EYE

• It mainly consists of 2 components :

❖ Eye ball
❖ Accessory structures
Accessory structures of the eye includes: eyelids , eyelashes , eyebrows ,
lacrimal apparatus and extrinsic eye muscles

▪ Eye lids :
✓ Upper and lower eyelids /palpebrae shade eye during sleep ,
protects from excessive sunlight and foreign objects & spreads
lubricating secretions over eyeballs
✓ Space between the upper and lower eye lid that exposes the eye
ball is termed as palpebral fissure
✓ Lateral commissure is the narrower angle closer to the temporal
bone
✓ Medial commissure is broader and closer to nasal bone
✓ Lacrimal caruncle is a small reddish elevation which contains
sebaceous and sudoriferous glands
✓ Tarsal plate is a thick form of connective tissue that gives form
and support to eyelids
✓ Meibomian glands are present in each tarsal plate , which
secretes a fluid which prevents the eyelids from sticking together
✓ Conjunctiva is a thin protective mucous membrane

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 ▪ Eyelashes and eyebrows :
✓ Eyelashes project from the border of each eyelid.
✓ Eyebrows arch transversely above the upper eyelids. Protects
eyeball from foreign objects, perspiration and direct sun rays.
▪ Lacrimal apparatus :
✓ Produces and drains lacrimal fluid or tears
✓ Lacrimal fluid is a watery solution containing salts, mucus,
lysozyme. It protects , cleans , lubricates and moistens the
eyeball

▪ Extrinsic eye muscle :

✓ Extend from orbits to sclera
✓ Capable of moving eyes in all direction

EYE BALL
✓ Approximately 2.5cm diameter
✓ 1/6th is exposed
✓ Consists of 3 layers :
▪ Fibrous tunic
▪ Vascular tunic
▪ Retina
o Fibrous tunic :
▪ Superficial layer of eyeball
▪ Consists of cornea and sclera
1) Cornea :
❖ Transparent
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 ❖ Anterior part of fibrous tunic
❖ Covers iris
❖ Curved so that light is focused to retina
2) Sclera :
❖ Appears white in colour
❖ Sclera covers eyeball except cornea
❖ Sclera gives shape to eyeball , makes it
rigid and provides protection
❖ Scleral venous sinus/ Canal of
Schlemm is an opening found at the
junction of sclera and cornea.
o Vascular tunic / Uvea
▪ Middle layer of eyeball
▪ Composed of 3 parts : choroid , ciliary body
and iris
1) Choroid:
❖ Vascularized
❖ Posterior part of uvea
❖ Lines most of the internal surface
of sclera
❖ Blood vessels in the choroid
provide nutrients to the posterior
part of retina
❖ Contains melanocytes which
produce melanin
❖ Melanin absorbs stray light,
prevents reflection and scattering
of light
2) Ciliary body :
❖ Present in the anterior portion of
uvea
❖ Consist of ciliary muscle and
ciliary process
❖ Ciliary process – Folds on the
internal surface of ciliary
body.Secretes aqueous
humour. Suspensory ligaments

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 (zonular fibers ) extend from the
ciliary process
❖ Ciliary muscle – Circular band of
smooth muscle .Contraction and
relaxation of ciliary muscle
change the shape of the lens ,
adapting to near and far vision.
3) Iris :
❖ Coloured portion of eyeball
❖ Anterior central portion of
uvea
❖ Suspended between cornea
and lens and attached to
ciliary process
❖ Rich in melanocytes (secretes
melanin) and made up of
circular & radial smooth
muscles
❖ Amount of melanin
determines eye colour
Pupil :
❖ Present in the centre of iris
❖ Light enters into retina through pupil
❖ Circular and radial smooth muscles of iris regulate the pupil size and
amount of light entry

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 • Retina :
Inner layer of eyeball
Optic disc (blindspot) – site where optic nerve exits the eye
Retina consists of 2 layers:
✓ Pigmental layer – Located posterior to choroid and it is
rich in melanin
✓ Neural layer – Located inner to pigmental layer. It
consists of 3 layers:
a) Photo receptor layer :
❖ Consist of photoreceptors
❖ Light rays are converted to nerve impulses
❖ Photoreceptor layer and bipolar layer are
separated by outer synaptic layer
❖ 2 types of photoreceptor cells :
i) Cones : 6 million cones ;
produce colour vision; bright light stimulate cones; 3 types of cones – blue cones
, green cones and red cones.
ii) Rods : 120 million ; see in dim light
b) Bipolar layer :
❖ Made up of bipolar neurons
❖ 2 types of cells are horizontal and amacrine cells

