the tension (F Sin). Hence (iv) Although there is force acting on the object,
from Newton's second law; NO, work is done on the object. Explain.
𝑭 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = (v) Given that the mass of the object is 0.5kg and
𝑚𝑣 2
… … … … … … … … . . (1)(Where symbols it is moving at speed of 8m/s at a radius of
𝑟 2m.Determine the reading on the spring balance.
have their usual meaning). Since there is no
vertical acceleration (vi) State what happens to the reading if the speed
𝑭 𝐶𝑜𝑠 = 𝑚𝒈 … … … … … … … … … . . (𝟐) of rotation is reduced.
𝒗𝟐
Again, from the two equations; 𝑻𝒂𝒏  =
𝒓𝒈
Note that this equation is similar to the one we
got earlier for banked tracks.
When the angular velocity W the cork rises
hence Q increases. This concept is applied in
merry go round and speed governors.

Motion in a Horizontal Circe

The tension in the string provides the
centripetal force.
𝑻 = 𝑭𝑪
𝑴𝑽𝟐
𝑻=
𝒓
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
= 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

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Motion in Vertical Path Example

A car travels over a humpback bridge of radius of
curvature 40m. Calculate maximum speed of the car if
its wt are to staying contact with bridge. g =10m/s2

Tension on the spring changes its magnitude

depending on the position of the ball.
2
When the ball is at A, the sum of tension TA and 𝑚𝑣 =mg-R
𝑟
weight Mg acting in the same direction R=0
provide centripetal force. Mv2 =mg
𝑀𝑉 2
𝑟
= Ta + Mg ---------------------------------------- 𝑉 2 = 𝑟𝑔
------ (i) V= √𝑟𝑔
When the ball is at A it attains minimum speed = √40 × 10
because Ta = 0 = 20 m/s
𝑀𝑉 2
= mg
𝑟
V min = √𝑟𝑔
At B, tensional force TB provides centripetal Examples of Centripetal Force
force. Example Source(what provides
𝑀𝑉 2 centripetal force)
𝑇𝐵 = Cyclist moving along Frictional force between the
𝑟
At C, tension and weight acts in different a circular path tyre and the road
direction and hence the resultant force between Car moving a long a Horizontal component of
the two forces provides the centripetal force banked road reaction force
𝑀𝑉 2 Electron orbiting Electrostatic force of
= Tc - Mg ----------------------------------------- around the nucleus of attraction between the proton
𝑟
----- (ii) an atom and the electron
𝑀𝑉 2
Ta = 𝑟 – Mg ---------------------------------------- Electron moving in a Magnetic field
magnetic field
------- (iii)
𝑀𝑉 2 Satellite orbiting Gravitational force exerted
Tc = + Mg----------------------------------------- around the earth by the earth
𝑟
----- (iv) A string whirled in a Tensional force
𝑀𝑉 2 horizontal track
𝐴𝑡 𝐷, 𝑇𝐷 =
𝑟
1. A pilot not stripped to his seat in a loop
manoeuvre without falling.
2. A bucket of water whirled in a vertical
without water spilling.
3. A ball bearing ‘looping the loop’ on a rail
lying in vertical plane.

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Application of Circular Motion 3. Speed Governors
1. Centrifuges Principle of conical pendulum is used in
It is used to separate particles in operating the speed governors.
suspension in liquids of different
densities. It consists of small metal
containers tubes that can be rotated.

As the angular velocity of the drive shaft

increases .the masses m rises and moves the
collar up as the angle 𝜃 increases. The up and
Centripetal will be too great according to down movement of the collar is transmitted
the equation F = mrω2 through a system of levers to the device that
And r will thus be smaller for lighter controls the fuel intake. Since the angular
particles and longer for heavier particles. velocity of the drive shaft increases with speed
2. Satellites of the vehicle, the fuel supply will cut off when
Two bodies with mass m1 and m2 at a the speed exceeds a certain limit.
distance r from each other experience a
𝐺𝑀 𝑀
force of attraction. 𝐹 = 𝑅12 2 G is equal
to universal gravitational constant
Attraction between earth and satellite
𝐺𝑀1𝑀
gives centripetal Force𝑀1 𝑣 2 = 𝑅2 2
Where M1 is mass of satellite and m2 mass
𝐺𝑀
of the earth 𝑣 2 = 𝑅 22

