Preface

This book is a meticulous, comprehensive, and classified summary of the following eight books
which are essentially the main sources for the MA entrance examination in Teaching English as a
Foreign Language:

 Chastain, K. (1988). Developing Second Language Skills: Theory to Practice. Florida:

Harcourt Brace Jovanovoch. Second Edition
 Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New York:
Oxford University Press.
 Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S. (1990). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
 Brown, H. D. (1995). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall.
 Yule, G. (1985). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Falk, J. S. (1978). Linguistics and Language: A Survey of Basic Concepts and Implications.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
 Fromkin, V. and Rodman, R. (1988). An Introduction to Language. Florida: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston Inc.
 Farhady, H., Jafarpur, A., and Birjandi, P. (1994). Testing Language Skills: From Theory to
Practice. Tehran. SAMT.

The book is organized in three parts: Teaching Methodology, Linguistics, and Testing. There is an
Answer Key at the end of part three. The number of the chapter(s) summarized from the above-
mentioned eight books is provided at the beginning of each unit. The summaries are accompanied by
a number of test items form the previous MA entrance examinations. It is hoped that this book can
ease the burden on the shoulders of the students who attempt to prepare themselves for the MA
entrance exam in TEFL. The author would welcome any suggestions and recommendations for the
improvement of the book and will definitely incorporate them in the future editions.

1
 Table of Contents

Page
Part One: Teaching Methodology
Unit One: Approach, Method, Technique
Unit Two: The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)
Unit Three: Direct Method
Unit Four: Audio-lingual Method
Unit Five: Communicative Language Teaching
Unit Six: Suggestopedia
Unit Seven: Total Physical Response (TPR)
Unit Eight: Community Language Learning
Unit Nine: Situational Approach
Unit Ten: Silent Way
Unit Eleven: Natural Approach
Unit Twelve: Reading Method
Unit Thirteen: Cognitive Code Learning
Unit Fourteen: Eclectic Approach
Unit Fifteen: Douglas Brown (Chapter 1: Language, learning, and teaching)
Unit Sixteen: Douglas Brown (Chapter 2: First Language Acquisition)
Unit Seventeen: Douglas Brown (Chapter 3: Age and Acquisition)
Unit Eighteen: Douglas Brown (Chapter 4: Human Learning)
Unit Nineteen: Douglas Brown (Chapter 5: Styles and Strategies)
Unit Twenty: Douglas Brown (Chapter 6: Personality Factors)
Unit Twenty One: Douglas Brown (Chapter 7: Socio-cultural Factors)
Unit Twenty Two: Douglas Brown (Chapter 8: Cross-linguistic Influence and Learner Language)
Unit Twenty Three: Douglas Brown (Chapter 9: Communicative Competence)
Unit Twenty Four: Douglas Brown (Chapter 10: Theories of Second Language Acquisition)
Unit Twenty Five: Some Test Items on Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing
Unit Twenty Six: Task-based approaches to teaching and learning languages
Unit Twenty Seven: Post-Method Era
Part Two: Linguistics
Unit One: George Yule (Chapter 1: The Origins of Language)
Unit Two: George Yule (Chapter 2: Animals and Human Language)
Unit Three: George Yule (Chapter 3: The Development of Writing)
Unit Four: George Yule (Chapter 4: The sounds of Language)
Unit Five: Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 2) and Julia Falk (Chapters 7 and 8)
Unit Six: George Yule (Chapter 5: The Sound Patterns of Language)
Unit Seven: Julia Falk (Chapters 9 and 10)
Unit Eight: Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 3: Phonology: the Sound Patters of Language)
Unit Nine: George Yule (Chapter 6: Words and Word-formation Processes)

