Chapter-4

Data communication and Computer Networking

1. What is Data Communication?
1.1. Data Communication
Communication is the process of sharing a message. A conversation between two people is
an example of communication. Data communications refers to the sharing of a virtual message.
Electronic communications, like emails and instant messages, as well as phone calls are
examples of data communications. Understanding data communications can be complex but
here are basics you will need to know.
A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that
facilitates intersystem exchange of information between different devices. When we
communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local (face-to-face
communication) or it may be remote (communication over distance).
Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of
wired or wireless transmission medium. It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer
and the preservation of data during the transfer process.
Data communication is the process of transferring messages from one point to another.
Data communication is the function of transporting data from one point to another. In this case
the sender and the receiver are machines and the medium can be a network cable.
Elements of Data Communication
Four basic elements are needed for any communication system.
 Sender: - The computer or device that is used for sending data is called sender, source
or transmitter. In modern digital communication system, the source is usually a
computer.
 Medium: - The means through which data is sent from one location to another is called
transmission medium. If the receiver and transmitter are within a building, a wire
connects them. If they are located at different locations, they may be connected by
telephone lines, fiber optics or microwaves.
 Receiver: - The device or computer that receives the data is called receiver. The receiver
can be a computer, printer or a fax machine.
 Protocols: - There are rules under which data transmission takes place between sender
and receiver. The data communication soft wares are used to transfer data from one
computer to another. The soft ware follows same communication protocols can
communicate and exchange data.

1.2.Data Transmission
Data may be transfer from one device to another by means of some communication media.
The electromagnetic or light waves that transfer data from one device to another device in
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encoded form are called signals. Data transmissions across the network can occur in two forms
i.e.:- (i) Analog signal and (ii) Digital signal

Analog Signal: - The transfer of data in the form of electrical signals or continuous
waves is called analog signal or analog data transmission. An analog signal is measured
in volts and its frequency is in hertz (Hz).
Advantages of Analog Signaling
 Allows multiple transmissions across the cable.
 Suffers less from attenuation.
Disadvantages of Analog Signaling
 Suffers from EMI.
 Can only be transmitted in one direction without sophisticated
equipment.
Digital Signal:-The transfer of data in the form of digit is called digital signal or digital
data transmission. Digital signals consist of binary digits 0 & 1. Electrical pulses are
used to represent binary digits. Data transmission between computers is in the form of
digital signals.
Advantages of Digital Signaling
 Equipment is cheaper and simpler than analog equipment.
 Signals can be transmitted on a cable bidirectional.
 Digital signals suffer less from EMI.
Disadvantages Digital Signaling
 Only one signal can be sent at a time.
 Digital signals suffer from attenuation.

1.3. Techniques of Data Communication

There are two possible techniques of sending data from the sender to receiver, i.e.:-
(1) Parallel transmission and (2) Serial transmission.
Parallel Transmission: - In parallel transmission each bit of character / data has a
separate channel and all bits of a character are transmitted simultaneously. Here the
transmission is parallel character by character.
Sender Receiver
Serial Transmission:- In serial transmission, the data is sent as one bit at a time having
a signal channel for all the bit, i.e.:
Sender Receiver
Types of Serial Transmission
On serial transmission it is very essential to know exactly where one character ends and the
next begins. The necessary synchronization that helps determine which bit is the first bit of the
incoming character may be synchronous or asynchronous.

A. Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Computer communication that occurs one bit at a time with start and stop bits at the
beginning and the end of each character is called Asynchronous Serial Transmission. In this
type of transmission, there is no fixed time relationship with one character.
Advantages of Asynchronous Serial Transmission
 This type of transmission is very simple.
 This type of transmission is cheaper.
Disadvantages of Asynchronous Serial Transmission
 This type of transmission is slow.

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B. Synchronous Transmission
In this method a clock signal is used and the sending as well as the receiving devices is
synchronized with this clock signals. It doesn’t use start and stop bits but the character are sent
in character groups called block
Advantages of Synchronous Transmission
 It is very fast as compared to Asynchronous Series Transmission.
Disadvantage of Synchronous Transmission
 It uses more expensive and complex equipment.