𝐺𝑀2
𝑣 = √
𝑟
The velocity of the satellite increases with
decrease in the radius of the orbit.
If periodic time of the satellite is equal to
that of the earth the satellite appear
stationary as seen from the earth surface
This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy
such satellite are said to be in parking
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Chapter Three SINKING AND FLOATING

Specific objectives Content
a) state Archimedes‟ principle  Archimedes‟ principle,
b) verify Archimedes principle  Law of flotation (experimental treatment)
c) state the law of flotation  Relative density
d) define relative density  Applications of Archimedes‟ principle and relative
e) describe the applications of Archimedes‟ principle density.
and relative density.  Problems on Archimedes‟ principle
f) Solve numerical problems involving Archimedes‟  Project Work- Construct a hydrometer.
principle.
Upthrust force

Upthrust is an upward force acting on an object floating Precisely: Upthrust = Real weight –Apparent weight.
or immersed in a fluid. An object immersed or floating
in a fluid appears lighter that its actual weight due to Cause of upthrust
upthrust force (force of buoyancy).
Consider the figure below.
Archimedes principle.

The principle states: When a body is totally or partially

immersed in a fluid it experiences an up thrust equal
to the weight of displaced fluid.

To verify Archimedes’ principle

Apparatus
 An overflow can
 A metal block Pressure at the bottom > pressure at the top
 A beaker
PB = Pa+h2ρg
 A spring balance
 A string PT = Pa + h1ρ g
 Water
Force = pressure x area
Procedure
FB = PBA = (Pa+h2 ρ g) A
(i) Weigh the block in air.
(ii) Note the weight of the block in air as w1. FT = PTA = (Pa+ h1ρg) A
(iii) Immerse the block in water in the overflow can
as shown in the diagram below Resultant force = FB – FT

U= (Pa+h2 ρ g) A- (Pa+h1ρ g) A

U= (h2-h1) ρgA

U= hρgA But A h =v

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑼 = 𝑽𝝆𝒈
 Note the weight of the block when fully
immersed as w2 Upthrust therefore depends on:
 Measure the volume of water displaced and
calculates its weight as w3 (i) Volume of fluid displaced.
 Apparent loss of weight=𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐
(ii) Density of fluid displaced.
 The upthrust U=W3
 Upthrust=apparent loss of weight;𝑼 = 𝑾𝟏 −
𝑾𝟐

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3.(a) Distinguish between pressure and up thrust
Example force.
A stone of weight 3N in air and 1.2N when (b) A solid metal block of density 2500kg/m3 is fully
totally immersed water. Calculate: immersed in water, supported by a thread which is
(a) Volume of the stone attached to the spring balance as shown below.
(b) Density of the stone
Upthrust = Real weight- Apparent weight
= 3N – 1.2N
= 1.8 N
But 𝑈 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔
1.8 = V x 1000 x 10
V= 0.00018 m3
𝑚
𝜌 =
𝑣
0.3 3
= 0.00018 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
=1,666.67 kg/m3

QUESTIONS (i) Calculate the force due to the liquid on the

top face of the block.
1. A Solid of density 2.5g/cm3 is weight in air (ii) If the upward force on the bottom face is
and then when completely immersed in water 1.5N, calculate the volume of the block.
in a measuring cylinder the Level of water (iii) Calculate the apparent weight of the block in
rises from 40cm3 to 80cm3. Determine water.
(a) Volume of the solid
(b) Its apparent weight.
2 a)State the Archimedes’ principle Up thrust in gases
b) A right angled solid of dimensions 0.02m Gases exert small upthrust on objects because of their
by 0.02m by 0.2m and density 2700kgm-3 is low density.
supported inside kerosene of density 800kgm- A balloon filled with hydrogen or helium rises up
3
by a thread which is attached to a spring because of low density.
balance. The long side is vertical and the
upper surface is 0.1m below the surface of
kerosene.
(i) Calculate the force due to the
liquid on:
(ii) The lower surface of the solid
(iii) The upper surface of the solid
(iv) Calculate the upthrust and hence
or otherwise determine the
reading on the spring balance.

