una Dla vommanicator he xeon af da been tw devs ws Some frm ol Lineage 2iserder Sastever aed Ss Preread ‘networks a set of dees nodes) conactedby communion Inks. Anode can be comput, otro any othe evi capable of sending sn4/or ecg ata generated by tner nodes he newark Dara flow © Simplex. + Half-duplee * Pultdupie [gece =| Image 1:Data ow ia computer retwork 1a -Appliationof compute network ‘Computernetworts have myrad asplcatians across varousdomars: Liconmuneavon"faeitates anal, instant mestegre, vdeo tonterancng, and volecal 2.nfermaton Sharing: Enables fle sharrgcllaborative cacunentadting, and ‘inert access Provites ares tothe Worié Wide We ane anne srices5. Business Operations: Supports enterprise apalicatons, data nanagemert, and tTanseevon rocesing 65. Edemto:Facitteselesmirgennacourses,ané virtual aston 7. nesearch: Enables calabontion among researches, acess to online datoass, |. entetainment Delivers streaming meds, onthe gaming. 28 sail networking 9. E-commee: Suppers oni shopping, ayment process ard cde fiiment 10.Telecommuniations: Powers noble networks, satelite communicate, and ice aver (Wo serves. 1a Network Architecture software hardvare,prtocos and medlact the wansmision of daa > PaerToBeer network fe a newark in whch all the computers a linked > foorTo-ear network is useful for smal envronments, usually up to 10 computers. > Poor ToPeer network hos ne diated sere > Sacil permssions are essigned to each computer fo" sharng the rescues, buitthicean esd tos prot fthecomputr with te resources down, AdvonagesO* Per To Per Netwark: 3 tslesscosty sit oes rot cortain any dedicated sen 2 fone omoiter toe wevene but. cher comers wi not ston wort, > iseas tose up and maitainaseath conputecmarages iseDisaerancages OF Peer-to-Peer Network: > inthe case of Peer-to-Peer network, doesnot contanthe cntraled system eestor, > inasasecurty sue as Ne ceuce s manage Ast cuenyseernetwore > clenterver network fs 8 network made desgnd forthe end users cled tents, to aces the resources om a ental computer knows 3s Sever rnetwore are ale ents > A server performs all tie mor operations such ay see and network management > Aserver i response fer maragingal the resources sucha les, recor, printer ete. > Al tne cents communicate wih eae othr through # server. For example, cent wantsto send some dat to cent 2,thent fist sendsthe reuestto the Server or the permission. The server serds the response fo Ue cen 1 to initiates communeatior with the cen. 3 ——C internet iclents m/ ‘Advantages Ot clnt/Server network > AGien/Serve network contains the centralized system Therefore we can back me data easy. A Glert/Sener network has 3 dedicates server that improves the overall performance ofthe whole system > Secu 5 better In Cent/Sener network 35a singe Server adninsters the sored resources, > talso increases thespeed ofthe sharng resources. Server se tenDisserantages OF Clan/Sever network: > GlentServarnetnck nexpeneveasitraqures he sener ih arge meery. sera nay» Nekwork Cperating Spen(405) ts prove the resources the chert the ostot NOS is very hh > requis a ceciested neworkadiirtratertommanage althe resources “Types of computer networks 1.LAW (loot Arca Network & LAN 9 Network Ih conneds compute's and amgus. it allows forthe saring of resources he fs, printers, 7a imeret 2. YAN tweet Locate Network: AMWLAN is sia tox LAN bu ses wireless techrlogy, suchas WF, oconnert devices stead of prsical cables ft prvioes Aleit ard mosiy wishin she exverage area allowing devceste conned 0 the retwork thout bang physically tetereat e peciflecton. 2.MAN (Metropdten Area Network: A MAN is @netwerk that covers & lager geographic aren than a LAN out emaler han # WA (Sypealyspanng a cy oF lage camaus). interconnects muhple LANE and ther network eee fo enable commutation ane cesurce sharing ove age are, 4. WAN (Wale Aces Network A NAN ia network that sane + large geopephie Sind MANS sing long-dstance conmmantation technologies he leased hres, ber 5. PAI {Benomal Aina Mock A BAN isthe emt tyne a nti, Sel Connecting nerve dees within the inmate vit af an iva, icy 9 femorthores. tet boon. and wearable eves. lotooth and are are Comma technologies ured fo estalehing PaNcannectons,as ispet Fretecos — Defintin ules and cenventons for data Gulelnes and speciation for lexcarge,searesshg, ard ererfrdvare, software, and tania in etwors. roracls. Purpese rsure ect cermmunication/Ensre intereperabity and] etween devces aed systems. leampatbity seross.platorms snstecholopes, ‘Branples (CPP HTTP. SMTP, FTP ethernet, W-F, USB, Bluetoth | Developmest [Developed by organzatins an stablshed ane maistained by ‘oasora suchas ETF IEEE. [standards bodes Ike IEEE. 1S. TF Implenenttion|inglonenied by saiware snllimplemeried by tarde andl frmwareinretworking devices sofware manufacturers to shore tospeciie spedfcatons. Flentlty [ay vryin mplenentaton an Gereraly morergi ad unfor| systems, (rolwion fubjecttoupdetesond rviion|Upsstea peiodcly | to axcommodate” angrelinearporate advancements and echnoog. 16 ‘The GS (Open Systems interconnection) efererce medel isa coneptual framework that andaraes the factions of telesomminiaton or computing system into Ssevendistirt layers. Ear ayer senes aspect purpeseandinttats wth aacent layer: to faite communcation between clvier across 9 etwok Hews 2 etaled overview of each layer 1 Prsia ayer (ayer > Responsible for thephysal trarsmision of data between doves. > bates charecteristes ofthe tansmésion medium, such as ables, connector, sea signal > Specifies transmissin rates, voage levels, na modulation techniques. 2. ta Link ayer Layer 2} > Provides erertreetrananission of date hemes Between frst connected res. Divided into two slayer ALE (Leal Link Comol] nd NAC (Men Aces contro. UC entabches and maintains ei inks batween doves, while NAC centro ‘eces othe wonsrision medium, Sot 0Senor ayer ayers): > Getermines the best pat for data Vansmisan basee on networt condtons > lamps of protec indude (tenet Protos! and ICM (Internet Control Message Protocol). Traspor Layer (Lave: Eases elle ene toed debvery of dot Splits age data streams int smaller segment for transmission, Nanages lw cont, err reeavery, and cangeston contol “TEP (ansmssion Control retool) and UDP (User Datagam Protocl) are common transport yer potocals session uyer (ayer 5: 5 Gtablones, maintains, and termintes sesions between appeatons on "Manages lalogues and sjrchrenization between pplitions. anaes authenteaton,exthorkaton and ess checlpointng Presentation ayer (Layer 6 Translates data between he spalcation layer andthe networ Responsible for data encryption compression ang formating. Ensures that data lem the appcaton layer is presented in a sandardaed fermattor tansmision Application Lye (Layee 7 ovis network services direc to end-users and apleations Supports 3 wide range of communication services ana proto, sich as HTTP, FP, SWIP, ara ONS > Handles wer outhestiation, data exchange, and aplition spec