Chapter

Unit 1
1 Introduction
Study of switching devices, SCR, MOSFET, IGBT - Static characteristics: SCR, MOSFET and IGBT -
Triggering and commutation circuit for SCR Introduction to Driver and snubber circuits.
Overview of Power Electronics
1. Power Electronics – Definition
Power electronics involves the study of electronic circuits intended to control the flow of
electrical energy. All power electronic circuits manage the flow of electrical energy between an
electrical source and a load.

Figure 1.1 Flow of Power Electronics

1.1.1 Scope and Applications
The following are the scope areas in which the power electronics is applicable.

1. Switch Mode DC Power Supplies (SMPS)and Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS):

Computers, communication equipment and consumer electronics require SMPS and UPS.

2. Energy Conservation:
In conventional pump system, the pump operates at constant speed and the pump flow rate
is controlled by adjusting the position of the throttling valve. This procedure results in power loss.
The power loss is eliminated by employing adjustable speed drive.
Drive= Power Converter+Motor

Figure 1.2: Energy Conservation

Another example is the fluorescent lamp. If the fluorescent lamp is operated at higher

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frequency, its efficiency increases.
3. Process Control and factory automation:
There is a growing demand for the enhanced performance offered by adjustable-speed
driven pumps and compressors in process control. Robots in automated factories are powered by
electric servo (adjustable speed and position) drives.
4. Transportation:
There is a lot of scope in using electric trains in metropolitan cities, which needs power
electronics converters.
5. Electro – technical applications:
Electro-plating, welding and induction heating are done by the help of power converters
efficiently.
6. Utility related applications:
Power electronics plays an important role in interconnection of photo-voltaic and wind
energy systems with the utility grid. It is also used in HVDC transmission system.

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 1.2 Power Electronic Switch Specifications
The important parameters of power electronic devices are given below.
1. Voltage ratings: Forward and reverse repetitive peak voltages and ON state forward
voltage drop.
2. Current ratings: average, rms, repetitive and non repetitive peak current and OFF state
leakage currents.
3. Switching frequency: Transition from fully conduction state to fully non conduction state
and vice versa are important parameter that decides the switching frequency.

4. di/dt rating: If the rate of rise of current through the device is rapid, the device may get
damaged.
5. dv/dt rating: If the voltage across the device changes rapidly, the device will not have any
control over gate.
6. Switching losses: During the device turn on process the forward current rises before
voltage falls and during the turn off process the voltage raises before the current falls. This
creates switching power loss in the device.
7. Gate drive requirement: The gate-drive voltage and current are the important parameters
to turn on and turn off the device.

1.3 Types of Power Electronic Circuits

For the control of electric power, the conversion of electric power from one form (AC or
DC) to another form (Variable AC or DC) is necessary. The switching characteristics of the power
electronic devices permit these power conversions. The power electronic circuits are classified
into six types.
a. Diode rectifiers – converts ac voltage into fixed dc voltage.
b. AC-DC Converters (Controlled rectifiers) – converts ac voltage into variable dc voltage.
c. AC-AC Converters (ac voltage regulators) – converts fixed ac voltage into variable ac
voltage.
d. DC-DC Converters ( dc choppers) – converts fixed dc voltage into variable dc voltage.
e. DC-AC converters (inverters) – converts dc voltage into variable ac voltage.
Static Switches – connect or disconnect ac or dc input voltage to load.

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STUDY OF SWITCHING DEVICES

1.3.1 Basic Structure and Operation:

SCR is a three-terminal device. It has four layers of p-type and n-type material (i.e. three
p–n junctions). The control terminal of the SCR is called the gate (G) electrode. The other two
terminals, called the anode (A) and cathode (K), handle the large applied potentials and conduct
the major current through the SCR. The anode and cathode terminals are connected in series with
the load to which the power is to be controlled. SCRs are used as closed switch (no voltage drop
between anode and cathode) or open (no anode current flow) switch for the control of power flow
in a circuit.