1.4. Modes of Data Communication.

The manner in which data is transmitted from one location to another location is called
data transmission mode. There are three ways or modes for transmitting data from one location
to another. These are:-
 Simplex
 Half duplex
 Full duplex

A. Simplex Mode: - In simplex mode, data is transmitted in only one direction. A terminal can
only send data and cannot receive it or it can only receive data but cannot send it. Simplex mode
is usually used for a remote device that is meant only to receive data. It is not possible to
confirm successful transmission of data in simplex mode.
This mode is not widely used. Speaker, radio and television broadcasting are examples of
simplex transmission, on which the signal is send from the transmission to your TV antenna.
There is no return signal.
Advantages of Simplex
 Cheapest communication method.
Disadvantage of Simplex
 Only allows for communication in one direction.

B. Half Duplex: - In half duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions but only in
one direction at a time. During any transmission, one is the transmitter and the other is receiver.
So each time for sending or receiving data, direction of data communication is reversed, this
slow down data transmission rate. In half duplex modes, transmission of data can be confirmed.
Wireless communication is an example of half duplex.
Advantages of Half Duplex
 Costs less than full duplex.
 Enables for two way communications.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex
 Costs more than simplex.
 Only one device can transmit at a time.

C. Full Duplex: - In full mode, data can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. It is a
faster mode for transmitting data because no time wastes in switching directions.
Advantage of Full Duplex
 Enables two-way communication simultaneously.
Disadvantage of Full Duplex
 The most expensive method in terms of equipment because of two bandwidth channels
is required.

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1.5. Transmission Media
The transmission media are media through which data is transferred. Transmission media can
be defined as physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data transmission system. it
may be classified into two types:-
Guided: - Transmission capacity depends critically on the medium, the length, and
whether the medium is point-to-point or multipoint (e.g. LAN). Examples are co-axial
cable, twisted pair, and optical fiber.
Unguided: provides a means for transmitting electro-magnetic signals but do not guide
them. Example wireless transmission.

Characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by medium and signal
characteristics. For guided media, the medium is more important in determining the limitations
of transmission. While in case of unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the
transmitting antenna and the size of the antenna is more important than the medium. Signals at
lower frequencies are omni-directional (propagate in all directions). For higher frequencies,
focusing the signals into a directional beam is possible. These properties determine what kind of
media one should use in a particular application. In this lesson we shall discuss the
characteristics of various transmission media, both guided and unguied.

Fig:-Classification of the transmission media

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 Switching techniques
These are techniques which are used to establish communication links between data, source and
receiver in a communication network. Two forms of switching are packet switching and circuit
switching.
Packet switching: - In this mechanism a message is split up into packets of a fixed size. Besides
the blocks of data to be sent, a packet has a header that contains destination and source addresses,
control information, message number, number of current and last packet, acknowledgement and
error checking bytes.
Circuit switching: - It is the simplest way of data communication in which a dedicated physical
path is established between the sending and receiving stations through the nodes of the network.
Circuit switching involves three phases: circuit establishment, data transfer and circuit
termination.
You use a circuit switching network all the time, but may not know it. Each time you make a
telephone call, a “virtual” circuit between you and the other end is set up dynamically for you to
use. Only you are using the circuit at that given time.
When the call is over, the circuit is turn down and can be used by someone else. The
advantage of circuit switching is you get the features of a dedicated service without the price.

2. What is Computer Networking?

Computer networking is defined as the interconnection of computers and other communication
equipments connected by a communication channel. The communication channel (medium) will be
either wired communication channel or wireless communication channel. Wired communication
channel includes the different cable types like twisted pair cable, co-axial cable or fiber optic cable and
Wireless communication channel includes microwave or satellite communication system.
2.1. Importance of Computer Networking
The two major benefits of computer networking include:
 Computer networks are used for resource sharing and
 Computer networks are used as a communication medium