fonctons ‘The CS model prvdesa structured approach to networking allowing developers to 2 largartancuidey ct our goas are romevhat efferent Spread ssctrm fe designed Slow: the soure to wrap te merge na pretectis enilope fr 8 more secure Swteing Sitting Isa networerg tecniue that enable the raving of eta packets tam 3 fonwarcing data packets bases on the destination adresses, ensuring een and role communtation between des, Hereare the maintysesot switching: > traveut swiching a dedeates communication aath, or cut, i estatshed the sion, reparls ofuneter ces beng trnamited, 2 Pakel Swit 1 Packet sitcing beaks data ito smal ackets shat ave Hnvgully routed eros the nebworkro thr destation > Tach poke conais inormotior about fy sue and destination sess, Boing eaters an ernest moke roi dees 1 Pocket switeting more effient than creut switching 3s it dmarvealy Soe network esoures ane optimizes tana sth an conmecronas ack Swicring (Datgram swtingl keen pec Is ‘reste indapencenty ane rovted based on ts destination address 1 Connection Onerted facet Switching [tual Crcut Stching Before data enination Selec, ensurig ordered anc relable packet delve. |. Messagesurtcing 1 Message smtching ivoes the \insmision of ente messages beween devices wnewe eal message sstores and forwarded tits descraton. > Unie gaceet switching, message swchirg does rot ares data into svar ekelsand'is es fies in es andl aan 2 Messog siting wos wed in erly carpter enor bu has ge been replaces packet sing de as inefenc.26 ‘eleynone newwork Telephone Netwerc is uses to provide voice communicaion which uses circuit trunk, ardaiching ofc, | tocttoors 1 “crecomponent of:ne telephone network te ca lop, atalsespab cable that consets the susscisrtelephore tote nearest end oie roca ctrl 4 2 uns ae transis dia tat handle he communion betten oes Fd taunt normally hands undress oF housings of cormectins. ova rl plesing Sachin os teleptene conan has itches loeated ino swening aie, ‘ferent suosener Mabie Networe Mabe stars or Cellar netics are highspeed highcapaty vic and dats Communication networks with avhanced rultmsia and. seamiess reamre ‘apanlles‘ar sumone cellar devices end dees With thelncrease populty of cellar devas, tose retwoke ne use fer more than Just fnlerainment and phone cals. Cellar lephny i desyred to. wovde Communications between two moving ui, called mooie sation (MS), 0 betwen ore matiieunt andacestationzry un, often calles ld ununis 3a Fundions of Bata nk Iyer ‘The Dat Link Layer ete second liver a the OS! model and plays crucial le in ‘acitatng reliable communication between adacent network nedes over a shared ‘communication channel te primary funetons include 1. Frame Deiitng: ides the dai received tom the Network Laerinto ames ‘and ds fame headers anf traes to each frame. Thee headers and wales, ontan comtol information, such 25 source and destaton addresses, error {etecion codes, and sequence mbes 2. Addessing:Asigns phyla adeesses (MAC adresses) to network devees to nigel identify them on the network MAC addeses are ueeé by the Data Unk 2. Meo Access Contra (MAG): Hendles the phys! transmission of deta frames ‘over the network metiom. The MAC sublayercortols access tothe medium, from being overwneined ty the sender's tanemisson sped. Fow conta mechanisms ensre that dates transmits a rate that he reeiver can hare minimizing the sof data lessor ater overt, S.tror Detection and Correction Implements enor detection and correction Techniques to ensure data irtegrty during transmistion. Common eror detacton tethads induce party ehecog, hecksuns, and cyl redundangy chee (CR). Dataink conto > Faming teatro eso thee, te Gtk erp the > Dieters ont emo aye an nbeten > the tame see become to lige, then the packet may be divided inte sal seed fames > Shallersize rames make flowconta anerror contre more ent. Then, it sends exch fame bE-by it on te hace > recewe’s nd, data Iink aye pick up serals rom tardwace and assembles them it frames. se tenPans of Frame: 1 frame Header: ecomains the source andthe destination addeses ofthe frame, 2 Pavone eet coreains he mesageto be dlveres rere conaine te error dotction and errr correction Dt, ‘Typeset Framing: 1 Fed Sad Framing Ste ofthe frames ed > Mtdoes na require aditinal boundary bits to identity the start and end ofthe fame > Thesize ofeach ame tobe transmited may be aiferet. > paotuonal echensms are kept to man the end of ore fame ard the bagining of tenet fare. & Faw control Flow antral ie basealy technique that ges permision 0 work ané proees 3¢ ‘ferent speeds to canmunkzte with one anathe. Ite sot cf procedures that fxplane seeder spout Row much dita or frames ican tanser or raven before ‘Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to contol the fw bssed on the feestock 1 Simplex top ard wat > Ts flow control racharism forces tre seeder ster transiting 2 data rae te stopand wat unl the acknowtedgementof the data rame sent receved > The sender sends the next ame only wher i has reseed a postive feknowedgenent from the recever thst is avolble for further cata processing Sot 02. sang wow > This protocol improves the efciangy of stop and wat pretocol by alowing > Both the sender athe receher have fine size bufers caled windows. The ton the bull se feknowledgrent. Whee is sending window is files, it wait for transmits the next ames, according to the umber of acknowledgmentsFlow contr! Protiems: ios aeknowedgemert 1 Dsayeddat/erknowledgement 1Stopand wat for Ana Stoprnd-Wat ARG eesures reloble data trnsmision by prowdirg 2 simple mechanism for enor detection and eecovery. However, it ay lezd to heficences in-network with high tency or low bandwith, asthe sender must walt forthe ‘ouneep ume (27) tore sending the next paket. Despite 1 simply, Stop- Aanéwatt ARO, serves 35 8 landarental bung block for more advanced ARO. proto:os i Gosackw ana {Go-ick N ARO is 2 protocol ensuing reliable data transmission in networks. The Ssenoer mantains 3 window ef ie seraing packets sequentiay win secuence rumters. Upon receiving alnowledgrents (ACK) rom the receiver, advances ail uracknewledfed packets. The recever sends cumulative ACKS, requesting i Sortie Rapes ARO In Seecte-Repet, the recever while keeping track af sequence numbers, buffers the Fames in-memory and senes NADK for only frame whch Is missne oF ‘amaged The senser inthis case sends oly dar which HACK sreceved © tor contrat > ror conrolin data link ayers the process of detecting and corectng data framesthat hove been corupted ot est durng Wansmsion. > I case of lst or corupied frames, the receiver doesnot receive the corret {ata tre and senders gnorant about thelos. se ten‘ypesot eons Singe-sit ror + Theterm sngle-it erar means that ony bit af een data unt (suenase yt, characte, orpackat changed om 190 For + Thetenm burst error means that2or mote tsinthecata unt have changes tom 11> OoeTtom Gta Error Detection ror delecian inners erie process meat dein trans a may 1. Paty