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 ❖ Modify signals transmitted from photoreceptor to
bipolar cells to ganglion cells
❖ Bipolar layer and ganglion cell layer are separated by
inner synaptic layer
c) Ganglion cell :
❖ Made up of neurons
❖ Axons of ganglion cell layer extend to optic disc
and exit eyeball as optic nerve
• Lens :
❖ Located between iris and pupil
❖ Focus image on retina
❖ Lens divides eyeball into anterior cavity and vitreous
chamber
❖ Anterior cavity : Lies between cornea and iris ; Filled with
aqueous humour ; Aqueous humour nourishes the lens and
cornea.Fro mciliary body aqueous humour enters posterior
chamber and enters the anterior chamber and is drained to
canal of Schlemm . Aqueous humor is replaced every 90
minutes
❖ Vitreous chamber : Largest posterior cavity of eyeball.
Lies between lens and retina. Vitreous body is present
❖ Vitrous body is a transparent jelly like fluid . Doesnot
undergo replacement.
❖ Intraocular pressure is produced by aqueous humor and
partly by vitreous body.
▪ Optic disc : Site through which optic nerve exits the eye ball.
▪ Macula lutea : It is the exact centre of the posterior part of retina
▪ Central fovea (fovea centralis): Small depression seen at the centre of
macula lutea . It contains only cone cells.
Physiology of vision :
Eye is a complex organ which converts light waves into electrical
signals, which is processed by visual area of cerebral cortex into visual data and
perceived as vision.
1) Retinal image formation
(a) Refraction of light rays – Refraction is the deflection or bending of
light rays when they pass from one medium to another of lesser or

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 greater density.Light rays entering the eye are refracted at the anterior
and posterior surface of cornea, aqueous humour , lens etc.Image
focused on retina are inverted. Maximum refraction occurs at cornea.
(b) Accomodation – Ability of lens to change its curvature to change the
focusing power of eye .
For close vision : Ciliary muscle contract → lowers tension on
suspensory ligaments → lens become more curved

For distant vision : ciliary muscle relax →suspensory ligaments

stretched→ lens become flat and thin
(c) Constriction and dilation of pupil : Iris controls the amount of
light entering the eye by constricting or dilating pupil.
Bright light : Pupil constricts to prevent excess light from entering
Dim light : Pupil dilates to allow more light to enter the eye
(d) Convergence : Medial movement of eyeballs so that both are directed
towards the object being viewed. Allows the formation of a single
image on retina
2) Stimulation of photoreceptors :
• Photoreceptors are rods and cones
• Rods and cones contain 3 segment –
i) Outer segment –
o Cylindrical or rod shaped & tapered or cone
shaped for rods and cones respectively.
o Photo pigments (rhodopsin)are present
o Out segment is renewed rapidly
o Photo pigments contain 2 parts – opsin and
retinal
o Opsin – It is a glycoprotein
o Retinal – Vitamin A derivative & the Light
absorbing part
o Photo pigment in rods is rhodopsin
o Three different cone photopigments are present
in the retina, one in each of the three types of
cones.
ii) Inner segment –

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 o Contains nucleus , golgi complex and
mitochondria
iii) Synaptic terminal –
o At the proximal end , photoreceptor expands
into bulb like synaptic terminals filled with
synaptic vesicle.

• Photo pigments respond to light by following a cyclical

process ( cyclical bleaching and regeneration):
i) Isomerization: Retinal has a bent shape in
darkness (cis- retinal). When it absorbs light cis
retinal is converted to a straight form, trans-
retinal.
ii) Bleaching :Trans- retinal separates from opsin
and forms a colourless product
iii) Retinal isomerase converts trans form to cis
retinal

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 iv) Regeneration : Cis retinal then binds to opsin to
form the photopigment again

3) Light and dark adaptation :

o Light adaptation – Visual system adjusts to bright environment by
decreasing sensitivity (when you emerge from dark surroundings to
brighter areas). Adjusts in seconds
o Dark adaptation – Visual system to dark environment by increasing
sensitivity over minutes

4) Release of neuro transmitter by photoreceptors :

o In darkness - cGMP gated Na+ channels open → depolarization of
photoreceptor → release of neurotransmitter ( glutamic acid )→ Inhibitory
post synaptic potential triggered in bipolar neurons → NO signals send to
brain

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 o In light – Light strikes retina → cis retinal undergoes isomerization →
enzyme activated to breakdown cGMP → Na+ channels close →
hyperpolarization of photoreceptor→ no release of neurotransmitter →
Excitation of bipolar layer → Signals send to brain

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Pathway:
Generation of potential in outer segment → Inner segment → synaptic
terminal→EPSP in bipolar layer → ganglion layer → ganglion cell axons from
opticnerve → optic nerve carry nerve impulse → optic chiasm→ lateral
genticulate nucleus of thalamus→optic nerve synapse with secondary neuron→
primary visual area in cerebral cortex → vision

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 EAR (Hearing & Equilibrium)

• Hearing is the ability to perceive sounds.