2
 Unit Ten: George Yule (Chapter 7: Morphology)
Unit Eleven: George Yule (Chapter 9: Syntax)
Unit Twelve: George Yule (Chapter 10: Semantics)
Unit Thirteen: Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 6: Semantics: The Meanings of Language)
Unit Fourteen: George Yule (Chapter 12: Discourse Analysis)
Unit Fifteen: George Yule (Chapter 13: Language and the Brain)
Unit Sixteen: Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 11: Brain, Mind, and Language)
Unit Seventeen: George Yule (Chapter 14: First Language Acquisition)
Unit Eighteen: Formkin & Rodman (Chapter 10: Language Acquisition)
Unit Nineteen: George Yule (Chapter 15: Second Language Acquisition/Learning)
Unit Twenty: George Yule (Chapter 16: Gestures and Sign Languages)
Unit Twenty One: George Yule (Chapter 17: Language History and Change)
Unit Twenty Two: Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 8: Language Change: The Syllables of Time)
Unit Twenty Three: George Yule (Chapter 18: Language and Regional Variation)
Unit Twenty Four: George Yule (Chapter 19: Language and Social Variation)
Unit Twenty Five: Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 7: Language in Society)
Unit Twenty Six: Julia Falk (Chapters: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Unit Twenty Seven: Formkin & Rodman (Chapter 12: Language Processing: Human and Machine)
Part Three: Testing
Unit One: Farhady, Jafarpoor, Birjandi (Chapter 1: Preliminaries)
Unit Two: Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 2: Function of Language Tests)
Unit Three: Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 3: Forms of Language Tests)
Unit Four: Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 4: Basic Statistics in Testing)
Unit Five: Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 5: Test Construction)
Unit Six: Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 6: Characteristics of a Good Test)
Unit Seven: Cloze Test

3
 Part One

Teaching Methodology

Unit One

Approach, Method, Technique

This unit is a summary of:

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 2)

Approach: is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and

learning. It is axiomatic and describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. According to

Anthony‗s model, approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and

language learning are specified. Approach refers to theories about the nature of language and

language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching.

Method (Design): is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of

which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. A method is procedural and

within one approach, there can be many methods. Method is the level at which theory is put into

practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be

taught, and the order in which the content will be presented (objectives, a syllabus model, roles of

learner, teacher and instructional materials, types of tasks and activities the method advocates).

Methods are different ways of language-teaching derived from approach.

Technique: is concerned with implementation; it actually takes place in a classroom. It is a

particular trick, stratagem or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques

must be consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an approach.

As an example, proposals of the Reform Movement were at the level of approach and the Direct

Method is one method derived from this approach and paragraph writing is a technique.

4
 Different theories of language: 1- The Structural View: the view that language is a system of

structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. The target of language learning is seen to be

mastery of elements of this system which are generally defined in terms of phonological units,

grammatical units, grammatical operations and lexical items (Audiolingual Method, Silent way, Total

physical Response). 2- The Functional View: language is a vehicle for the expression of functional

meaning (Communicative movement). This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative

dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language (Wilkin‘s Notional syllabus,

English for Specific Purposes or ESP). 3- The Interactional View: sees language as a vehicle for the

realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between

individuals. Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations

(conversational exchanges). Theory of learning answers two questions related to: 1- Psycholinguistic

processes involved, 2- Conditions to be met.

A) Krashen's Monitor Model: led to the development of a method called Natural Approach.

Krashen distinguishes between acquisition and learning. According to him, learning is available only

as a monitor. The monitor is the repository of conscious grammatical knowledge about a language

that is learned through formal instruction (input).

B) Natural Approach: with respect to learning theory, we are concerned with an account of the

central processes of learning and an account of the conditions believed to promote successful

language learning. These principles may or may not lead to a method. Traditional methods are

product-oriented, whereas more modern ones are process-oriented.

Syllabus: refers to the form in which linguistic content is specified in a course or method. It has

been more closely associated with methods that are product-centered rather than those that are

process-centered. One makes decisions about what to talk about (i.e., subject matter; ESP is subject-

centered) and how to talk about it (i.e., linguistic matter; Situational Approach and ADM are

linguistically focused). In grammar-based courses matters of gradation and sequencing are determined

5
according to difficulty of items. In communicative or functionally-oriented courses (e.g., ESP),

sequencing may be according to the learners‘ communicative needs.

The activity types that a method advocates often serve to distinguish methods (Audio-lingual

Method advocates using dialogue and pattern practice, Communicative Language Teaching advocates

the use of information gap or information transfer, and Silent Way advocates the use of colored rods).

In order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a design for an instructional

system. Design is the level of method analysis. The specification of particular learning objectives is a

product of design (method) not of approach.