Cees” party eck > The pay chock scone oy aire a extra bit called ary bit tthe ets to trate a nurter oft eter even Incase of eves party or ed care of odd pty. Whiecreatiaa fame, me sender ceuns te number of 1s it and ads the party bitin te allowing wy + incase of even part fa numb of 1s eva then party bitvluels Of ‘henumbr of iss old then arty tale 4 nase a ade sayfa nambe’ of 25% 044 then party bil value 0.2 humoer fs weven nen gry iva 2 onreediing sane, the ceeier cours he number 15 nse ol even reece inate adler ade patiy check2. checksum * ints ertordtecton scheme, the folowng procedure sapped 2 batais dudes into eed sized Frames (k segment eachof m its) Irthen ommplemens the sum to get the checksum ane sends it aleng with the > The reaver adds the Incoming segments long withthe checksum sg 1's ompement aitietc te ge the sum and hen eamplementsit > Wine weal is zer, the receved fames are scepted, oberwie, they are dscaran 23. cde reaundacy check * AC isa more robust eror detection technique commonly used in network protecls such a Ethernet and Wi. > tinvoles generatng 2 olynemial code based on the transmitted data and pending its the data fame >» Tye recever performs tha sre CRC cleuston and compares the resut wth the received (RC coe. > the codes not match an enor detected High evel Data Unk control igh. vel Data ink Costa HDLC) eynchronous at Ik Iyer prota sen packerswithed networks. © defines Wrame stucures Tor ata vansmssion, Incluting headers payloads and tralers fr errr detection. Operating a modes ike Normal Response Mode (NFM) and Asytconous Salonced Made (ABM), HDLC manages flow conto prevent congestion. With or detection tecwigus ke (CRC, ensues data intgety, serving as foundational prctcol in network Ponto Point pretocl Pointto-Pont Pretocol PP) a witely sed daa inklayer protocol foestabishing rect connections between two network nodes, typialy over sera comectos. faaitates the tansmision of IP padiets over dal-up connections, DSL, and eakestes nes. PP supports. uterticaton, compression, 2nd multink functonaiy, enabling secure ad ecient communication between remote cevices, inuow syndivoncas ane esynoneus enatonment Sot 0as ‘echo! alcaton pele refers to the tsk of een, alcating {Rroueeutlnten tases in avous communication sens, cuag wees ‘to uotom aol hn to ses doves whe 'inmang bette Conerton and resource contention fessor eg ae esti eons a sted nenca fecssignment or adaptaven tojdeptavon t0 varying. network hangingconatons. ondlions an rf eds iesaurce May lea to wndertzaton ca Teads 1 move ecient Flentity — jumted fenbiny fr sre Ter reali Union |rexource: due to. fed/ezoure tization a exannes are (complexity |Typicaly less complex to)More complex cue to eyrami implement ancmanage location algorithms and tol AAdapabiiy |e adapable to hanes Sf na etwork trate anges. in network coadlions, rovonmentalconaions. _ bratiepattens, and ntrererce [amples |Tredtional—_crcut-swiched|Celuar networks, Wi-Fi networks| reworks 3nd nami specrum alocaton. 36 Mutt Access Protocl Mutipe Access Protocol (MAP) ia Set of rules and procedures used t coordinate ‘acces to 2 shared conmuneaton chamel among multe US's or eves In 3 network: enates eficert and fir sstnbyton of the channes bandwidth, ‘owng utile user to transmit aid receive date simutaneoily wAhout ‘xcesive cisions or nterference Mutple a:cess protocols ae fundamental in ‘tele conmuneationsystens Sot 0‘Typosot mubipleacess proto 5 tnrandom acess or contetionmethods, ne station i superiar to arather There sno fed tine for sendig ate ‘Typesof andom ecess protec: & ona “Te multiple acces protocol ALONA (Advocates of Lux Opensource Nawal sociation) i sedto transit data ever apublienetwork chanel LOMA isthe earest random access method developed for wireless LAN but ‘abe sed en any shares medium. Iw ALOWA, ary staton can tarsmit dota ta channel at ay timelt does not requireanycrier ers + csmayce Garver sense mule ececalsen evidence (CSMA/CA is protorl for Crier transmission in #02 11 networks, fe was developed to minimize the potental of «coliaonoxcurring when two or mare titans send thelr signle bier ata Ink ayer. ‘medium befrenitating»trarsmissen, Thi heb to avert potential colsione by stenng tthe aoadasting nodes and then informing ceicesto transmit then the channel see + cua ‘Te chance of colton can be reduced i+ sation serss the mesa belore ting 10 use iL.Carier Sense Multiple Actes exsures fewer colsions 3s the stations reqiretofist sense the medium for ide or busy before transiting fea. it is ile tan sens cata, eterge ft wats i the channel becomes ie, (iten before tae) However, there stil chance of calision a CSNA de ‘propagation det + csmayco le Carer see muiple access wth colision detecion method, 2 station ‘eeessul fs, he transmission fs completed. However, here sa clision fhe frame sant agin tha bat oabahindCSUA/CD «thats ton need to beable to rece while transmitting, to detect calision. When there s ne Callsion, the station receles ore si: is an sanal When here 2 calision the station receives two signal sown signal and the signa tranumited by & Secondstatin. To dtinguish between these two cases, the ced Sigal In ‘hese two cates must be gical aiferen.2. Controle Acces: 1 they ae cis of mutuble acess protocs used In etwores to manage and regulate acces tbe conmuncation chante 1 These protocols ofer predictable performance and qualty of service guarantees ‘ypesof contol access protocols “E Rewrvation Bed ratocol le the eseraton metho, astaion need o mate 2 reservation belore sending cata “Tme isdvde intointer le each itera, a resersation fame precedes the cite ames sent it that tereare Wstations inthe system, here are exactly N resenatin minis in theresevaten fare, Eich mnislot belongs toa station. rin. > poling sed Protos pall each node Inthe network sequently to dstermne If hey Fave data to The master rode pals eich nede in turn, and ony the node being pots can trans datadurn its desianated tine slot. Paling ase protozos ae often used a networks where the master node can ier manage the communcatie process and minimize clisioxs. 