In the figures above the balloon filled with air weight of block in air. They are equal (same).
will not float because the weight of the balloon Therefore we conclude that a floating object displaces
fabric and air is greater than the weight of air its own weight of the fluid in which it floats. This law
displaced (upthrust) i.e. w>u. The balloon of flotation.
filled with helium or hydrogen floats because Explanation
the weight of the balloon fabric and helium or
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hydrogen is less than the weight of the air When a body is submerged in water, there are two
displaced(upthrust) i.e. u>w forces acting on the body;
Law of Flotation (i) The weight of the body acting downwards
(ii) Upthrust on the body due to displaced liquid
acting upwards.
Case 1
If the weight of the body is greater than upthrust, the
density of the body is greater than the density of the
displaced liquid, the body sinks.
Case2
In this case we consider the floating object and If the weight of the body is equal to upthrust, the density
weight of the fluid displaced. of the body is equal to the density of the liquid, the body
A comparison of the weight of the object and that remains in equilibrium.
of fluid displaced. Case3
Experimentally this can be done by: If the weight of the body is less than the upthrust, density
of the body is less than the density of the liquid, the body
 ½ fill measuring cylinder with water and
floats partially in the liquid.
record the reading.
Example:
 Place a clean dry test tube into the beaker
A boat of mass 2000kg floats on fresh water. If the boat
and add some sand in it so that it floats
enters sea water. Determine the volume that must be
upright.
added to displace the same volume of water as
 Records the new level of the liquid before.(Fresh water-=1000kg/m3, sea water= 1030
determine the volume of displaced water kg/m3)
 Measure its weight (dried) and content. Weight of fresh water = 2000kg
 Calculate the weight of displaced water. 2000
Displaced Volume of fresh water =1000
It is observed that the weight of the test tube and
its consent is equal to weight of displaced water. =2m3
OR Mass = Density x Volume
Apparatus: = 1030 x 2
A block of wood, A spring balance, Thin thread, = 2060 kg
Overflow can, A small measuring cylinder and = 2060- 2000
Some water. = 60kg
Using the apparatus above, describe an 2. A sphere of radius 3 cm is floating between liquid A
experiment to verify the law of floatation. and B such that ½ is at A and ½ at B. If of liquids A and
B are 0.8g/cm3 and 1.0g/cm3 respectively determine
 Using the spring balance, weigh and record mass of the sphere.
the weight of the block in air
 Fill the eureka completely with water
 Place the measuring cylinder under the spout
 Lower the block of wood slowly into water
until the string slackens (the block floats)
 Collect the displaced water using the
measuring cylinder
 Repeat the procedure to attain more results
 Compare the weight of displaced water with
the

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Upthrust and Relative Density
Mass of sphere= volume x density Relative density is the ratio of the mass of any volume of a substance to
4
the mass of an equal volume of water OR the ratio of the density of a
Volume = 3 𝜋33 substance to the density of water.

= 113.14 cm3 To find relative density of a solid or a liquid several methods or formulas are
used.
Volume of liquid A displaced = ½ x 113.14
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
56.57 cm2 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Mass displaced of A = 56.57 x 0.8 Relative density of a solid.
45.256g If equal volumes of the substance and water are considered,
Mass of liquid B displaced = 56.57g 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Total mass of sphere displaced = 45.256 + 56.57
Because mass is directly proportional to the weight the relative density of a
101.826g
solid may be given as:
3. A stone eights 2N in air and 1.2N when totally
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
immersed in water Calculate 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
(a) Volume of the stone
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
(b) Densities of the stone 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

(a) Up thrust = weight of water displaced 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅

𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒖𝒑 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
= 2-1.2
Relative density of solid which sinks in water
=0.8N
If the weight of the substance in air is 𝑊1 and in water is,𝑊2 , then 𝑅. 𝐷 =
Mass of water displaced = 0.8/10 𝑊1
𝑊1 −𝑊2
= 0.08kg
Relative density of solid which floats in water
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 The sinker is used as follows:
0.08 Weight of the sinker in water=𝑊1
= 1000 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Weight of the sinker in water + weight of floating object in air=𝑊2
1000 kg/m3
Weight of the sinker +weight of floating object in water=𝑊3
= 0.00008m3
Weight of floating object in air =𝑊2 − 𝑊1
Volume of stone = 0.00008m3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.2 Weight of floating object in water=𝑊3 − 𝑊1
(b) Density= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =0.00008
Up thrust of the floating object in water=(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 ) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊1 )
= 2500 kg/m3
Up thrust of the floating object in water=𝑊2 − 𝑊1 − 𝑊3 + 𝑊1

Up thrust of the floating object in water=𝑊2 − 𝑊3

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒖𝒑 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑊2 − 𝑊1
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 =
𝑊2 − 𝑊3

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Relative density of a liquid
To find relative density of the liquid we determine:
a) Weight (w1) of solid in air.
b) Weight (w2) of the same solid when totally
immersed in water.
c) Weight (w3) of the same solid when totally
immersed in a liquid whose relative density is
to be determined.
𝑅. 𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 Volume of y displaced = 4 x 5 x 3
= = 60 cm3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 0.00006 m3
Or
𝑼𝒑 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 = 𝒗𝝆𝒈
𝑅. 𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠
= 800 x 0.00006 x 10
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
= = 0.48N
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
Or Volume of x displaced = 0.04 x 0.05 x
𝒖𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 0.06
𝑹. 𝑫 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅𝒔 =
𝒖𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 0.00012 m3
𝑤1 − 𝑤2 𝑼𝒑 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒗𝝆𝒈
𝑅. 𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠 =
𝑤1 − 𝑤3 = 0.00012m3
Or = 1.2N
Total up thrust = 1.2 x 0.48
= 1.68N
Example Weight of block = total up thrust
1. A solid of mass 800g is suspended by a string is = 1.68N
totally immersed in water. If the tension in the = 0.168 kg
string is 4.8N. Calculate 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
(b) 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
(a) Volume of solid 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

(b) Relative density of the solid. = 0.168

= 0.04 x 0.05 x 0.12
Weight of solid = 8N
=700 kg/m3
W1 = 8N
W2= 4.8N
Up thrust = 3.2N
Volume of water displaced = 0.32
1000
= 0.00032 m3
Volume of the solid = 0.00032m3
1. The wooden block below floats in two liquids
x and y if the densities of x and y are 1g/cm3
and 0.8g/cm3 respectively determine:
(i) Mass of the block
(ii) Density of the block

(b) Balloons

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Applications of Archimedes’s Principle and Used by metrologists where a gas which is less dense
Relative Density than air like hydrogen is used. The balloon moves
(a) The hydrometer upwards because up thrust force is greater than weight
of the balloon. It rises to some height where density is
equal to that of the balloon. At this point the balloon
stops rising because up thrust is equal to weight of the
balloon and therefore resultant force is equal to zero.

(c) Ships
They are made of steel which is denser than water but
floats because they are hollow thereby displacing a
large volume of water than the volume of steel which
provides enough up thrust to support its weight.
The average density of sea water is greater than the
average density of fresh water. Due to this difference,
ships are fitted with primsol lines on their sides to show
the level that a ship should sink to when on various
waters.

(d) Sub-marine
It can sink or float. It is fitted with ballast tanks that
It is an instrument used to find relative densities can be filled with air or water hence varying its weight
of density of liquids. It applies the law of flotation.To sink, ballast tanks are filled with water so that its
in its operation. weight is greater than up thrust.
It has a wide bulb to displace large volume of To float compressed air is pumped into the tank
liquid that provide sufficient up thrust to keep displacing water so that up thrust is greater than weight
hydrometer floating. of the submarine.
Lead shots at the bottom- to make hydrometer
float upright. Examples
Narrow stem- to make hydrometer more 1. A hydrometer of mass 20g floats in oil of density
sensitive. 0.7g/cm3.with 5cm of its stem above the oil. If the cross
sectional area of the stem is 0.5cm2. Calculate:-
(a) Total volume of the hydrometer
(b) Length of the stem out of water if it floats in water.