Unit Two

The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Larsen-Freeman (Chapter 2)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 2)

The Grammar Translation Method derived from traditional approaches to the teaching of Latin and

Greek in the nineteenth century. It is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first

thought detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge through the

task of translating sentences and text into and out of the target language. Students in this method

develop the ability to read prestigious literary texts. They also learn to read and write in the target

language accurately, which is a necessity. However, this method is a particular analysis of the written

target language, especially its grammar and vocabulary that are learned from bilingual word lists

which can be boring as a main task. In addition, the mother tongue used as the medium of instruction,

would not work for any form of listening and speaking teaching. Unfortunately, this method hardly

gives any attention to listening and speaking skills, and the result is usually an inability on the part of

6
the student to use the language for communication. Criticisms toward the GTM have led to the

development of the Direct Method.

The GTM dominated foreign language teaching in the 19th century and in some respects continues

to be influential up to this day. Proponents of this method believe that learning a foreign language is

achieved through the constant and fast translation of sentences from the target language into the

learner‘s first language and vice versa. Correct translations of written texts require (a) knowledge of a

vast amount of vocabulary, and (b) knowledge of rules of grammar which allow learners to analyze

and understand the construction of target language sentences, thus preventing their misinterpretation.

Word by word translations were popular because by them students could demonstrate that they

understood the grammatical construction underlying a specific sentence.

It is typical of this approach, therefore, to place emphasis on the rote memory learning of long lists

of bilingual ‗vocabulary equations‘, and on the learning of explicit rules of grammar, frequently in

form of tables for the declension and conjugation of nouns and verbs. In the eyes of proponents of the

GTM, vocabulary learning required diligence and the analysis of the grammatical construction of

sentences required intelligence. Learners who failed to do translations correctly where therefore

blamed for being either not intelligent or lazy or both. In any case, errors were to not be tolerated.

And because many people feel, up to this day, that learning a foreign language means learning to

translate sentences from the mother tongue into the target language and vice versa.

The GTM has its historical origins in the teaching of Latin, which was the dominant language in

universities, the public services and intellectual life in general from medieval times up to the 19th

century. Knowledge of Latin was needed for the study of the bible and for academic purposes like the

study of medical books and legal documents. In Latin studies the focus was, therefore, on the study of

written texts. Knowledge of Latin distinguished ‗educated people‘ from ordinary folks. Speaking

Latin played a subordinate role because it was a ‗dead language‘ and because there were no authentic

living people who could serve as a model for its phonetically correct pronunciation. Studying a

foreign language was considered something like an intellectual exercise, and the analysis of

7
complicated grammatical constructions and the translation of rows of isolated sentences in both

directions was the test by which students could be shamed or show their superior cognitive abilities.

Failure to produce correct answers was considered a sign of indolence or inferior intellectual qualities

and might provoke physical punishment.

Advantages:

1. The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is the easiest way of

explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language into another. Any other method of

explaining vocabulary items in the second language is found time consuming. 2. Teacher‘s labor is

saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask

comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have much difficulty

in responding to questions on the mother tongue. So, the teacher can easily assess whether the

students have learnt what he has taught them. Communication between the teacher and the learners

does not cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can teach English

through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this method has been practiced so widely and has

survived so long.

Disadvantages:

1. It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading

and writing. That is the way how the child learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings. But in the

GTM, the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning

process is reversed and this poses problems. 2. Speech is neglected. The GTM lays emphasis on

reading and writing. It neglects speech. Thus, the students who are taught English through this method

fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English. 3. Exact translation is not possible.

Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to another is not always

possible. 4. It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes

its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the GTM does not provide any such practice to

the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules and not by use.

8
 Unit Three

Direct Method (Berlitz Method)

This unit is a summary of:

Larsen-Freeman (Chapter 3)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 1)

W. M. Rivers (Chapter 2)

Students should learn to understand a language by listening to a great deal of it and that they learn

to speak it by speaking it, associating speech with appropriate action. This is the way children learned

their native language. The proponents of Direct Method advocate learning a new language through

direct association of words and phrases with objects and actions without the use of the native

language by teacher or student. In Direct Method, speech precedes reading, but even in reading

students are encouraged to forge a direct bond between the printed word and their understanding of it,

without passing through an intermediate stage of translation into the native language. The ultimate

aim is to develop the ability to think in the language, whether one was conversing, reading, or writing.