4 Toten Passing te the token-passing method, the statons ina network ae organized in a logical fing nother word foreach tation there predecessor ard a sucess. The current sation s the one tat i zceessng the chanel now, Therightto this access hasbeen pased from the predecesser tothe current station fut row ste righ to acess te canna! passec from one sation to another? lethis meted, a spacial packetcaleda token cireatesthrowh therng 2. Chinneliation Communication chanel to sal, dtnecharnls frequency bands > Thedhcion owe mule ver or cole: to har the tama phyeeal mm ihoutnterering ith ech ober’ wansmisions se ten‘Typeset channelization: le frequencyvision mutipl access OMA), theavalable bandwidth is vided Into frequency bane. Lach ttn alloca a band tozend td leother wors, ach band's reservedtora specie stato, art Belongsto the FOMA specfes = predetermined fequercy band fer the entie perod of ommuniation The maine tat stream dt (9 continous low of ata that may no be pachetied) an easy be used wih FEMA # Toma le time divin matipl secess (TDMA, he statins share the bandidthol the ‘hann in tine. Each sation salocated ime slot eving which can send dat, cach tation transits ts ata ins assgned ime set Sehrenizaton is normaly acompiched ty hang some sychroiation bits (Wormaty referred to as reales) a tre begemngar eae st (COMA assigns a urique spreacng cade to eath user, which spreads the data overs wider tequency bend ers ransmt dat simutaneausy over the sare frequency bang, with each (Dunn alows mute uses te share the channel thet interference, 3 lng 2 the spreating odes ze ortogora a7 ‘Wires aNQee) In 1985, the Computer Society ofthe IE (stitute of Beetral ane Elecvonis Engimes) started 2 projec, cald Project 802, to set standards to enable intecommuniatin atorgequpment rem a vretyof manufactures IEEE 802s comprised of standards with sepirate working groups that regulate Crerentcemmuntatien networks inewang EEE 202. or braking , 8022 for Logica ink 8023 for Ethernet, 8015 for token rng. 802.11 for WiFL 8021 for Wireless Person oree networks, 6021541 fr Bhetoot, 80236 for Wreless Metropolitan Area Networks Ethemet 1 Bhernet ic most widely used LAN Technslgy, which cdfined under VEEE andar 8023 > The reason behing Is wide usbity & Ethernet 5 easy to understand Inplement,aintan and lows low-costnetworkimplenentation, > ehernetoffes flesbty in tems of topdlogies whieh are alowed. ethernet speraly uses Bus Topolay > hernet operates in two layers ofthe OS! node Physeal Layer, and Data Link yee se tenFoo! 2 ber osurbued ona itertace FDO) a standard fr ansmisen of data a lecal area network LAN} over foe tc cates. > Misapieale in ge LAs that ean extend up t0200 Kometers in dame > FoDLuses optical ter 35s physical medium, Wireless aN IEEE tas defined the sections for wireless UN, caled IEE 6C2.21, whieh coves the aya ane data link byers IEEE 802.1, commonly known 36 Wi, Speces an overthearinteface between a vitees ert and a base station of between to wieder bets Buetooth 1 Buetocth is 2 short-range wreless communication technology that allows faves such a5 mobile phones, computers, ane peers to tansme cata tera short estas > The purpose of Bluetooth to replace the ables thet normaly conrec eve, while st keeping the conmuncations between hem secure > Buetocth uses less power and costs less to Implement than WHEL slower ther wireless eves 39 Toker Ring Token fing isa networking protocol where éeices passa spec toten around a © tegjeat og > Ghlythe device hoting the token con transnit data, ensuring order acess and preventing alsin. > Token hing ntwores are relate and use pry sereme, but teyve Been largely replace by Etherrt eto hgher speeds and simply. 1 Token Bus sa networking protocol where devices share data along 2 common > They pass a token to access thebus fo trarsmisson, ensuring ory data flow > Token aus retworc are faulttoleant and elable but have teen srgly raplaced by Pharma isto thighoreposee and imply. viral LAN ‘AVitual LAN (VAN) Is 2 method of creation Separate, dated netwerks wthin a phys netwarkinfrastuctue. Wt alows devices to commuscsteas if fey were on the same retwotk, regardless of thelr pry location. VANS enharce szury, reduce broncast Wate, and afer fexbty in network maragement. Tye implemented usirg VLA awe Swtches hat asign devices ta specie ANS based ‘on configuration se tenunin Functions of Network Layer Te harals serie request fromthe tanspetayecand further forwards the Tre iain frctio“s of neo ayer: 1 Routing Determines the best pth for packer der. 5 UaiealAderessing: ser open adresses (oP adresses te devices > packe tonwading: wove: pacatssxweendfetencntworls a outer > Wagmereatio ane Reasemby. Breaks and reasserbles large packets 35 reeded 1 Ghalty of service (Qes|: Prontias certain types of wate for setter parfermance > Tamelng:encapsuates paces for secure conmuniacon acioss necwots Viral Crete > le vidual est resource are ceserve or te ie ileal of daa ranssion Advontanes “This ema ig eelcle rede of vanes 2 Parkets are deverectothereceer in he sme order serty te ender, There ero nee for everhesdin sch pace, Disoraneagee *Wiruslevuts ar cay toimplement 9 Always anew cansecon set up breeures fo transmission Datagram subnets 2 catapram sunnets, aso known 25 conneatonlss networks, af rebwocs tat bene aatag’am approach fr pact sting ingeperdenty and uted sepataleyivough the neta tstoste lore dt earsmision begins falenges sch 36 pack 10%, Ov ode! deer, nd eeased Overhead ‘he tore nes forheade inermaten nea oahet4a 2 a, rites Petocolversn Isa widely Ua retoolor ening and > hte rage ofr octane AWANET 83 FR fai fe eat Hs meh one ansof But % Neworksart The network pal nates the dsrave vily tha’ apie ta he network The networe 93 co onti lentes he ategsy fhe nek ‘hats sien, Host Pore he host part uriquey idertfes the machine on yeurneswork This ar of shelf eres fsastaneeto every ho, For cae nomen the neta, the Network art ste seme, Noweve, Ene hosthal st ary. hss the noroblestory grt of IP, Local networks thet have massive appointed to tt characters of Pua “Pvt could be 32-0018 arse % Pet could be anumeric aces, and Ibis ae separate by 2 “The numer of header fils twelve an he lerath ofthe der ald is 4 has trea trondeast and muicast ste adds % iPod supports sh Un Legh Suse Mask 9 Pv sesthe Post Ades tesoluion Pozocl to mop tothe MAC adress. dvontagesol Pee “FTP secuty permits enerytion to keer up vac nd ec ip netrerkavoeston esgnteanc ans presen as qute E5400 patel eccnorilknenisege taser. “PIP on network yer eerste toldentFy ene-oln on etwork, and ath networks auniqe Padres The work's supply of ungue IF addresses dwindling, and they might eventual runt heoretcal 4 thee ate mle tst, we mee acaeess of mes‘Adress Spice The ve adress ace cons of 2 Bs, whic lows fr approumatey 4.3 ion unique I addresses. These addreses are typlaly exresied in 2 dated decimal formet eg. 19232.) ‘The id acres space Is died Ito several asses, each with its own range of eae adress: cass Adresses nthe ange .0.0.0t0 1250.00. Class A adresses allow fora luge nember of networks, eachwith large number of toss > cass 8 Adresses inthe range 128.000 t0191.25.00 CassB adresses alow fora moderate number of networks, «ach with a moderate nonber of hos > cass C: Addresses in the range 1920.00 10 2232552550 las Caderesses {ow fer fayge number of networks, each wih asmal number FTO xe reserved for matics gross ard are nat assigned to ndvidal hosts oF ‘xe reserved ior experimental and esearch purpeses ard are nt gereral used le prodscuonnetwors. Classless Aasresshg 1 caslssadcessing, also known as Cassie nte- Domain Rating (IDR san dressing Scheme intosuced 0 ares the lintatins of class addesing 2 Unite dest addressing COR doesnot die Paddreses into fd clases (A ac et). > estea, IDR allows for mare flexble alcation of P adéressts by