Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc.

Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

Standing waves and Acoustics :

1. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):
Consider a particle vibrating along a vertical line AB about mean position O with time
period T as shown in fig (1). Now, can we write an expression to find the position of particle
at any instant of time t?
Such an equation is equation of SHM. It can be found as follows:
Y
A

Q P
ϴ

ϴ
O
X O X

B
Fig (1) Fig (2)
Consider a particle P executing uniform circular motion. Let it be at x at time t = 0. Let it
arrive at P as shown at time t. let PQ be perpendicular on vertical diameter as shown. The
distance OQ is displacement of foot of this perpendicular form O in time t. As particle P
rotates around the foot of perpendicular Q moves along vertical diameter, undertaking the
motion exactly the same as particle vibrating along vertical line AB. This motion is SHM.
Now we can obtain expression for displacement OQ as follows:
In triangle OPQ in second figure,
Sin θ =
Therefore,
OQ = OP Sin θ
If displacement OQ = y and OP ie maximum displacement of particle is ‘A’ then,
y = A Sin θ
We have angular velocity of particle P executing SHM is,
=
And hence,
θ=ωt
Therefore,
y = A Sin ω t ………………………. (1)
Equation (1) is expression for displacement of particle executing SHM at any time t.
We need to understand that this motion ie change in displacement y with time is not
uniform. The velocity of particle can be obtained by differentiating y with respect to t. It is,
=

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

v = A ω Cos ω t …………………. (2)

And the time rate of velocity ie acceleration is,
=
= −Aω Sin ω t …………………. (3)
= −ω !
2. Equation of Progressive wave:
A wave is propagation of disturbance.
There are two types of wave motion.
(i) Transverse wave motion: In this type of wave motion, particles along the wave
vibrate in plane perpendicular with to the direction of propagation of wave.

(Consider number of equal heighted students sitting on the ground in front of you. If first
one is ordered to vibrate along vertical dotted line, then immediate next ie second one is
asked to follow first, then third follows second and so on. Then, when all start oscillating,
we see a wave as shown in above fig. The black dots represent positions of student at a
given point of time. This wave is transverse wave.)
In this type of wave motion each particle executes SHM about its mean position
with same time period. And hence it is also called a simple harmonic wave.
(ii) Longitudinal wave motion: In this type of wave motion, particles along the wave
vibrate along the line of propagation of wave. For example sound wave.
Consider a transverse wave propagating along a given direction. Now, can we write an
expression to find the displacement of a particle at a distance of x from starting point at
any instant of time t?
Such an expression is called an equation of progressive wave. It can be found as follows:
Consider a particle at origin of wave. At time t = 0, it is in the mean position. The expression
of displacement of this particle at any instant of time is given by,
y = A Sin ω t …………………….. (1)
At the same instant the displacement of a particle P at a distance of x from origin towards
right can be written as,
y = A Sin (ω t − ∅) …………… (2)
Where, ∅ is phase lag, because such a particle at P started oscillating little later than
particle at origin.

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

For particles separated by wavelength λ the phase lag is 2π. And hence for particles
separated by distance of x, the phase lag is,
%&
∅= '
Therefore,
Equation of simple harmonic or progressive wave is,
%&
y = A Sin (ω t − '
) ……………. (3)
We know that,
Wavelength is the distance travelled by the wave in a time equal to its time period.
Therefore, wave velocity,
*+ ,-./ 0,1/22/
= *3/ ,4/-
'
= 5
Hence,
= 6 7 , where f is frequency of the wave.
Therefore, equation (3) of the wave can be suitably written as,
%
y = A Sin (v t − x) ……………. (4)
'
Differentiating above equation wrt time t we get,
%1 %
= A Cos (v t − x) ……………. (5)
' '
And further differentiation gives,
9: % 1 %
= A Sin (v t − x) ……………. (6)
' '
Also, differentiating wrt position x we get,
9 % %
= A Cos (v t − x) ……………… (7)
& ' '
And,
9: % %
= A Cos (v t − x) ………….. (8)
& ' '
From equations (6) and (8) we get,
= &
……………….. (9)
Equation (9) is known as differential form of equation of progressive wave.