Figure 1.4: SCR Symbol

1.3.2 SCR construction and Symbol

When a positive voltage is applied to the anode with respect to cathode, the thyristor
is in its forward-blocking state. Junction J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse
biased. In this operating mode the gate current is zero. As long as the forward applied voltage does
not exceed the value necessary to cause avalanche breakdown around J2, the SCR remains in off-
state (forward-blocking). If the applied voltage exceeds the maximum forward-blocking voltage
of the SCR, it will switch to its on-state. This method of turn on damages the device.

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 Figure 1.5: SCR V-I Characteristics
When the gate current is given the turn on takes place at lesser anode to cathode voltages.
The effect of gate current is to lower the blocking voltage at which switching takes place. The SCR
moves rapidly along the negatively sloped portion of the curve until it reaches a stable operating
point determined by the external circuit. As the SCR moves from forward-blocking to forward
conduction, the external circuit must allow sufficient anode current to flow to keep the device
latched.

When the SCR is reverse-biased, a small reverse leakage current flows. This is called
reverse blocking state. If the reverse bias is increased beyond the reverse breakdown voltage, the
reverse current will increase sharply. If the current is not limited to a safe value, the SCR will be
destroyed.

1.3.3 Latching and Holding Current

The minimum anode current that will cause the device to remain in forward conduction
stage as it switches from forward-blocking is called the latching current IL. If the thyristor is
already in forward conduction stage and the anode current is reduced, then the device can move

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its operating mode from forward-conduction stage back to forward-blocking stage. The
minimum value of anode current necessary to keep the device in forward-conduction after it has
been operating at a high anode current value is called the holding current IH. The holding current
value is lower than the latching current value.

1.3.4 SCR Ratings

A data sheet for a typical thyristor follows this section and includes the following information:
Surge Current Rating (IFM)—The surge current rating (IFM) of an SCR is the peak anode
current an SCR can handle for a short duration.
Latching Current (IL)—A minimum anode current must flow through the SCR in order for it
to stay ON initially after the gate signal is removed. This current is called the latching current
(IL).
Holding Current (IH)—After the SCR is latched on, a certain minimum value of anode current
is needed to maintain conduction. If the anode current is reduced below this minimum value,
theSCR will turn OFF.
Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage (VRRM)—The maximum instantaneous reverse voltage that an
SCR can withstand, without breakdown.
Peak Repetitive Forward Blocking Voltage (VDRM)—The maximum instantaneous voltage that
the SCR can block in the forward direction. If the VDRM rating is exceeded, the SCR will conduct
without a gate voltage.
Nonrepetitive Peak Reverse Voltage (VRSM)—The maximum transient reverse voltage that the
SCR can withstand.
Maximum Gate Trigger Current (IGTM)—The maximum DC gate current allowed to turn the
SCR.
Minimum Gate Trigger Voltage (VGT)—The minimum DC gate-to-cathode voltage required to
trigger the SCR.
Minimum Gate Trigger Current (IGT)—The minimum DC gate current necessary to turn the
SCRON.

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1.3.5 Effect of dv/dt and snubber circuits
When the SCR is forward biased, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is
reverse biased. This reverse biased junction J2 exhibits the characteristics of a capacitor.
Therefore, if the rate of forward voltage applied is very high across the SCR, charging current
flows through the junction J2 is high enough to turn ON the SCR even without any gate signal.
The snubber circuit consists of a series combination of capacitor and resistor which is connected
across the SCR. This also consists an inductance in series with the SCR to prevent the high di/dt.
When the switch closed, a sudden voltage appears across the SCR which is bypassed to the RC
network. This is because the capacitor acts as a short circuit which reduces the voltage across the
SCR to zero. If the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor starts discharging which causes a high current
to flow through the SCR. To limit the discharge current, a small resistance is placed in series with
the capacitor.