using sanabieteng subnet masks VSM). Heres how satlssaeresing works 4 Vatableength Subret Masks (VIM): CIDR allows flexble subneting by tng ett mac faring length “2 bet Langth Notation: C18 notion aprtant IP addres wlth 3 pref length (eg, 19202.0/24),inccabng the numberof network IS 4 Addess Aggregation: CIDR facitates combining contiguous IP address Doce toreduceroutng table snes andimpreve routing efceny + effsent Address Alzation CIDR enables 1S and oganzations to equest IP dares alloctions base on atual neds, wiimung adress wastage se tenNotations Pen adreses canbe represented in various nates 1 dnote dferent aspects ofthe adress Here arethe commen lPvtnotatons > costed decimal Notion “hic tha mort commen rapotontstion of ut addocee, where aach byte of tha adresse exresedin deci form and separated by dot eg, 192021) > nary notation Pet adreses canbe vepresantedin brary format, wth each byt (8 is) ofthe ares writen inbinary form (eg, 1200000 3000000.0000001000000001, (ODR Notation (sles inter Domain Routing) ea, 192020724 eradecimal Notation: eg, €0.0002.1 (ecima Notation: eg, 3221225885 for 19202. (ctl Notation eg, 030002.1 Sobnetng > Sobneting isthe proces of hiding singe large network nto smaller, more manageable subretworks or snes. > The paatce nei optmize netwerk performance, enhence secur, and foelitateeficent we of P adereces, “Newark Dison: Large netwons are dived ino smaller subnetworks Caled subnets. 4 Smet ask Assigrment: Each subnet 16 assigned 9 subret musk to determine network and host portans + Network addresing: Subnet ae asgned unique network adress for routing purposes. Most Aderessig: Remaining bts inthe IF a each abet, Berets: EMcent 1p acsress sage, enhanced secunty, improved performance, smpiified management breads traf allocate PadoressesNerarchcaly ress represent hosts within Network Address Transition DF Retwore Aderase Tronalation (NAT) ie 2 technique uted te meaty network ress information packet headers when want acess anetwork ‘cress for communication with devces eats the private network, sch a the tenet. > NAT conserves pub IP adresses, erhances network secunty by hiding ternal I addresses from exteral networks, and simplifies network coafguration by Blowing theese of private IP adiesseswthn the orgaizaton, se ten44 tr Datagram Format ‘The Pvt eitagram format represents the structure of packets used Inthe 1Pvd ‘atayam format ° * oe wor | tee | een Tauren — me | enn ero = ti > version bis Indicates the verson ofthe IPprotocl beng used, ForlPvt his ils ett Fear Leng (4 5) Species th lengh of the Pvt heater in 32-bt words. This ld determines where ‘the ana begs nthe packet. > Type ofservce (8 bts): rigaly etended fora moder networks Taal ngth 26 bi Indices the tata length of the Pet packet, incuding both the header ne the data FP enteation(16 bis Used for tatmentaton and ease ol packets. ach packet iassared a cnique identieatien vale, Fags bits) ‘Cont control tags rated o packet fragmentation an reassembly. > Fragment Oftet (3bit: ‘Species te offset of he data in the orignal packet concertng the begonngof the frogment 2 me ove (TY (8s: Represents the raximum number cf hops (roues) the paket can traverse before beingalscases 7 Protoce (8 bts: Indestes te protcol wed inthe date potion othe packet ty of service (Qo) setngs, tut lngely used In TP, UDP, OMe). Sot 0> tesderchedsum 16 bits te ensue packet inter ducng tansmision. tour Adcrese 2 be pects te acdressa thesender source} ofthe packet. ‘pacts the W adress ofthelntendd recipe (dastnato > cottons jsrible lngtht Optional fala wee To ‘mesa pig or cord route Pag ial gt): Usedo ensue that theheader lengh fs amulige of 32 is, a required bythe Put ofthepaccet fal handing oF acdconal funcionaly, eich a ‘Tre iv etogran format proves esse ntormtion fer rouing ard! delvenr cata eros ener, suring aoperharding and dsveryt packets pve vatagram Fragmentation tetraverse = netoork segment wth astral rasmumtrenemission oni RMU fragie't large paces irc smaller fragrant for ranmssen and reassemble Here: naw Pv dzagram fragmentation works “$ leenbfclon 21a Fags: va heacer contains ar 10 feld and Mans for fragneniaon conte incagin oon Mogren (| ane War Fragments (oa 4 Fragmentation Paces: Routers Kagment lage packets into smaller anes ey eee the MTU. Ihe oulging eras Fagen’ Des Put heater’ grin Oe id ideas the pasion tthe ragmemin theories] pace, aiding reassembly ‘Reser at Destition: he eestinton device recourse tiga packet wig the densteation fice anFrpment isc ntti, “Dore ragment Heraig: FDP 5 Set ara outer neees to agent But car, it esters te pact and sends an KM “ragmentaton Nacded [6 dress Structure ein bv dacs 1280 arte abel asgrd ta each coves patichatiog tran Pee networ, 1 serve athe denier communication win the etwark and acts the 1 The stucture of an 196 aderess 5 composed of hexadecimal chances, Inpcaly represented iv sgh groups of leur Headectnal gis soparaieg byFor example: 20010: 8533-0000-000%802093707334 > anipvbadéressis spltioto two pans:a network and 2 rode comporent. The node component Is the ltr 4 ate ari ees te niche noase of fetenced unique dence cUB6) format Sefined by the Init of eleral fd Eerie Eogneors (EFF) Devo Header > version abit Inset werson ofthe IPprotorl beng use, ForIPW his Hild 06 2 Talc class his Siler to te Type of Senvce (105) fel Put species the piorty anc tpe of servis forte packet > row ipa 20s} Used for fw identification ard qualtyofservce as] manegemantbyrovtes. ts 2 Payoas Leng (18 ts) us 2 han Hendon bie dente the type of eade’ mediately folowing the Pv header. ncates the tyse of the ast header, sucn as TCP, UDP. MPG, or anotter 1K6 extension 2 rap Lin is: Siler tote TT (Time o Le) eld in Pl, species the mace nunwer of ops routes he pact can avenic helo hong iste Soucek 128 Bs: Fopresentsthe Px access ofthe packet’ source 7 bestnavon es (280s Species te Gace oe packet's cestination net ete tone1h Pvt 7 ives based on an lphasumer adcessng method, wile Wd any omer > vera bs aeseparated by can, wil Pa binary Bs are separated by I secuty is equ by Pv6, while ts optional i va live uce an eaurty (See roto ue bu ali: on appeatone > netwons can be automaticaly configured mith 6, whl Pvd nezworks have to be configured ether mania oF theugh Dynamic Fast Coiigation Protaeal (OMG). >> vohaz igh header elds wit 240 character length; Pd hie 20 ead elds with neigh chorotr length 46 Routing Alprthrs > Routing algorithm a procure thet ays down the route er path to transfer da packets rom surest the destination. >» Mey nepin arecorg ntenet vate eter 1 aera data packet leaves ts source, t can choese anong te many diferent fths te reac ta destination, Routing eget mathemati computes the bstpath, e."least~ cos path that he packet cm be oute through. Distance Vector Rostng Algor > tctancs Vector Rating Algorthm Ie = ditt rating lgoethm sc In computer neworks| > isa dynamic alg > isterativein that ts proces conteues ual no mere infornaton i aunable tobe