Target language is the medium of instruction. Pronunciation is emphasized very much, and from the

beginning, students are to acquire an acceptable pronunciation. The teacher never supplies native-

language translations. Grammar is taught implicitly and inductively. The study of grammar is kept at

a functional level. Students are never asked to translate passages into their native tongue. Students'

native tongue is never used. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Oral communication

skills are built up in a carefully graded progressing organized around question and answer exchanges

between teacher and students in small, intensive classes. New teaching points are introduced orally.

Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is

taught by association of ideas. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught. Correct

pronunciation and grammar are emphasized. The main slogans of the Direct Method include: never

9
translate, demonstrate; never explain, act; never make a speech, ask questions; never imitate

mistakes, correct; never speak with single words, use sentences; make students speak much; use your

lesson plan; follow your plan; keep the pace of the students; speak normally, naturally and take it

easy.

Disadvantages: 1. Direct Method distorts the similarities between child language or first language

learning and foreign language learning. 2. It lacks a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory. 3. It

fails to consider the practical realities of classroom. 4. It requires native-speaker teachers who have

native like fluency. 5. It is dependent largely on teacher's skill. 6. It lacks a thorough methodological

basis. 7. It permits no translation while at a time it is a much more efficient technique to use. 8. If care

is not taken by the teacher, students who are plunged too soon into expressing themselves freely in an

unstructured situation can develop a glib but inaccurate fluency and this school pidgin is often

difficult to eradicate later. 9. Insufficient provision is made for systematic practice and practice of

structures in a coherent sequence. As a result; students often lack a clear idea of what they are trying

to do and many make haphazard progress.

Its basic rule is that no translation is allowed. Language is primarily speech. Reading in the target

language should be taught from the beginning of language instruction through practice with speaking.

Culture consists of more than the fine arts. Objects should be used to help students understand the

meaning. Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use it in full sentences rather than

memorizing word lists. The purpose of language learning is communication. Self-correction facilitates

language learning. Students should be encouraged to speak as much as possible. Writing is an

important skill to be developed from the beginning. The syllabus is based on situations or topics, not

usually on linguistic structures. The teacher directs the class activities, but the students‘ role is less

passive. The teacher and the students are like partners. When the teacher introduces the new target

language word or phrase, he demonstrates its meaning through the use of realia, pictures or

pantomime. Students converse with one another and with the teacher. Vocabulary is emphasized over

grammar. Although work on all four skills occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic.

So reading and writing exercises are based upon what the students practice orally first. The teacher

10
tries to get students to self-correct whenever possible (reading aloud, question and answer exercise

getting students to self-correct, conversation practice, fill-in-the blank, dictation, map drawing, and

paragraph writing).

The development of the four language skills is the objective of both cognitive code approach and

the direct method. In direct method, the teacher initiates all class activities. The development of an

imprecise glib is a weakness of Direct Method. It has lost its original appeal despite its great

potentialities because of the scarcity of fluent, energetic teachers. The student-teacher interaction in

Direct Method allows equal roles to the students and teachers. The most widely known of the natural

methods is the Direct Method. If induction-deduction is regarded as a main axis, we have Direct

Method at the inductive end and the GTM at the deductive end. The Direct Method provides an

exciting and interesting way of learning a language through activity. Native-like pronunciation is

produced in the Direct Method.

Unit Four

Audio-lingual Method

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Larsen-Freeman (Chapter 4)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 4)

1950s, 1970s: Behavioristic learning theories conceived of learning as a process of changing behavior

through the use of external reinforcement to train learners to give conditioned responses to selected

stimuli. Language learning is a process of developing appropriate language habits. Behaviorists

rejected the mentalistic (the idea that the mind is the center of learning) interpretations of learning that

had prevailed for so long. Learning was not viewed as a mental process, but as a mechanical one.

11
Conditioning the desired responses depended on providing immediate and appropriate reinforcement.

Students were supposed to respond actively and the teacher's role was to reinforce the correct

response.