3. Velocity of a wave along stretched string:

Consider a string AB stretched between two ends A and B with a tension T. let is be plucked
at the centre O and left to itself. It vibrates.

R
T

Q ɸ - δɸ
P ɸ

T
δx
M
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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

The forces tending to bring the string to equilibrium position are components of tension
at p and at Q. They are,
(i) Component of T at P along vertical is T Sin ɸ. It acts downward.
(ii) Component of T at P along horizontal is T Cos ɸ. It acts towards left.
(iii) Component of T at Q along vertical is T Sin (ɸ - δɸ). It acts upward.
(iv) Component of T at Q along horizontal is T Cos (ɸ - δɸ). It acts towards right.
Since δɸ is very small, Cos (ɸ - δɸ) is nearly equal to Cos ɸ. And since these Cos
components act in opposite directions, they cancel one another.
Therefore, the net force acting upon the string tending to bring it down from stretched
position is,
; = T Sin ɸ − T Sin (ɸ − δɸ)
; = T Sin ɸ − T(Sin ɸ Cos δɸ − Cos ɸ Sin δɸ)
Cos δɸ ≈ 1
Therefore,
; = T Sin ɸ − TSin ɸ Cos δɸ + Cos ɸ Sin δɸ
; = T Sin ɸ − TSin ɸ + Cos ɸ Sin δɸ
; = T Cos ɸ Sin δɸ
Sin δɸ ≈ δɸ
Therefore,
; = T Cos ɸ . δɸ
; = T δ (Sin ɸ)
Now for small angles Sin ɸ = Tan ɸ and
AB
Tan ɸ =
AC
Therefore,
AB
; = T δ (AC)

A AB
;= T AC
(AC) δx

A B
; = T (AC ) δx ……………… (1)

Let m be mass per unit length of the string ie mass of unit length of the string.
A B
Therefore, mass of string of length δx is m δx. Its acceleration in in the direction of y is
AD
And hence by Newton’s second law we get,
Force acting on string to restore its equilibrium position is,
; = E FF G HH I J K LM

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

A B
= E δx ( ) …………… (2)
AD

Equating equations (1) and (2) we get,

A B A B
T ( ) δx = E δx ( AD )
AC

Therefore,
A B 5 A B
( AD ) = 3
(
AC
) ……….. (3)
Equation of wave in differential form is given by,
= ……………… (4)
&
Comparing equations (3) and (4) we get,
5
= 3
Therefore,
Velocity of wave is,
5
= N3 …………………….. (5)

4. Principle of Superposition of waves:

What if two waves cross the given point at the same time? The particle at such a position
is subjected to two wave motions at the same time. The resultant wave displacement at
such a position is given by the principle of superposition of waves. According to this
principle, the resultant displacement at the point of superposition is equal to the vector
sum of displacements due to individual waves.
If y1 and y2 are displacements at the point of meeting of waves due to individual waves
then, the resultant displacement at that point is,
Y = y 1 + y2

5. Stationary or Standing waves:

Consider a wave travelling along a stretched string. It is reflected back.
If the wave is reflected at the fixed end, then the reflected wave will have an additional
phase of π as compared to incident wave. And if the wave is reflected by free end then no
change in phase is observed.
Consider a wave travelling along a stretched string.

Incident wave

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

It is reflected back with inverted phase. ie crest is reflected as trough and trough as crest.