exchanged Beweer neighdors > te tus algorithm, each ruter evaluates the distance between its and every sehiewble destinaton > Tus accomplished by assessing the distance betwee a rover and alof ts temediat router neighbors and adding eah neighboring routers computations forthe istarce between nat neighbor andits se negro + Unkstate Routing Agortim 2 Un state Roving igor Is 3 ostrbutecroutngaigorthm sean computer retorts suitable forge ard complex networks > Wenzures fat convergence and minimizes rousing lope by mantainng an curate andup to date vew ofthe netwert topaogy. ere’ how Dike algarthn works: ‘Start withthe source nade and ste detanceto 0 Sele the node with ne meimun aistance pote dstances to reighborng nodes. Mark the selected note as sites Repeat unt alnadesare vite Reconstruct the shortest paths se tenFspect [Distance vetor outing Junk State Rote information [scrange dstnce vet Exciange Ink at infomation fachange wit nehborrg nodes wth all nades Kowedge On anore of sonia, conse Tae of lt Nework_|aistnces [network opoin {Convergencs|Siower comvergence tne [Faster convergence tine outing [largerroaing ables ale outing tables landwiath [Migher bondwith usge dvelower bandwith wage Gut t sage ho Fequert vpcotes btectve updates Foutng [Suseptie to routingloops Les susceptible to routing bops Loops {Examples [Roving Information Protocal Open Shortest Path Fist OSPF] (a) Intemeaste sytem 1 ntermedate System 1515) Internet Protocols ‘The internet Protocol (P) i a protacol, or St of rules, for routing an adessing packets of data 0 that they cn tavel arose networks ang arnve a he crret estieaon = a > ‘nsdressnesclution Protecol (NP) is protec! ase in computer netwerks to ‘yoamealy map IP addresses to MAC adereses within socal network segment. > ABD resolver the Layer 3 JP) airoter of device tater corteponsing ayer 2 (ac) aderesss, enablig dat to te transmits acoss the network at the dita line aver, > tisafundarenta roto used in theme and other lal area network LAN) technobgies ae Reverse Adeess Resoluton Protocol {RAR Is 2 networking potecol wed to {yramcaly nap MAC adresses to Padres. >> fake erable aevess workstation or networt devices without permanent Storageto obtain thei Padaesses ram a centalservet > tans commonly sed by Bstess workstations dung Boot upto obtala el I agaresss, enabing them to ccessnetworkserees. making less feable than modem protecos ike ONC (Oyiamic Host Eanigwation roto ve Sot 0net contol Message Proto. (EMF) @ network proteco Used fo Sdagnoaics and erer reporting within? neat igealh pace. transmission and other or, 1 Nfatttes network troutlesheatiog sing tol ke prganataceroute, Routing Pretocals 1 Pacting proecos ae sets of ales ad algothns used by routers determine the optenal patho forwrding retort Routing protools enable roles to dysamialy dst to charges in neork topology, recuing trafic eficienty ane ensunng relabe.conmuncation eros retorts, = ose Open shore Path Ft (OSH is Hnkstete outing protocol ati sed to fd the best pth between ie source and the destination router usr ts cn Shortest, Path ith ser waevegped ay inurnet tagneatng Lak force iT] as area the Interior Gateway Protocel (1G), the protocl winch aims at moving the packet 2 oP Borcer Gatzway Protool (86°) Is used to change rautng Information forthe intertet ond he protcolwed beees ‘SP which ate dileent eas 36P' main funeton to exchange netvonkreachaity efration with ther 3 sytem, Borer Gateway Protocl constructs ar utnonue systems” graph based on the infornationexchinges uote BG? at. Unicast Unica oui involves transmitting dato from one sender to one specie rescve. Fach nace tres the desination adores for rovers to fornsrd © sore te ‘opti pat. l'selficent ar point co pont cormnication osu for mast Fetwork te srenaros, ncelng wes Browsing, Fal ne Sle eRe. es ‘widely usedon th nme. Iultast routing enables ene serder to transmit ¢ate to. nulisle recevers -prubaneour bits le zent fom ene zurce te mutala dectestions, conser Tetwork bardwiety and rescurcesivuleast raves network effi ty delve SSrearing media, ovine gaming, vdeo conferencng. ard disrbutng sofware “pats. P aadast Broaecast routing Is 3 methad of routieg network packets to al dewes wie 2 "eter segment Data pokels te en fom 9 dng outce Lo alldesies wit Ine local netrskreadead paces aie aouessed Io a sped aestinaton aces, Iypielly represented asthe boaecat ade.unis Function of Tareport Layer Ieprevdes endo end communication tetweey two host and ensures tat oat packets aredevred sib accurte, ninth crrert de unctons 1 Garecion Controt Manages eonnetion setup, naintnsnce, an termination betveer host (1 refers connectonles communication (UD. 1» Faw Control: Hegulteso3t fon o preven’ avershelnig the recever 2 erar Cotral Deters and comets Vansmssonarorsto ensue cts inaghty er > Mutipixng and Deruteplencg: Allows ulpe apaikations to stare asiagle ‘etwore conacton and routes data 1 the vrrec:appeation Elements of transport protocols > paesing between 9 connerson aa wansartion Conmestion eters re pons sockets thot el eseh tame, the een dei laws which process hs een sen ‘nom. This Pepsin keep tack of mulise-nessege convertors. Por or sockets, acess mutinleconsenstions in he som oeaton, > stable ard Releasing Comaction ‘Tee Vanspen layer cess and reeases the coanetion aross the network Ths Incluées 3 nating mechanism so that # process on ane machine can rete wth ‘rom ie wanes to conmuntat Ihe vanspot layer erables us to eblsn and Gelete convection ates the network to mull ever mesage steams onto “Tre ering ride of Faw antl ta eatin a sergy between a fast roves Slow ane exnowiedgenentsare nt bik fo range ene to ent ow com. Bo mer electice Repeal Suse reqaes spipadkes to reliant > ror Cont Feror detection snd eror covey are an inca! pat of rele serve, and ‘thersiore thy are necessary te perfor sor contol macaniss on er endo-end bass To control errors rom ast ordupleatesepmerts, the transport yer erabesnique segrient sequen rumbersto thed ferent pcketsof hemessige, eating ‘tua creat, allingonly eve waa chcul pe eon. 2 Mutileng and Demutatenne Demaltpling cures that data ecelied fon the ntwcrk ls correct round te > cra racvery rash recovery inthe transport aye, paula in potas tke TCP (ransasson Cont! Pretaal, vaues mechanisms to rover from unetpctes fares oF ‘ashes during data (aesansson ensues rele dla ansison a esovery from ner furs ar eases, conakting le the robustness and reliably of 5a User Datagram Protoct 2 User Datagram Procol [VDF 3 Trenspon aye proto > Uo? isepartftheinteratPrtoco suite, refers tea UDP sute Connection before est transfer eter " Upp aad UDP headers ante Saesand simple heades, whe for TP it may say fom 20 bytesto 60 byes. The fst 8 Byes contain al necessary healer iformaton andthe femaning grt consists of data. UDP port numoe” feds are each 25 is ng, thereowe te age for prt aumbers i etings tar Oo 55535 por sume Os resewed, Prt numbers Hep In dsgushateen wer tequess oF prosesses 