The basic principles of programming are 1. Specification of desired behavior. 2. Minimal steps in

learning. 3. Active response to stimuli. 4. Immediate reinforcement. This method advocated the use of

mimicry-memorization and pattern drills to teach language skills. Descriptive linguists believed that

since all languages are different, comparisons are not helpful. They felt that mistakes were due to

interference from the habits of the first language. So, their goal was to develop similar habits in the

new language. Students were to learn grammar by analogy rather than by analysis. They practiced

language patterns. The goal was to have students reach a point at which they could use language

automatically and unconsciously just as native speakers do. This objective was to be achieved by

conditioning students to give automatic, non-thoughtful responses during mimicry-memorization of

dialogs and practice with oral pattern drills. Students were to learn the language skills in the same

order as in the first-language learning: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. A typical audio-

lingual textbook had three sections: a dialog, pattern drills, and application activities. There was little

grammatical explanation. Primary attention was given to structure rather than to vocabulary. There

was a pre-reading period during which the books were withheld form the students. It was felt that

seeing the written word interfered with the development of proper habits of pronunciation. The

teacher served as a model and was the agent to condition correct second-language habits.

Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) was established in 1972. The objective of the army

program was for students to attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages. The

technique Bloomfield and his colleagues used was sometimes known as the "informant method" since

it used a native speaker of the language (the informant) and a linguist who supervised the learning

experience. Students were highly motivated (They spent ten hours a day, six days a week learning a

new language). Fries was a structuralist, so for him grammar or structure was the starting point. The

language was taught by systematic attention to pronunciation and by intensive oral drilling of its basic

12
sentence patterns. Learners require drill, drill and more drill and only enough vocabulary (vocabulary

was limited) to make such drills possible.

American Audio-lingual Method differed from British oral or situational approach in its strong

alliance with American structural linguistics and its applied linguistic applications, particularly

contrastive analysis. Contrastive analysis of the native tongue and target language would allow

potential problems of interference to be predicted and addressed carefully. This oral approach or

aural-oral or structural approach advocated aural training first, then pronunciation training, followed

by speaking, reading and writing. Language was identified with speech, and speech was approached

through structure (The idea was that practice makes perfect). It was the incorporation of the linguistic

principles of the aural-oral approach with state-of-the-art psychological learning theory in the mid-

fifties that led to the method that came to be known as audio-lingual method. This combination of

structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures and behaviorist psychology led

to the audio lingual method. The term was coined by professor Nelson Brooks in 1964. It claimed to

have transformed language teaching from an art to science (as an example: English 900). The theory

of language underlying audio-lingualism was structural linguistics which had emerged as a reaction to

traditional grammar which had linked the study of language to philosophy and to a mentalistic

approach to grammar (grammar was considered a branch of logic). This reaction was prompted by the

movement toward positivism and empiricism. It was assumed that learning a language, entails

mastering the elements or building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these

elements are combined, form phoneme to morpheme to word to phrase to sentence. Language was

viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being

phonemes, morphemes words, structures and sentence types. The term structural referred to these

features: 1. Elements in a language are linearly produced in a rule-governed way 2. Language samples

are describable at any structural level (phonetic, phonemic, morphological) 3. Linguistic levels are

systems within systems.

The primary medium of language is oral. Speech is language and language is what is spoken and

only secondarily what is written. A language is a set of habits. Teachers should teach the language not

13
about the language. A language is what its native speakers say not what somebody thinks they ought

to say. Languages are different. Behaviorism, like structural linguistics, is anti-mentalistic and

empirically based. Thus, human is an organism (stimulus, response, reinforcement). Reinforcement is

a vital element in the learning process, because it increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur

again and eventually become a habit. The learner is an organism, the behavior is verbal one, the

stimulus is what is taught or presented and the response is the learner's reaction to the stimulus and the

reinforcement is the approval of the teacher. Early practice should focus on mastery of phonological

and grammatical structures rather than on mastery of vocabulary. Language is verbal behavior and the

automatic production and comprehension of utterances. Analogy which involves generalization and

discrimination is advocated not analysis.

The objective is language as the native speaker uses it. There must be some knowledge of a second

language as it is possessed by a true bilingual. Audiolingualism is a structured-based approach. So,

the syllabus is a linguistic one which contains the key items of phonology, morphology and syntax of

the language arranged according to their order of presentation. These may have been derived from a

contrastive analysis of the differences between the native tongue and the target language. The learner's

activities must at first be confined to the audio-lingual and gestural-visual modes of language

behavior. The learner concentrates upon gaining accuracy before striving for fluency. Dialogues,

drills, pattern practice form the basis of audiolinguial classroom practices (repetition, inflection,

replacement, restatement, completion, transposition, expansion, contraction, transformations,

integration, rejoinder, restoration). Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli and thus

have little control over the content, pace, or style of learning. Audiolingualism is a teacher-dominated

method. The teacher models, controls the direction and pace, monitors and corrects and establishes a

cultural island. Instructional materials are teacher-oriented. The focus is on immediate and accurate

speech: there is little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language. The

subordination of the mother tongue to the second language is important.