Reflected wave

The incident and reflected waves superpose at every point and resultant wave is stationary
or standing wave. It is as shown below.
2 4 6 8
3 5 7 9
1

Such a wave doesn’t progress forward or backward, but is stationary. And hence is known
as stationary wave or standing wave.
Thus when two waves of same frequency and same amplitude travel with same velocity
along a same line in opposite directions, they superpose at every point and give rise to
stationary wave.
The positions 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 …… are called nodes. Incident and reflected waves meet out of
phase at these positions. And hence at these positions the particles of medium are always
at rest. The positions 2, 4, 6, 8 …… are called antinodes. Incident and reflected waves meet
in phase at these positions. And hence these particles vibrate with maximum amplitudes.
(Equal to twice the amplitude of each component wave).
'
The distance between two successive nodes is . Similarly the distance between two
'
successive antinodes is also equal to . The distance between a node and a neighbouring
'
antinode is equal to :
6. Characteristics of Stationary Waves:
(i) Every particle between successive nodes oscillates in SHM with same period and
same frequency as that of component wave, but different amplitudes. The
amplitude increases from node to antinode. Further it decreases from antinode till
next node. At node amplitude is zero and at antinode it is maximum (Equal to twice
the amplitude of component wave).
(ii) The medium splits into segments. All particles in the segment vibrate in phase. The
particles in neighbouring segment also vibrate in phase, but in opposite phase with
the particles in consecutive segment.

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

(iii) Crest (compression) or trough (rarefaction) do not advance further. There is no

propagation of energy in any direction.
(iv) Nodes are the points where displacements and velocity are zero. At nodes the
changes in pressure and hence density are maximum. At antinodes, displacement
and changes in velocity are maximum. But there is no change in pressure and
density.
(v) All the particles along stationary wave pass through maximum velocity position ie
mean position at the same time. They also attain their zero velocity position at the
same time.
(vi) The wavelength, frequency and period are exactly same as those of component
waves.

7. Analytical Treatment Of Stationary Waves:

Consider a stretched string fixed at one end. Let a wave travel along the wave in positive x
direction.
The equation for such a wave is,
%
yO = A Sin (v t − x) …………………….. (1)
'
Where x is the distance from origin in the direction of wave. v is velocity of wave and λ its
wavelength. A is an amplitude.
This wave is reflected at the fixed end. The equation of this reflected wave is,
%
y = A Sin (v t + x) …………………… (2)
'
It is in negative x direction. And hence x is replaced by –x.
The displacement at same point P due to reflected wave in fact should take care of phase
inversion in wave at the fixed end. And hence the actual equation of incident wave is,
%
yO = A Sin (v t − x + π)
'
ie,
%
yO = −A Sin (v t − x) ……………….. (3)
'
The incident wave given by (1) and reflected wave represented by (3) superpose. So, by
applying principle of superposition we get,
y = y1 + y2
% %
y = −A Sin (v t − x) + A Sin (v t + x)
' '

% %
y = A Sin (v t + x) − A Sin (v t − x)
' '

%& %1
y = 2A Sin '
. Cos '
………………………. (4)
Expression (4) is equation of SHM.
The velocity of the particles is given by,

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

9:%,1 %& %1
= '
Sin '
. Sin '
………………… (5)

The change in displacement with distance of the point from origin (or the strain) is given
by,

:%, %& %1
&
= '
Cos '
. Cos '
……………….. (6)

(i) Changes with respect to Position (positions of nodes and antinodes):

%&
At positions where, Sin '
= 0, we see that displacement (eqn 4) and velocity (eqn 5) are
both equal to zero.
Such points exist at positions where,
%&
= ER , where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ……………….
'
Hence,
'
G=E
ie,
' U'
G = 0, , 7, , 27, and so on…….
These are nodes.
%&
At these positions Cos = ± 1. And hence eqn(6) shows that strain is maximum. And
'
hence changes in pressure and density are maximum at nodes.

%&
At positions where, Sin '
= ± 1, we see that displacement (eqn 4) and velocity (eqn 5)
attain maximum value.
Such points exist at positions where,

%& %
'
= (2E + 1) , where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ……………….
Hence,
'
G = (2E + 1) :
ie,
' U' W' X'
G = 0, :
, :
, :
, :
and so on…….

These are antinodes.

%&
At these positions Cos '
= 0. And hence eqn(6) shows that strain is zero. And hence
changes in pressure and density are zero (minimum).