Solutions to questions
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
(a) Volume of oil displaced = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
20
=
0.8
= 25 cm3
Hydrometers are designed for specific purposes Volume of hydrometer above oil = 5 x 0.5
lactometer range 1.015 – 1.0045 so as to measure = 2.5 cm3
density of milk. Total volume = 25 + 2.5
The bulb is squeezed and released so that the acid = 27.5 cm3
is drawn into the glass tube.

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(𝑏) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 Volume of 1.00g/cm3 liquid

= 2 𝑥 10 − 2 𝑘𝑔 displaced = m/ρ = 165/1 = 165 cm3;
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2 𝑥 10 − 1𝑁 Volume of 1.10g/cm3 displaced = 165/1.1 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 150 cm3;
= 2 𝑥 10 − 1𝑁 Change in volume displaced = 165 – 150 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 2 𝑥 10−1 15 cm3 ;
= 20𝑔 Volume = Area x Height ;
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 0.75 x h ; therefore h = 20 cm.
20𝑔 (ii) State two ways of improving the
= 𝑔 𝑐𝑚3 sensitivity of the above hydrometer.
1
= 20𝑐𝑚3 -Using a hydrometer with a
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 narrow stem.
= 27.5 − 20 - Using a hydrometer with a
= 7.5𝑐𝑚3 large bulb
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2. When a body of mass 450g is completely
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = immersed in a liquid, the upthrust on the
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
7.5 body is 1.6N. Find the weight of the body in
= = 15𝑐𝑚 the liquid.
0.5
3. The figure below shows a lever
The densities of liquids may be measured arrangement with the rod balanced by
using hydrometers. The hydrometer in the a knife edged at as centre of gravity.
figure consists of a weighted bulb with a thin The 5N weight on one side balances
stem. the solid S (volume 100cm3) which
lies immersed in a beaker of water on
the other side.

The hydrometer is floated in the liquid and the

density is read from a scale on its stem. The beaker of water is then removed and
The hydrometer in the figure is designed to measure while keeping the 42cm distance
–3 –3
densities between 1.00 g cm and1.10 g cm .On constant, the position of solid S is
the diagram, mark with the letter M the position on
the scale of the 1.10 g cm – 3 graduation. The adjusted to obtain balance conditions
hydrometer has a mass of 165 g and the stem has a again.
2
uniform cross-sectional area of 0.750 cm .Calculate; a) Determine the new position of S.
(i) The change in the submerged volume of
the hydrometer when it is first placed in a
liquid of density 1.00 g cm – 3 and then in b) What would be the new position of S
–3
a liquid of density 1.10 g cm . if it was immersed in a liquid of
relative density 0.8?

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Chapter Four ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:  Simple experiments to illustrate electromagnetic
induction
a) Perform and describe simple experiments to  Induced emf:
illustrate electromagnetic induction
b) State the factors affecting the magnitude and the  Faraday’s law
direction of induced emf  Lens’s law
c) State the laws of electromagnetic induction  Mutual induction
d) Describe simple experiments to illustrate mutual  Alternating current generator, direct current generator
induction explain mutual induction  Fleming’s right hand rule
e) Explain the working of an alternating current (a.c)  Transformers
generator and a direct current (d.c) generator  Applications of electromagnetic induction
f) Explain the working of a transformer  Induction coil
g) Explain the application of electromagnetic  Moving coil transformers
induction
h) Solve numerical problems involving transformers
Introduction Magnetic Flux
Electric current passing through a conductor has an associated
magnetic field. The reverse is also true in that a change in It is the product of magnetic field strength and perpendicular area
magnetic field induces an electric current in a conductor a covered by the field lines.
phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction.
This is attributed to Michael Faraday and has led to The direction of induced emf by a conductor is predicted by two
production of electrical energy in power station. laws of electromagnetic induction;

Experiment to Show Induced Electromotive Force (Emf) Faraday’s law-The magnitude of induced e.m.f. is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage.