Figure 1.6: Snubber Circuits

1.3.6 Effect of rate of rise of current (di/dt)
The anode current starts flowing through the SCR when it is turned ON by the application
of gate signal. This anode current takes some finite time to spread across the junctions of an SCR.
For a good working of SCR, this current must spread uniformly over the surface of the junction.
If the rate of rise of anode current (di/dt) is high results a non-uniform spreading of current over
the junction. Due to the high current density, this further leads to form local hot spots near the
gate-cathode junction. This effect may damage the SCR due to overheating. Hence, during turn
ON process of SCR, the di/dt must be kept below the specified limits.

To prevent the high rate of change of current, an inductor is connected in series with
thyristor.

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1.4 RESISTANCETRIGGERING(R-Triggering):

The following circuit shows the resistance triggering.

Figure1.7: R-Triggering
 In this method, the variable resistance R is used to control the gate current.
 Depending upon the value of R, when the magnitude of the gate current reaches the
sufficient value (latching current of the device) the SCR starts to conduct.
 The diode D is called as blocking diode. It prevents the gate cathode junction from
getting damaged in the negative half cycle.
 Using this method we can achieve maximum firing angle of 90°.

1.5 RCTriggering

The following circuit shows the resistance-capacitance triggering.

Figure1.8: RC-Triggering
 By using this method we can achieve firing angle up to 180°.
 In the positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged through the variable resistance R up to
the peak value of the applied voltage.
 The variable resistor R controls the charging time of the capacitor.

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 The Voltage across the capacitor is applied across the gate. When this voltage reaches the
gate threshold voltage the thyristor starts conduction.

The diode D is called as blocking diode. It prevents the gate cathode junction from getting
damaged in the negative half cycle.

1.6 UJT Triggering

AC input voltage is stepped down and rectified. The portion of the positive half cycle is
clipped by zener diode.
The capacitor charges through R. When the capacitor voltage reaches ηVz, UJT conducts
and sharp pulses produced across primary of the pulse transformer where ‘η’ is intrinsic stand off
ratio. The sharp pulses are used to trigger the SCR.

Figure 1.9: UJT Trigger Circuit

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 Figure 1.9: UJT Trigger circuit Waveforms

1.7 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

Power BJTs have good on-state characteristics but have long switching times especially
at turn-off. Since they are current-controlled devices, they require complex base drive circuits to
provide the base current during on-state, which increases the power loss in the device. On the other
hand power MOSFETs are voltage-controlled devices, which require very small current during
switching period and hence have simple gate drive requirements. Power MOSFETs are majority
carrier devices, which exhibit very high switching speeds. But the unipolar nature of the power
MOSFETs causes inferior conduction characteristics as the voltage rating is increased above 200V.
Therefore their on state resistance increases with increasing in applied voltage.

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 In order to improve the power device performance, a device which has low on-state drop
and insulated gate is needed. This concept gave rise to the commercially available IGBTs with
superior on-state characteristics, good switching speed and excellent safe operating area.

When a positive potential is applied to the gate and exceeds the threshold voltage an n
channel is formed, which provides a path for electrons to flow into the n− drift region. The pn
junction between the p+ substrate and n− drift region is forward biased and holes are injected into
the drift region. The electrons in the drift region recombine with these holes to maintain space
charge neutrality. The remaining holes are collected at the emitter, causing a vertical current flow
between the emitter and collector.

Figure 1.9: IGBT symbol and Characteristics

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1.8 MOSFET

Figure 1.10: MOSFET symbol and Characteristics

Most of the MOSFET devices used in power electronics applications are of the n- channel,
enhancement-type are shown in figure. For the MOSFET to carry drain current, a channel between
the drain and the source must be created. This occurs when the gate-to-source voltage exceeds the
device threshold voltage, VTh. For vGS > VTh, the device can be either in the triode region, (constant
resistance) region, or in the saturation region, depending on the value of vDS. For the given vGS,
with small vDS (vDS <vGS −VTh), the device operates in the triode region (saturation region in the
BJT), and for larger vDS(vDS > vGS − VTh), the device enters the saturationregion (active region in
the BJT). For vGS <VTh, the device turns off, with drain current almost equals zero. Under both
regions of operation, the gate current is almost zero. Due to this reason the MOSFET is known as
a voltage-driven device, and it, requires simple gate control circuit. The characteristic curves in
Fig. shows that there are three distinct regions of operation labeled as triode region, saturation
region, and cut-off-region. The MOSFET will act as a switch when it is operated in saturation (ON
Condition) and cutoff (OFF Condition) region. It will act as an amplifier when it is operated in
linear region (triode region).