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 A. Resource sharing
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices that communicate to share data,
hardware, and software.
I.e. the importance of computer networking as a resource sharing includes:
 Data/information sharing,
 Program/software sharing and
 Device / hardware sharing
Data /Information Sharing: - This involves access to remote or distributed database and files
containing data, text, image or video.
Program/software Sharing: - Programs stored on a central server can simultaneously be accessed and
loaded for execution on several local computers. Software sharing occurs when several users at
different locations run application programs that are installed centrally in one location (server
computer).
Device / hardware Sharing:- Computer networks enable us to share expensive hard wares (or
peripheral devices). This includes access to computing resources such as other computers, printers,
scanners etc.
A typical example of shared resource is printer. For example you may prefer to acquire one expensive
printer and connect it to the network to provide printing service to the users. This avoids the need to
have separate printer for each computer.
B. Communication medium
Uses of computers as a communication medium includes:
 Electronic mail (e-mail)
 Video conferencing
2.2. Types of Networks
Networks are commonly classified by ownership as:
1. Private Networks
2. Public Networks
Private Network: Private network is the type of network which is built by an organization for its
exclusive use. Example the network in this campus is a private network.
Public Network: is established and operated by a network service provider for the specific purpose
of providing services to customer organizations and individuals. Example: ETC (Ethiopian
Telecommunications Corporation)
According to their geographical range networks are classified in to three i.e.
i. Local Area Network (LAN)
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 ii. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
iii. Wide Area Network (WAN)
I. Local Area Network (LAN)
 LAN is the interconnection of computers and other peripheral devices with in a limited
geographical area.
 For example, the network of computers with in the University campus, a school, a factory or an
office.
 The connection is usually made through a cable.
 LANs are typically private networks.

II. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN is the interconnection of LANs within a city wide geographical area.
III. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 WAN can cover large geographical area by using one or more communication channels such as:
 Telephone lines
 Fiber optic cables
 Microwave and satellite communication systems
 WANs span large areas such as countries or the entire world
 WANs are slower than LANs in that they have a bandwidth of 45 Mbs
 WANs can be either private or public
 Private WANs: usually link fewer computers than LANs. For example companies which
have office in different cities like IBM
 Public WANs: connect up to several million computers.
2.3. Network Structure
Client/server architecture:
 In a client server computing, individual workstations (clients) share the processing and storage
workload with server.
 Client/server networks require specialized software that enables clients and servers to
collaborate on processing and storage.
Peer-to-peer connections:
 In a peer-to-peer network, all nodes have an equal relation to one another.
 Each node usually has access to some resources on the nodes, so users can share files, programs,
or devices on other user’s systems.
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2.4. Network Topologies
A Network topology is the layout or arrangement of computers in a network. The four most
common network topologies are:
 Bus topology
 Ring topology
 Star topology
 Mesh topology

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Bus topology: in a bus topology, each node (computer) is connected in series a long a single
cable (bus)
Ring Topology: in this, nodes (computers) are connected in a circular chain, with the cable beginning
and ending at the same computer.
Star topology: in star topology, all nodes are connected to a central device.
Mesh topology: in a mesh topology, each in node has a separate connection to every other node.

2.5. Network Media: - In a network, the media are materials by which data travels from its source to its
destination. The most common network media are twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable and
wireless links such as satellite and microwave links.

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 Chapter Five: Internet

5.1. What is internet?

The word internet is taken from two words, INTERnational NETwork, i.e. internet is an international
net work of computers. It contains a huge fount (fountain or flowing) of knowledge which anyone with a
computer and a telephone line can access.

Internet is:

Computer _ based global information system

Network of networks i.e. composed of many interconnected computers and computer networks
(each computer network may link tens, hundreds and thousands of computers with in
themselves).
Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to communicate with one another effectively
and inexpensively.

History of internet:

In 1969, before internet was created, the US Defense Advanced Research Project agency (DARPA)
started a project for networking capabilities between different centers of their Defense Departments. And
they ended up with three facilities:-

 Remote login
 File transfer and
 Remote printing
This was based on packet switched network. At that time, they have developed several different kinds of
communication networks including a network known as ARPANET. This network was built to serve only
two purposes academic and military uses, i.e.