(ii) Changes with respect to Time :

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

%1 %
At times when Sin '
= 0 or Sin 5
= 0, we see that displacement (eqn 4) is maximum
and velocity (eqn 5) is zero.
Hence,
%
= E R , where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,………………….
5

5
K=E
ie,
5 U5
K = 0, , Y, , 2Y, … … ..

At these times, the velocity is zero and displacement is maximum. So, at these times
particles pass through extreme positions.

%1 % %
At times when Sin '
= ± 1 or Sin 5
= ± 1, or Cos 5
= 0 we see that displacement
(eqn 4) is zero and velocity (eqn 5) is maximum.
Hence,
% %
5
= (2E + 1) , where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,………………….

5
K = (2E + 1) :

5 U5 W5
K= :
,
:
,
:
, … … … … ..

At these times, the velocity is maximum and displacement is zero. So, at these times
particles pass through mean position.

8. Normal modes of vibrations in a stretched string:

Consider a string of finite length l clamped rigidly at both ends A and B. let the string be
plucked at point P. The waves travel along the string. Each particle of the string is set in
transverse oscillations. These waves are reflected from the ends. The incident and
reflected waves travelling in opposite directions superimpose to produce stationary waves.
There are number of passible states of these stationary waves which are called normal
modes of vibrations of stretched string.

A P B

The differential form of equation of a progressive wave is,

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

=
&
This can be written as,
O
&
=1 ………………………… (1)
Where v is velocity of wave and is,
5
= N3 …………………… (2)
The equation of wave travelling long +ve x axis is,
%
yO = AO Sin (v t − x) ………………….. (3)
'
And, the equation of wave travelling in opposite direction ie –ve x direction is,
%
yO = A Sin (v t + x) ………………….. (4)
'
Where A1 and A2 are amplitudes of waves respectively.
The resultant wave is,
y = y1 + y2
% %
y = AO Sin (v t − x) + A Sin (v t + x) ………….. (5)
' '
The boundary conditions are,
y = 0 at x =0 at all times t, also, y = 0 at x = l at all times t.
Therefore applying this condition ie y = 0 at x =0 we get,
% %
0 = AO Sin (v t) + A Sin (v t )
' '
Therefore from above equation we get,
0 = AO + A
AO = − A , let it be A
Therefore, equation (5) gives,
% %
y = A Sin (v t − x) − [ Sin (v t + x)
' '
ie.
] ] ] ]
\ (_D9C)` (_D`C)a \ (_D9C)9 (_D`C)a
y = 2A Cos ^ ^
Sin ^ ^

bC b_D
y = −2 A Sin Cos
c c

This is the equation of stationary wave.

Now applying boundary condition ie y =0 at x = l we get,

b2 b_D
0 = −2 A Sin Cos
c c
Since A ≠ 0, we get,
b2
Sin c
=0
Therefore,
b2
=dR
c

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

Where p is integer, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …………….

ie,
2
λ=
f
Therefore,
Frequency,
_
f=
c
f_
f= 2
Substituting from equation (2) we get,
h 5
6 = N ……………. (6)
2 3

This equation represents allowed frequencies of vibration of the string. These frequencies
are called normal frequencies or normal modes of vibration of the string.
The lowest possible frequency is for p = 1. It is called fundamental frequency or first
harmonic. Frequencies corresponding to p=2, 3, 4, 5…. are called first overtone, second
overtone, and so on. Also frequencies corresponding to p=2, 3, 4, 5…. are called second
harmonic, third harmonic, and so on.

9. Energy Density And Energy Transport Of Transverse Wave Along A Stretched String:
All progressive waves transport energy through the medium in the direction of their
propagation.
Consider a transverse harmonic wave progressing along a stretched string in +ve x
direction. Let f be its frequency, A be its amplitude, m be mass per unit length of string
and T be tension in the string.
The equation of such a wave is,
%
y= A Sin (v t − x)……………… (1)
'
In the vibrating state the string is as shown in figure. The string is inclined at an angle of ɸ
with horizontal ie x axis.
R
T

Q ɸ - δɸ
P ɸ

T
δx
M
O

The forces tending to bring the string to equilibrium position are components of tension
at p and at Q. They are,
(v) Component of T at P along vertical is T Sin ɸ. It acts downward.
(vi) Component of T at P along horizontal is T Cos ɸ. It acts towards left.