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1.9 Commutation

The turn OFF process of an SCR is called commutation. The term commutation means the
transfer of currents from one path to another. The commutation circuit does this job by reduces the
forward current to zero so as to turn OFF the SCR or Thyristor.

To turn OFF the conducting SCR the following conditions must be satisfied.

 The anode or forward current of SCR must be reduced to zero or below the level of
holding current.
 A sufficient reverse voltage must be applied across the SCR to regain its forward
blocking state.

1.9.1 Methods of Commutation

The reverse voltage which causes to commutate the SCR is called commutation voltage.
The commutation methods are classified into two major types. Those are 1) Forced commutation
and 2) Natural commutation.
1.11.1.1 Natural Commutation
It happens only when the input is an AC Supply. If the SCR is connected to an AC supply,
at every end of the positive half cycle the anode current goes through the natural current zero and
also immediately a reverse voltage is applied across the SCR. These are the conditions to turn OFF
the SCR.
This method of commutation is also called as source commutation, or line commutation,
or class F commutation. This commutation is possible with line commutated inverters, controlled
rectifiers, cyclo converters and AC voltage regulators because the input supply is AC.

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 Figure 1.11: Natural Commutation
1.11.1.2 Forced Commutation
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In such circuits,
forward current must be forced to zero with an external circuit hence named as forced commutation. This
commutating circuit consists of components like inductors and capacitors called as commutating
components. These commutating components apply a reverse voltage across the SCR that immediately
bring the anode current in the SCR to zero. Based on the zero current achievement forced commutation is
classified into different types such as class A, B, C, D, and E.
1.11.1.3 Class A Commutation
This is also known as self commutation, or resonant commutation, or load commutation. In this
commutation, the source of commutation voltage is in the load. This load must be an under damped R-L-
C circuit so that natural zero of current is obtained. The commutating components L and C are connected
either parallel or series with the load resistance R. The waveforms of SCR current, voltage and capacitor
voltage are shown in figure.

Figure 1.12: Class A Commutation

The value of load resistance and commutating components are so selected that they forma under
damped resonant circuit to produce natural zero. When the thyristor or SCR is triggered, the forward
currents starts flowing through it and during this the capacitor is charged up to the value of E. Once the

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capacitor is fully charged (more than the supply source voltage) the SCR becomes reverse biased and
hence the commutation of the device is taken place. The time for switching OFF the SCR depends on the
resonant frequency which further depends on the L and C components.
1.11.1.4 Class B Commutation
This is also a self commutation circuit in which the commutation of SCR is achieved automatically
by L and C components. In this, the LC resonant circuit is connected across the SCR but not in series with
load as in case of class A commutation and hence the L and C components do not carry the load current.

Figure 1.13: Class B Commutation

When the DC supply is applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges to a value of ‘E’ with an upper
plate positive and lower plate negative. Once the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor is starts discharging
through C+ – L – T – C-. When the capacitor is fully discharged, it starts charging with a reverse polarity.
Hence a reverse voltage applied across the SCR which causes the commutating current IC to opposes the
load current IL. When the commutating current Ic is higher than the load current, the SCR will
automatically turn OFF and the capacitor charges with original polarity. In the above process, the SCR
is turned ON for some time and then automatically turned OFF for some time. This is a continuous
process and the desired frequency depends on the values of L and C. This type of commutation is mostly
used in chopper circuits.

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