2 Source Pont Source Portis 92 i ng tte wie 0 Hen te sort rae > Cesare Frcs 2 gies uses to enone prone estes pct. > Ene eahisteemt rise eden 98 ~ Ghevene? complemen sum ef fe Uc hende, oe boucohenier of Suifamesartenaies mpectivocaeeDP Data {or operacons >> cannesionts communcation: UDF is # connclankse prorocal, meaning I oer not establay a connection before traemiting dit, tach UDP pate it 1» te Hangenaing: nike TCP, UDP does nat parfom any hansehakng te Sehnouledgent orresperse > Unrate Batvry UDP nes nt guarantee tery a ecuencng of pack Packets may ave out of order, be dupcted, ar even st win rotfton, > tow Osete UD? has minimal aves compared TCR, main i aster sede elitient fe cea yes ol pptnion lations of UDP 1 Used for simple requestesporse communication wes the ize of datas less dherce theres esr cance abot flow ard err xno > nisa ste protecol for multasting 3s UDP suport packer switching > Woe used for se routing updae presale ke KMtIg inverration rrotecel, > nownely used for ea-tine apaicetons wich «an nt tolerte uneven delays between cectone of areceved neste {se To recuest @ senice from » progam located In aer cxmautr on EC used ocalloler process on the emote systems ie 20. 5sen PC works oles: > GientSerer Model Inttes requests from cients t9 savers fer remote procedure execution1 nterfawe Defrition Defines procedures usng an Intertace Osriton Larguage > Sub Generation: Genertes cert and server. tubs for rsrhaling/ermastaling dora Procedure invocation: Clents cal remote procedures transparent a5 they 1» Erecutn on Serve= Serre receive requets, execute procedures. an return Principles of Relcle Data Transter ‘ensure acute and conplete cata rarsmision 2 teknoulednert RCH: Implement acknowledgments Wom the seein te ten succssal ceil of daa pacts, Sequerce Nimes: Asign unigue sequence numbers te cach paclet te ana rope orteringringtonsmisen, 2 Trou ane Retrmsioe Set Unters Or picket scknowledgnert not raceved withnthetimeost,revansitthe ache: > Few ContraImaleent nechan'snsto corral the Now ofa, preventing the sender irom overelig he weceser, 2 err bitecton anc Coreston: elds errardetiction methods checur or erorcorrctngcosesto esure dea iegety >> Stectne nepeat or co-seci: choose a mettod for nandingacknanedgnints edretanamsiors for pacatswrtin te tansmson incom, veut ang or ckronedgmentsPipelined Reliable Data Transfer Pretocol tea pipelines reluble data Uarster protocol, the sender an stat senaing 2 ‘cond data packet befor the sender receives the acknowledgment forthe st Thus fthe sender needsto sed several packets then the tine unt thelastof| the pctetsiccont il besarte with pipelined prota. > Thus pipelined protoca can have better performance than he Stap-and.Wat potecel > tis possible to measure the extent to wbich a pipelined protocal has better performance that Sop-ard-Wiak. > Ts i clled measuring the Ulzatien ofthe cenecton or link tetween the snderana te receiver, _ meee dl esis 2.Appainet mn operaton ‘Two generic forms of pipatned protecol ae 2.GoBack ss. “Tranenision Control Protocol “Transnisson Control Protacoli a cennecon-cente patacal fer cammmunkcatins that Peps ethe exchange of messages between ferent devices over anetwork. {Ter aso helps in ensurg that nfomatin ls tanemted accuratsy by estbishing Vital conection between he sender and receiver. wong ‘Tomake sue that each message reschesits target locaton intact, the TP/IP mode breaks down the data ito smal bundles and afterward reasenbes the bundles bundles of formation makes t simpler te maintain eine as opposed to Sending venting one. > Canecion-Grientes Communcation:TCP estabishes 2 connection between two hosts bere data exchange, ensuring relableand ordered delvey Sot 0> Mutiplxing: TCP does multiplexing and de-metiplexing atthe sender and ‘eco ends respective as 2 sume of legal connections an be estalshed between por numbers ote a pyses connection “Cangetion Contels TEP monitor network congestion and adjust. the arson rate pene perfomance and prevent network cnesion > Fall Duplex Communication: TCP suppor ‘ul duplex commencaton, alowing Ata tobe vansmited in both directions simultaneous TeP segmect heater: > source or (6 bts erties the source aplication sendngthe deta > cestinaon oct (26 bts) identies the desinatin applic thal will ecelve tent, > Sequence Number (32 bis: Specifies the sequence nutes othe fst dat byte iethe erent segment > reknowedgrent. number (32 bis} Indeates the next sequerce_ number cepecte by te serder ofthe segment. > Foe engi (MLN) Ts 544-0 hat ecates the lenge of he TCP header bya numberof byte words nthe Fader Reserved (9 bia): Reserved for ture ve nd mt Be at oe, Control lags (9 bit: Contains seve contra as suchas SYN (synchronize), {Ack (aenowlcge) FN ih) RT wt) URG arg), an PSH (ou) > Window size (26 bis): Indicates the ste ofthe recewe window, whch specifies > checksum (28 bis} Provides evorcheckng ofthe header and data to ensure Ietearity during trarsmisson, > > Lugent Pointer (26 bits) Spectes the oft from the sequence number eld were urgent ata ends. Options Varcbl}- May cud optional parameters such 3s maximum segment St, timestamp, and window se factor. Sot 056 Congestion cont Cangesion isa stata occuring in network ayer whan the message trafic fo the network enabling 2 etter use of 2 stared network mfastucurs and oisngcangestvecoayse > efecve congesten conto! mechansms hey maintain netwere sty, {revert pala loss and ensure lal users rete fi and equal acess 2» Thoy ate eset or oping network prlorance nd rib in oy ‘compet end dynarre network environmentsunits introt with the network and access resoues, sich as ema file wnstr, and Gate bschange: Facitaes data exchange betveen networked devices by ‘inner vrous protocls and formats sutabefor diferent paiketon > Resworc Vil Terminat Provees vital zerminal cepsbites, sllwin users te aces retro tere and sre asif they were dec converted Fle raster, Menegement and Aas: Suppor fle wane, vanagemrt zd acess pltocos,enebliog users 0 upoas, dowslee, and manipulate es Ema Services: Faditates ema communcation by providng pratacof and Sonics Tor composng sending rece id managing einal esses. -Appition Layer rotate > Hyseitent Tanser Britacoh (KTP: KTP the founda of at omrariation fr the World Wide Wed esis the teaser of yperteat camer, sch 9s we pages, Belween wc sewers ad ens row) works en the ass of centserer med! > Fle raster roto FI: FP allows users to transfer ls between alent = server on a comp.ter network, fe supports varus eperathne sich 28 tploasng, aaunloading. eraring, ard deli les. >> simple wat anser otal Sh SIPs Usd or sending em messages tween mat servers defoes how email messages are transmit and routed ove he ere, communication beureen al sees fos ice Motos! (POPE POF is cna vet ptou thle: wens te download emais rom & remote smal server to their cal cme. rola sini to 203 bu wih aon ears Hallows users (orange ther email messages ore sewer, suoportn Festures ike Felder merazerent