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

(vii) Component of T at Q along vertical is T Sin (ɸ - δɸ). It acts upward.

(viii) Component of T at Q along horizontal is T Cos (ɸ - δɸ). It acts towards right.
Since δɸ is very small, Cos (ɸ - δɸ) is nearly equal to Cos ɸ. And since these Cos
components act in opposite directions, they cancel one another.
Therefore, the net force acting upon the string tending to bring it down from stretched
position is,
; = T Sin ɸ − T Sin (ɸ − δɸ)
; = T Sin ɸ − T(Sin ɸ Cos δɸ − Cos ɸ Sin δɸ)
Cos δɸ ≈ 1
Therefore,
; = T Sin ɸ − TSin ɸ Cos δɸ + Cos ɸ Sin δɸ
; = T Sin ɸ − TSin ɸ + Cos ɸ Sin δɸ
; = T Cos ɸ Sin δɸ
Sin δɸ ≈ δɸ
Therefore,
; = T Cos ɸ . δɸ
; = −T δ (Sin ɸ)…………… (2)
Negative sign indicates that, the force acts downward (ie along –ve y axis)
Now for small angles Sin ɸ = Tan ɸ and
AB
Tan ɸ =
AC
Therefore,
AB
; = −T δ (AC)

A AB
; = −T AC
(AC) δx

A B
; = −T (AC ) δx ……………… (3)
Differentiating equation (1) twice we get,
:% %
= − [ sin ( K − G)
& ' '

:%
&
= − '
! ……….. (4)

Therefore, transverse restoring force is,

:%
;= T '
! δx
Since,
5
= N3
:%
;=E '
! δx

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

The work done against this restoring force in displacing string from 0 to y is,
i = jl ; k!
:%
i = jl E '
! δx k!
:%
i=E δx jl ! k!
'
:%
i=E δx
'
31 %
i= '
δx y
This is potential energy of the element δx at time t.
31 %
δU = δx y
'
Substituting from equation (1) we get,
31 % %
δU = δx A n M (v t − x) …….. (5)
' '
The kinetic energy of the element of length δx at any instant of time t is,
O p
δK = (E δx) ( )
p
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to t we get,
p %1 %
= [ qLF ( K − G)
p ' '
Therefore,
O %1 %
δK = (E δx) ( [ qLF ( K − G))
' '

% 31 %
δK = δx [ qLF ( K − G) ………….. (6)
' '

Equation (6) is expression for KE.

Therefore,
Total energy,
δE = δU + δK

31 % % % 31 %
δE = δx A n M (v t − x) + δx [ qLF ( K − G)
' ' ' '

31 % % %
δE = δx A sn M (v t − x) + qLF ( K − G )t
' ' '

31 %
δE = '
δx A

Therefore, total energy per unit length or energy density of the string is,
vw
u= vC
31 %
E= '
A

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 Standing Waves and Acoustics… B.Sc. Third Sem Physics (DSCC) bmt

1
Frequency, 6 =
'
Therefore, energy density is,

E = 2 R A 6 E …………. (7)

10. Vibrations in Rods ( Longitudinal and Transverse):

A metal bar is a body of homogeneous and isotropic material with length much higher than
its cross-sectional area. It can be made to vibrate longitudinally or transversely.
Longitudinal vibrations can be set up by stroking bar at one end with hammer or rubber
along the length. The longitudinal vibrations travel along the length of the bar. Their
velocity depends upon the Young’s modulus and density of material of the bar.
Similarly, the bar can be set into transverse vibrations by striking, plucking, bowing or by
electromagnetic methods. The velocity of the transverse waves along the bar depends
upon frequency of the wave. Waves of different frequency travel with different velocity.
Transverse waves do not travel with constant velocity and hence there is change in Wave
shape during their travel inside bar.

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