• Ear is divided into : external ear , middle ear and internal ear
o External ear consists of auricle (pinna), external auditory canal and ear
drum
o Auricle – It collects sound waves. It is a flap of elastic cartilage,
covered by skin. Rim of auricle is called the helix and inferior
portion is the lobule.
o External auditory canal – Curved tube. 2.5 cm long. Extends from
pinna to eardrum. Contains few hairs and ceruminous glands that
secrete cerumen or earwax (prevents dust and foreign objects from
entering the ear). It conveys sound waves from pinna to eardrum.
o Ear drum or tympanic membrane – thin semitransparent partition
between the external auditory canal and middle ear. Covered by
epidermis and lined by simple cuboidal epithelium. It converts
sound waves into vibrations and transmit to middle ear.
✓ Middle ear – small air filled cavity, lined by epithelium. Separated from
external ear by tympanic membrane and from internal ear by a bony partion
.Bony partition contains 2 openings: Oval window and round
window.Auditory ossicles are the 3 smallest bones in the body – malleus,
incus and stapes.

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 ✓ Anterior wall of the middle ear has the auditory tube/ pharyngotympanic
tube / eustachian tube. It opens during swallowing and yawning allowing
air to enter and leave middle ear until air pressure inside equals
atmospheric pressure.

❖ Internal ear (labyrinth) – Consists of bony labyrinth and membraneous

labyrinth. Bony labyrinth is a series of cavities and it is divided into
semicircular canals, vestibule and cochlea.
❖ Vestibule – oval central portion of bony labyrinth.Vestibule contains 2
sacs: utricle and saccule. These are connected by a small duct.
❖ Semicircular canals – 3 semicircular canals present. Based on their
position they are termed as anterior, posterior and lateral semicircular
canals. Ampulla is a swollen enlargement at one end of each semicircular
canal.
❖ Receptors for equilibrium are located in the semicircular canals and
vestibule & receptor for hearing in the cochlea

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 • Cochlea – Anterior to vestibule and resembles a snail’s shell.It is divided
into : - cochlear duct , scala tympani and scala vestibule
❖ Cochlear duct or scala media : Filled with endolymph.
❖ Scala vestibuli: filled with perilymph .
❖ Scala tympani: Filled with perilymph .
❖ Helicotrema: Common opening for scala vestibule and scala tympani at
the apex of cochlea.
❖ Spiral organ / organ of corti : coiled sheet of epithelial cells containing
supporting cells and 16000 hair cells ( receptors for hearing) .Hair cells are
divided into Inner hair cells and outer hair cells.
Physiology of hearing
Pinna collects sound waves → strikes tympanic membrane ; vibrates back
and forth→ malleus → incus → stapeus →oval window →Movement of oval
window causes pressure waves in the perilymph of cochlea →Oval window
bulges inward →Pushes perilymph of scala vestibulli→ vestibular membrane →
endolymph →Basilar membrane vibrates→ back and forth movement of
stereocilia causes opening of ion channel→ generation of depolarization
potential→Potential spreads to hair cell →opening and release of
neurotransmitter→ generation of action potential in first order neuron that
synapse with hair cell→Impulse conduction to primary auditory area in cerebral
cortex→ Perception of sound

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Pathway
Hair cell synapse with first order neuron → release of neurotransmitter due to
depolarization→ generation of action potential → impulse carried to medulla
oblongata → olivary nuclei (pons)→ inferior colliculi (midbrain)-→thalamus →
primary auditory area of cerebral cortex→ sound perception

EQUILIBRIUM
• 2 types : Static and dynamic equilibrium
• Static equilibrium – Maintenance of position of body relative to force
of gravity
• Dynamic equilibrium – Maintenance of body positions in response to
sudden movements
• Organs for equilibrium : utricle , saccule and semicircular ducts =>
vestibular apparatus
• Macula – Small thickened region present in the walls of utricle and
saccule. Macula contains supporting cells and hair cells. Supporting
cells secrete thick glycoprotein layer called otolithic membrane . On
the apical surface of hair cells, hair bundles are present which contains
stereocilia.
• Semicircular ducts – ampulla contain an elevation called crista. Crista
contains hair cells and supporting cells. Supporting cells secrete cupula.
Physiology of equilibrium
Bending of head → Pulls otolithic membrane by gravity → bend hair
bundle→ Open ion channel enclosed by tip link protein→Depolarization →
Release of neurotransmitter→ hair cells synapse with first order neurons →
cerebellum → maintenance of equilibrium

Pathway
Release of neurotransmitter → Generation of nerve impulse in vestibular branch
of vestibulocochlear nerve → vestibular nucleus of medulla→ pons→ Inferior
cerebellar peduncle→ cerebellum

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