 To share information among military, and university sources.

 To provide a diversified system for sustaining communication among military units in
the event of nuclear attack.
+ So, the uses of these networks were restricted to military personnel and researchers who developed
the technology. Many people regard the ARPANET as the forerunner (precursor) of the internet. From

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1970s until 1980s the internet was a US government funded communication and research tool which was
restricted exclusively to academic and military uses. It was administered by an organization called
National Science Foundation (NSF).

In some of the universities, only a handful (small number) of researchers working on internet research had
access. Then in the late 1980s the NSF developed a policy that relaxed the restriction of internet and allowed
faculty at universities to use internet for research and scholarship (academic) activities but still NSF policy
prohibited all commercial use of internet.

Next the major event in the evolution of the internet occurred in 1983, ARPANET changed over to the
TCP/IP protocol that govern how different networks communicate. Years back there were difference
networks, but connecting each of these independent networks was difficult. This was because they were not
using the same protocol and therefore couldn’t exchange information. As a result, ARPA helped (contributed)
to the development of new protocol suit called TCP/IP that would allow different networks to connect and
communicate around mid 70’s. so most other networks had changed to TCP/IP in the late 1970s, but
ARPANET didn’t make the change until January 1, 1983. Thus, many people consider that date as the
birthday of the internet. By the late 1995, however, the NSF ceased its administration of the internet. The
internet was privatized and commercial use of internet was permitted.

5.2. Who owns (runs) the internet?

Nobody owns internet, i.e. there is no single authority that controls the internet. Like radio, and TV, internet
don’t have a centralized distribution system. Instead, an individual who has an internet access can
communicate directly with anyone else on the internet, make information available to others, find information
provided by others, or sell products with a minimum cost. So every network that is connected to the internet is
responsible for its own part.

5.3. Advantages/disadvantages of Internet

Internet is defined as a collection of various services and resources. Although, many people
still think e-mail and World Wide Web as the principle constituents of Internet, there is a lot
more in store than e-mail, chat rooms, celebrity web sites and search engines. It has also become
the best business tool in the modern scenario. Today, Internet has brought a globe in a single
room. Right from getting news across the corner of the world to accessing knowledge resources
to shopping, everything is at your fingertips. Internet has tremendous potential and a lot to offer

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in terms of services. However, like every single innovation in science and technology, Internet
has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages


Faster Communication: - The foremost target of Internet has always been speedy
communication and it has excelled way beyond the expectations. Newer innovations are
only going to make it faster and more reliable. Now, you can communicate in a fraction
of second with a person who is sitting in the other part of the world. For more personal
and interactive communication, you can avail the facilities of chat services, video
conferencing and so on. Besides, there are plenty of messenger services in offering. With
the help of such services, it has become very easy to establish a kind of global friendship
where you can share your thoughts and explore other cultures.
 Information Resources:-Information is probably the biggest advantage that Internet
offers. Internet is a virtual treasure trove of information. Any kind of information on any
topic under the sun is available on the Internet. The search engines like Google, Yahoo
are at your service on the Internet. There is a huge amount of information available on the
Internet for just about every subject known to man, ranging from government law and
services, trade fairs and conferences, market information, new ideas and technical
support, the list is simply endless.

Students and children are among the top users who surf the Internet for research. Today,
it is almost required that students should use it for research or the purpose of gathering
resources. Even teachers have started giving assignments that require extensive research
on the Internet. Besides, you can have an access to latest researches in the field of
medicine, technology and so on. Numerous web sites such as America's Doctor also
allow you to talk to the doctors online.
 Entertainment:- Entertainment is another popular raison d'être why many people prefer
to surf the Internet. In fact, the Internet has become quite successful in trapping the
multifaceted entertainment industry. Downloading games or just surfing the celebrity
websites are some of the uses people have discovered. Even celebrities are using the
Internet effectively for promotional campaigns. Besides, there are numerous games that
can be downloaded for free. The industry of online gaming has tasted dramatic and
phenomenal attention by game lovers.
 Social Networking: - One cannot imagine an online life without Face book or Twitter.
Social networking has become so popular amongst youth that it might one day replace
physical networking. It has evolved as a great medium to connect with millions of people
with similar interests. Apart from finding long-lost friends, you can also look for job,
business opportunities on forums, communities etc. Besides, there are chat rooms where
users can meet new and interesting people. Some of them may even end up finding their
life partners.
 Online Services:- The Internet has made life very convenient. With numerous online
services you can now perform all your transactions online. You can book tickets for a
movie, transfer funds, pay utility bills, taxes etc., right from your home. Some travel
websites even plan an Itinerary as per your preferences and take care of airline tickets,
hotel reservations etc.