sed message syrehonzation sors mull devices, % omain Nene Stem (ONS: ONS tansbtes doman names leg. vwow.aamle.com) int I adresses, encling users to ezzess websites and (her rere resurcs sing umaneadsle main namessimple ecwerk Management Moxoel (SNMP: SMM sear managing and Inonitorng network devees ard ystems. allows network admis to prrformance, and antiga them remotely. Tenet: Telnet allows users to remotly lg in t and contol a computer or Server over 2 network It provides a conmanéline interface Tor executing Commands ard accessing resources on the rematesystem > Duce: oynamic Host Configuration Potocel(OHCP) 9 network management pPotecel used to automatically assign IP aedresses and other network fonfigwation parameter, to devies on a network y automating the besignment and management of adeestes and network cofigration parameters, OHCP simpiies retwork adrinstation, reduces the risk of IP cress confit, and enables efcent wie of IP adress space in namic ‘Concept of raficanalyer network. A network analver breaks down wath by dferen parameters and > MRT, oF Mui Router Trafic Grapher, a fee and open-source network ‘monitoring tol desgned to mostor ana graph theft loason networkin. > creates graphical representations graphs) of network trafic, which provide sual insights into vat patters,usige trends, and nework performance. > supports tresheld mantorng by allowing users to define theshols for networe trate ves, > ean ger ser 9° notations wren tai exceeds predtines tresolts 1 PATG Netwerk Monitor is comprehensive network monitoring slution developed by Paesser AG > ttmontors te status aed peormance of entve IT nastuctues, Incuding uses a senor based architecture, where eat sensor monitors a specifi pect af tha nator, sich 3¢ bandwidth age CBU lad, memory ween, (webite aalabty. > isa comprehensve and user-friendly souton for monitoring ard manaaiog retwort infasrucure, proving silty info network perfomance, and ensuring the avaalityandrelabity of excal services. se tensun 1 Simple network Mznagement Hoxoo! (Sew) 2 staat proto! used or managing ane montoring network devices end stems 4 SNMP Agents: These are software modules embedded within network deslen (outer, cuvehor, cone, ate) that cllac and tore information about the deve’ petormence and status. + ShIMP Wanages: These are network management systems (NMS) oF Software appiations tht rte and anahze data from SNIVP agents to ‘moniter and manage network deces. > SNIP widely Used oe network mentoring, peformance man ‘ection, and contguraton management eT endonment. Packet Tracer 2 Packt Traceris 2 retwork simulation and visualiation ool developed by Cisco systems > allows users to cesign,contgure, na troublesneetcompater networs na ‘veal environment. sariety of newerkng devices, ncucing reuters, swithes,frewals, PCS, and > isa yluatl tol for network engineers, students, and educators to earn, practice, ane experimen with networking coreapte and eechnalogit in + \rualied endronnent. woreshar 2 Wreshakis wdey-used open-source network fotos anayzer 5 allows uses tocanture and atalyethe tfc on networkin ealtine > Weaptures ad dspays te pacits (cata uit) trrveing over a network Users ean capture packets on a specie network iterfoe o bo saves capture fie foranaiis 2 Wiese 13 valuable 0 or network aéminiraton, secur professors, fod. cevelopers who need to oudeshort network ies, analyze Communication pater, or investigate secur rele se tenunr? Network Sesrity [A Nenrk Security Model exits row the scintysvicehas ben designed over the networ to mewent the e>panent fram exons nea. the enteenty oF | uthentey ofthe information hats berg ranted through the network, Sender opponent acter & WH —— Network Security Mode! Denial of service (B05 sa cyberia almed 3t dsruptng the aealbity of 2 lone tem er neo by averting with gmat tio resource tquest Tis alee renders the system or reswolk inasesctle to legtinate users, causing sence dsuplion an pater nana ar ‘epuutional ep hcking cP hijacking, sso Ince as sessen hjckng fs a eybratack where an atacker inereapts 2 ongsing T= sesion tetween twoparties. By oxplezing wineraites for gusting sequence numbers, the aticker neers forged IC? pacts to take oneal af fe seston, tania zcessng seriove data or mpersonanng ane ot the arts. Packet Siting Packt orifing tthe pecie of inercepting and manitring de pactets a: they Wave acros a network I's ypicaly dove uss speialzes software or hardware Clee phat efor chat afar eaprra and ara he cates of pacetsincluting sersveinfowatien Ike passwords mais, and website vis, without Princes of eypography Ihe pncipes of cryptography imohe te use of mathenatal agorthns and tehiune oor communication nt dats, symaatitey Symmetry ceylogrphy Snobs using the some Key fr both enytion sed decyaion of ta > Wstostond ein: scm seevey staring sere ey Symmes erry iste er secring ca commricaton a sore Publickey 2 Pub ey eptoRrpny uses 2 par oF KEW 8 pyoNe Ky ror enerptlon an 3 vat ey fr derision. > Koy csvibuton i spl ted 73 fen [hvestsnami-aalenan) Is 2 widely used asymmerre cyptowaphe ‘irate for encryption ane tal irate. Twas ceveloped yon fees, tl tami and Leonard Adem an oles generting spublicpivale key pai ‘The key are dees fom the paducl of ta large rine runbers. Tysene.a secure meng, (he iene’ uses he eee’ pute Key ta esp Ihe messoe (nly the recent, possessing the earespensing piste He, can eee the Digital signature Algorithm 2 tisused for gal dgnature adits verfcxion legen. ‘+ trae dovsleped ty Nationa netics of standards and Tesnolegy (HST) in involves four operations: “kej Generation 4 ke} Distbutior + Spring 4 signatineveriiaton7s ‘Communication securty “his wrchtecre uses two protec te secre the safe or data flow. These protecoz we ESP erenpultionSecurty Palos ane A (thereon Hasdar IPsec architecture incides rotors alerts. BO. ant Key Manegement All theeecomgonents are ary nears in art prove the three main serve L-configeraaty BLintegaity 1 VoN creates secur ane eneryptes connecion ore the internet alowing users tw access piste neworis remety fesurngconfcentalty ard pray. from arywhere wit ar interes conncton ” whle ows the ntrnet. ; trie uted by Busneror to provide romata sccets to amployaas aod by Indicuale te bypass geovestctone, entance fecuty, and proct povacy Frew 1 Framals mantor se cena newer trafic te pravert authored access seagate aint eyber heat. 2» They ter inarming and outgoing Walle Rased an predeline res, aowing 2 They seve a eet secur layer, SSRUOTSI NeIWORS fro MaINaEE, intrsions and unthoried acs. wireless Seurty Unauthorised aces an ae shes, Typesof wiles secur prowals elu: 1S ied Equasane raaeyAn sey excrypion sand, now conedared weak ag asi conpromsea 2. WPA tir Poteed Accesbintocuced to address WES weakresse, eludes TP (Femoral ey integrity Proto eerypton. 11 Wena [Wi Protected neces 2]feplaces WP, aflers stronger eneypson thing (Avenel Enron Slandord), nd swidelyadeped ‘seri estires ans proleon apie recone tak.