Lenz’s law – direction of induced e.m.f. is such that the

induced current which it causes to flow produces a magnetic
effect that opposes the change producing it.

The galvanometer reflects when conductor AB cuts the

magnetic field.
 There is no flow of current when the conductor is
stationary.
 The magnitude of induced current increases with the
angle of which conductor cuts magnetic field.
 The direction of deflection reverses when the
direction of motion is reversed.

FACTORS AFFECTING MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED

E.m.f.

(i) The magnitude or strength of magnetic field.

(ii) The rate of change of flux linkage/rate of
relative motion between the conductor and
magnetic field.
(iii) The number of turns of coil/length of the
conductor
(iv) The nature of the core

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The mechanical energy of a moving magnet inside Mutual Induction
a coil is converted to electric energy inform of It occurs when change of current in one coil induces
induced current. The person pushing the magnet a current in another coil placed close in to it. The
towards the coil must exert force to do work against changing magnetic flux in the first coil (Primary)
repulsion of induced pole of coil magnet. links to secondary coil inducing an EMF in it.
Fleming Right Hand Rule (Dynamo Rule)
If the thumb and first two fingers of the right
hand are held manually at right angle with 1st
finger pointing direction of magnetic field, the
thumb pointing in the direction of motion then
the second finger points in direction of induced
current.
Example
(i) A square looped conductor is pulled at speed
across a uniform magnetic field as shown below.

When a switch is closed, current in the primary coil

Determine direction of induced current in increases from zero to a maximum current within a
(a) AB – from B to A very short time. The magnetic flux in the primary coil
(b) AD - no induced current linking with the secondary coil increases from zero to
(c) CD-C to D a maximum value in the same interval of time
(d) BC- no induced current inducing an e.m.f. in the secondary coil. Current
Question flows hence the reflection on the galvanometer.
(a) State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic Likewise when the switch is opened the current in the
induction. primary takes a very short time to fall from maximum
(b) The figure below shows a conductor XY value to zero. The magnetic flux in primary coil
moving in a region of uniform magnetic field. linking secondary also falls from maximum value to
zero inducing an e.m.f. on the secondary coil.
The induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil is higher
when current in the primary coil is switched off than
when it is switched on because the current in the
circuit takes a much shorter time to die off than build
up. The above explanation is called mutual
induction. The induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil
can be increased by:
(i) Having more turns in the secondary coil.
(i) State the direction of the induced current in (ii) Winding the primary and secondary coils on a
the conductor and the rule used in arriving soft iron rod.
at the answer. (iii)Winding both primary and secondary coils on
(ii) Suggest one way of increasing the a soft iron ring in order for the magnetic flux
magnitude of the induced current in the in the primary to form concentric loops within
conductor. it thus reaching the secondary point. Soft iron
concentrates magnetic flux in both coils that
is why it is used.

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Application of Electromagnetic Induction Useful transformer equations

It is applied in many areas some of these are: Secondary voltage
From experiment; =
Primary voltage
(i) Transformer no.of secondary turns
A transformer transfers electrical energy form one no.of secondary turns
circuit to another by mutual induction. This is called turns rule.
It consists of a primary coil where an alternating current Mathematically;
is the input and secondary coil forming the output. VS NS
=
The coils are wound on a common soft iron. VP NP
Assuming negligible resistance
Types of Transformers Power = Voltage x current
Step down transformers 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝
Power output= secondary voltage x secondary
current
𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%) = 𝑥 100
It has more turns in primary coil (Np) than in the 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
secondary coil (Ns) VS IS
η= × 100%
VS VP IP
= n(Turns ratio)
VP For ideal transformer there is no energy lost and
Turns ratio is less than one therefore efficiency is 100%
VS IS
100 = × 100
Step up transformer VPIP
It has less turns in primary coil and more in the VPIP = VS IS
secondary coil. I VSIS
P=
VP
The turn’s ratio is greater than one.
IP VS NS
= =
IS VP NP
Examples
1. A transformer is to be used to provide power
of 24V ceiling bulb from a.c. supply of 240.
Find the number of turns in secondary coil if
NOTE – In a step-down transformer current in the the primary coil has 1000 turns.
VS NS
in the secondary coil is greater than in the primary =
coil while in the step-up transformer current in the VP NP
24 𝑁𝑠
primary coil is greater than in the secondary coil. = 1000
240
1000
= 100 turns