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 E-commerce: - The concept of e-commerce is used for any type of commercial
maneuvering or business deals that involves the transfer of information across the globe
via the Internet. It has become a phenomenon associated with any kind of shopping,
business deal etc. You name a service, and e-commerce with its giant tentacles engulfing
every single product and service will make it available at your doorstep. Websites such as
eBay allow you to even bid for homes, buy, sell or auction stuff online.

Disadvantages

 Theft of Personal Information:- If you use the Internet for online banking, social
networking or other services, you may risk a theft to your personal information such as
name, address, credit card number etc. Unscrupulous people can access this information
through unsecured connections or by planting software and then use your personal details for
their benefit. Needless to say, this may land you in serious trouble.
 Spamming: - Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no
purpose and needlessly obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very
frustrating for you as it makes your Internet slower and less reliable.
 Virus Threat:- Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus
programs are inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link.
Computers connected to the Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up
crashing.
 Pornography:- Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of the Internet. Internet
allows you to access and download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-
rated stuff. Such unrestricted access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers. It
can even play havoc in marital and social lives of adults.
 Social Disconnect: - Thanks to the Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More
and more people are getting engulfed in virtual world and drifting apart from their friends
and family. Even children prefer to play online games rather than going out and mingling
with other kids. This may hamper a healthy social development in children.
Thus, the Internet has the potential to make your life simple and convenient, as well as
wreak havoc in your life. Its influence is mostly dictated by the choices you make while you
are online. With clever use, you can manage to harness its unlimited potential.

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5.4. What is Internet protocol (IP)?

IP specifies the format of packets, also called datagrams, and the addressing scheme. Most
networks combine IP with a higher-level protocol called transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source.

IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it
in the system, but there's no direct link between you and the recipient. TCP/IP, on the other hand,
establishes a connection between two hosts so that they can send messages back and forth for a
period of time.

5.5. What is Internet Address?

An Internet address is a series of unique numbers that identifies a computer connected to the
Internet. Every computer that gets online has an Internet address.

An Internet address can also be defined as the name, or unique address on the Web, of
every Web site. An Internet address is the same thing as a URL, or Uniform Resource Locator
Examples: - "This website's Internet address is 168.119.955.2."

5.6 What is Email?

E-mail stands for electronic mail. It is one of the most widely used application or service on the
internet, which enables individuals or group of individuals to quickly and easily exchange messages. It
can be used to transmit text, audio and graphical messages. And it is convenient and inexpensive as
compared to other communication services. E-mail allows user to:-
 Send a message to just only one user or group of users,
 To read, print, forward, answer (replay) or delete a message,
 Attach large documents.
Email is one of the many technological developments to have influenced our lives. It has
changed the medium of communication. So, it becomes necessary for us to look at the benefits
and problems from this popular mailing tool.

Advantages of Email
There are numerous benefits of using an email service. These benefits are compiled in an easy-
to-understand manner for the readers.