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2. A power station has an output of 10KW at a Resistance of Coils (Copper Losses)

p.d of 500v. The voltage is stepped up to 15 This can be prevented by use of thick copper wire to
KV by transformer T1, for transmission along reduce heating effect.
a grid of resistance 3 k and thin stepped down Eddy Currents in the Core
to p.d 240v by transformer T2 at the end of Eddy currents have associated fluxes that tend to
grid for use in a school. Given that efficiency oppose the flux change in primary. This reduces
of T1 is 95% and T2 90%, find: power transfer to the secondary. To reduce eddy
(i) The power output of T1 currents the core is laminated (using thin sheets of
(ii) The current in the grid. insulated soft iron plates) causes minimal heating
(iii) The power loss in grid. effect.
(iv) The input voltage of T2 Hysteresis Loss
(a) The maximum power and current It is energy losses inform of heat in magnetizing and
available for use in school demagnetizing the soft iron core every time the
(b) Why is it necessary to step up the voltage current reverses. It can be minimized by using a core
at power station? of soft magnetic material which magnetized and
3. Power station has an output of 33K at a p.d demagnetize easily.
of 5k V a transformer with a primary coil of Practical Transformer
2000 turns is used to stop up the voltage of A transformer used in power stations and along
132 KV for transmission along a grid. transmission lines generates a lot of heat. They are
Assuming there s no power loss in the therefore cooled by oil which does not easily
transformer calculate evaporate. Small transformers are cooled by use of
(a) Current in the primary coil air. A well-designed transformer can have an
(b) Number of turns of secondary coil efficiency of up to 99%.However; the presence of air
(c) Current in the secondary coil. reduces its efficiency.
Energy Losses in a Transformer (i) Alternating current generator
There are four main causes of energy losses in a It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
transformer. It has a rectangular curved permanent magnet poles,
Flux Leakage two slip rings and carbon (graphite) brushes.
All magnetic flux produced by the primary may
not link up with the secondary coil hence
reducing e.m.f induced in secondary. Flux
leakage is reduced by efficient design of
transformers to ensure maximum flux leakage.
The secondary coil is wound over the primary
coil or coils are wound next to each other on a
common core. The poles of the magnet are curved so that magnetic
field is radial. Induced Current enters and leaves the
coil through the brushes which presses against the
slip-rings. The brushes are made of graphite because:
(i) It is a good conductor of electricity-
(ii) It is slippery and therefore can act as a
lubricant.
When coil rotates in clockwise direction side AB
moves up and CD downwards. The two sides are
cutting the magnetic field perpendicularly and
produce maximum induced e.m.f (E) when the coil is
horizontal.

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Applying Fleming’s right had rule, the flow of (ii) Direct Current Generator
induced current is in the direction ABCD Direct current (d.c) generator differs from an a.c
The current flow through the external circuit via the generator in that it has a split-ring (commutator)
slip – ring 2 and brush x. Brush Y and slip-ring 1 while in ac generator has slip-ring.
complete the circuit. Brush x is thus positive
terminal which Y is negative. When coil rotates from
horizontal to vertical position the angle at which the
sides of the coil cuts magnetic field reduces from 90 o
to 0o
Likewise the induced emf reduces from maximum to
zero. When the coil rotates past the vertical position
side AB moves downwards as side CD moves
upwards. The angle ϴ at which the sides of the coil
cuts the magnetic field increases from 0o to 90o when If the coil rotates into the vertical position induced
coil is horizontal. The induced emf increases from current and e.m.f though resistor R decreases from
zero to maximum value and direction of current in maximum value to zero. The polarity of brush Y is
the coil reverses from D C B A brush Y now positive and X is negative. The brushes touch the
becomes positive and X negative. gaps within the commutators
The magnitude of induced e.m.f obeys the sinusoidal The vertical position ensures that rings exchange
equation brushes since the induced current change direction
E= Eosin ϴ but direction of current through the external resistor
Where Eo is maximum e.m.f and ϴ is the inclination remains the same. The polarity does not change and
of the coil to the vertical. output of d.c generator is shown below.
The graph below shows the variation of induced emf
with time for one revolution of the coil starting with
the coil in vertical position.

The induced e.m.f or current of both a.c and d.c

𝐸 generator can be increased by;
𝐵𝑦 𝑂ℎ𝑚’𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝐼 = (i) Increasing speed of rotation of coil.
𝑅
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛳 (ii) Increasing no of turns of coil.
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼0 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 (iii)Increasing the strength f the magnetic field.
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛳 (iv) Winding the coil on a laminated soft iron core.
The graph of induced current against the angle of In a bicycle dynamo the magnet rotates while coil
inclination is similar to one above. remains stationary. It has advantages over other
generators because there are no brushes which get
worn out.

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(iv) Moving Coil Microphone

Sound waves from the source set diaphragm in
vibration which in turn causes the coil to move to
and from cutting the magnetic field.
Induced e.m.f of varying magnitude sets up
varying current in coil so that coil is
perpendicular to it for maximum flux linkage.
An amplifier is used to increase the amplitude of
this current before it is fed into the loudspeaker to
be converted back to sound.

(iv) The Induction Coil

It is used to ignite petrol-air mixture in a car Assignment to the student.
engine.
Do the exercise at the end of the topic in KLB.
When the switch is closed the soft iron rod is
magnetized due to current on the primary coil and
attracts the soft iron armature.
The armature opens the contact and cuts off
primary currents reducing magnetic field to zero.
This is turn induces a large emf in the secondary
coil by mutual induction. The spring pulls the
armature back to make the contact again and
process repeats itself. This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy
Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke
The induced emf in the secondary coil is higher
when primary current is switched off than when 0746-222-000 for more Educational
it is switched on. This is because current takes a
Materials.
longer time to increase from zero to maximum
than to decrease from maximum to zero.
Sparking occurs at the contact due to magnetic
field of the primary. A capacitor is therefore
connected across the contacts to minimize
sparking effects by decaying magnetic flux to
zero. Sparks forms across gap between the ends
of secondary coil and can be used to ignite petrol-
air mixture in a car engine.

CONTACT MWALIMU CONSULTANCY 0746-222-000 FOR COMPLETE NOTES.

Page | 30
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Chapter Five MAINS ELECTRICITY

NOTE!
This is a Sample of the Well Organized Detailed Simplified Notes
Available.

Call/Text/WhatsApp 0746-222-000 for the Complete Notes.

CONTACT MR ISABOKE

0746-222-000

CONTACT MWALIMU CONSULTANCY 0746-222-000 FOR COMPLETE NOTES.

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FOR THE FOLLOWING;

 ONLINE TUITION
 REVISION NOTES
 SCHEMES OF WORK
 SETBOOKS VIDEOS
 TERMLY EXAMS
 QUICK REVISION KITS
 KCSE TOPICALS
 KCSE PREMOCKS
 TOP SCHOOLS PREMOCKS
 JOINT PREMOCKS
 KCSE MOCKS
 TOP SCHOOLS MOCKS
 JOINT MOCKS
 KCSE POSTMOCKS
 TOP SCHOOLS PREDICTIONS
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 KCSE PREDICTIONS
 KCSE REVEALED SETS

CALL/TEXT 0746 222 000

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THIS IS A PROPERTY OF MWALIMU

CONSULTANCY LTD.

POWERED BY MR
ISABOKE

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SUCCESS

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Page | 35