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 Easy to use: - Sending an email frees us from the tedious task of managing data for daily
use. It helps us manage our contacts, send mails quickly, maintain our mail history, store
the required information, etc.
 Speed: - An email is delivered instantly and anywhere across the globe. No other service
matches the email in terms of speed. You can send the same message/mail to multiple
users simultaneously; thus, a lot of time is saved.
 Easy to prioritize: - Since emails come with a subject line, it is easy to prioritize them and
ignore the ones that are unwanted.
 Reliable and secure: - Constant efforts are taken to improve the security in electronic
mails. It makes the email one of the secured ways of communication.
 Informal and conversational: - The language used in emails is generally simple and thus,
makes the process of communication informal. Sending and receiving emails takes less
time, so it can be used as a tool for interaction.
 Easier for reference: - When a person has to reply to a mail, he/she can use the provision
of attaching previous mails as references. It helps refresh the recipient's know-how on
what he is reading.
 Automated emails: - It is possible to send automated emails using special programs like
the autoresponders. The autoresponders reply only to those messages with a generalized,
pre-written text.
 Environment friendly: - Postal mails use paper as a medium to send letters. Electronic
mail therefore, prevents a large number of trees from getting axed. It also saves the fuel
needed for transportation.
 Use of graphics: - Colorful greeting cards and interesting pictures can be sent through
emails. It adds value to the email service.
 Advertising tool: - Nowadays, many individuals and companies are using the email
service to advertise their products, services, etc.
 Cheap Service: - The expenses incurred in using an email service are less. However, it
also depends on whether you have an Internet connection at home.
 Data Storage: - The providers of email service offer enough space for data storage. Also,
the process of sorting and arranging mails as per the subject, date, etc. is made quite easy
for users.

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  Provision of Attachments: - The feature of attachments allows users to send huge chunks
of data in the same mail. Also, sending attachments doesn't raise the cost as in the postal
service.

Disadvantages of Email
The email service, though beneficial in our day-to-day life, has its own drawbacks that are off
late coming to the fore.

 Viruses: - These are computer programs which have the potential to harm a computer
system. Viruses copy themselves and further infect the computer. Recipients need to scan
the mails. Since, viruses are transmitted through them and have the potential to harm
computer systems.
 Spam: - Emails when used to send unsolicited messages and unwanted advertisements
create nuisance and are termed as spam. Checking and deleting the unwanted mails can
unnecessarily consume a lot of time. It has therefore, become necessary to block or filter
unwanted emails by means of spam filters. Spamming is practiced by sending hoax
emails. Email spoofing It is another common practice, used for spamming. The act of
spoofing involves deceiving the recipient by altering email headers or addresses from
which the mail is sent.
 Hacking: - The act of breaking into computer security is termed as hacking. In this form
of security breach, emails are intercepted by hackers. An email, before it is delivered to
the recipient, "bounces" between servers located in different parts of the world; hence, it
can be hacked by a professional hacker.
 Misinterpretation: - One has to be careful while posting content through an email. If
typed in a hurry, the matter can get misinterpreted.
 Lengthy mails:- If the mail is too long and not properly presented, the reader may lose
interest in reading it.
 Not suitable for business: - Since the content posted via emails is considered informal,
there is a chance of business documents going unnoticed. Thus, urgent transactions and
especially those requiring signatures are not managed through emails.

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  Crowded inbox: - Over a period of time, the email inbox may get crowded with mails. It
becomes difficult for users to manage such a huge chunk of mails. This information
overload often repels the readers from using the email service.
 Need to check the inbox regularly: - In order to stay updated, one has to check his email
account regularly.
 Lacking in Personal Touch: - Even in today's digital age, people find the hand written
words appealing. Emails do not embody that personal touch.
 Internet Access is Required: - There are many parts of the world where people don't have
access to the Internet. The email doesn't serve any purpose in such areas.

5.7. Internet connectivity

In order to make use of internet it requires:
 A physical connection between the computers.
 Appropriate software
Connectivity:

There are two basic ways to connect to internet:

 Direct /leased connection: a subscriber’s computer remains directly connected to the internet at
all times through a permanent physical connection to ISP.
 Dial-up connection: a subscriber dials to ISP when connection is needed. To establish a
conventional dial – up connection to the internet, you will need the following:
 An account with an ISP (a company that provides internet access)
 A telephone line (telephone connection)
 Modem (external or internal)
 Necessary software
Software: Two pieces of software are needed to access the internet;

 Basic communication software that a computer uses to transfer data across the internet, i.e.
protocols. Usually built into the computer’s operating system.
 A web application program known as a browser that can contact a web site to obtain and
display information.

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