Audio-lingual Method was attacked as being unsound both in terms of language theory and

learning theory by scholars such as Noam Chomsky. He found out that the practical results fell short

14
of expectations and that its procedures were boring and unsatisfying. He believed that language is not

a habit structure, but involves innovation and formation of new sentences. Audio-lingual Method

ignored human's mental properties (innate aspects). It ignored the fact that sentences are not learned

by imitation and repetition but generated from the learner's underlying competence.

Audio-lingual Method, unlike Situational Language Teaching, has strong ties to linguistics and

behavioral psychology. Languages are different, so they should be kept apart to avoid interference.

The teacher acts like a model, and the students mimic him. The purpose of language learning is to

learn how to use the language to communicate. Students must learn which part of speech occupies

which slot (multiple-slot substitution drills). The teacher uses spoken cues and picture cues, because

students should learn to respond to both verbal and nonverbal stimuli. Students should overlearn i.e.

learn to answer automatically without stopping to think. The teacher should be like an orchestra leader

(conducting, guiding, controlling). Vocabulary is limited. The learning of a foreign language should

be the same as the acquisition of the native tongue (it should occur through induction). Students

should overcome the habits of their native tongue (Therefore Contrastive Analysis is helpful).

Language is not separated from culture. New vocabulary and structures are presented through

dialogues. Drills (repetition, backward build-up, chain, substitution, transformation and question and

answer) are conducted based on the patterns present in the dialogue. Students' reading and writing is

based on the oral work they did earlier. Most of the interaction is between the teacher and students

and is teacher-initiated. Audio-lingual Method has been influenced by descriptive linguistics. Students

work on minimal pairs. Discrete point testing is given. Audio-lingual Method makes considerable

demands upon the teachers. Authenticity is not the goal of Audio-lingual Method, but fluency, and

automaticity are.

Five slogans of the day were: 1. Language is speech, not writing. 2. A language is a set of habits. 3.

Teach the language and not about the language. 4. A language is what its native speakers say not what

someone thinks they ought to say. 5. Languages are different.

15
 Based on the investigation of American Indian languages, structuralists concluded that language

primarily is speech. Structuralism affected teaching of sounds in that it led to the teaching of

phonemic distinctions in the sound system of language rather than phonetic differences. Verbal

learning includes habitually performed acts. The audiolingualism of 1950 to 1965 reflected the

structural or taxonomic view of language first formulated by Bloomfield.

Where oral communication is a major objective, working individually with programmed materials

is insufficient. Structuralists viewed language as a collection of discrete items to be put together

through classification and arrangement. The extremist followers of the behavioristic psychology

believe that the mind of a newly born baby is like a tabula rasa upon which environment influences.

The use of minimal pairs is a distinctive feature of the audiolingual method. Evaluation is

accomplished by means of discrete-point tests. In Audio-lingual Method, there is a tendency to

manipulate the form of language at the expense of meaning. The main drawback of this method is its

failure to develop long-term communicative proficiency.

Based on operant conditioning which is a mechanistic approach, the learner, be it human or animal,

responds to a stimulus. The response must be active. The connection between the stimulus and the

response is conditioned by reinforcement. In the whole process the steps taken are extremely small in

order to promote a satisfactory response. Language is no different from any other learning. Language

learning is over learning: anything less is of no use. Language concerns not problem solving but the

formation and performance of habits. The acquisition of non-thoughtful responses is the very core of

successful language learning. Brooks advocated a coordinate bilingualism, not a compound one.

Native language is banned from the class and a cultural island is maintained. Language occurs in

context not in isolated segments.

The methodology of the Army method like the DM derived from the intensity of contact with the

target language rather than from any well-developed methodological basis. Fries and others rejected

approaches like Direct Method in which learners are exposed to the languages, use it, and gradually

absorb its grammatical patterns. Fries believed that problems of learning a foreign language are the

16
result of the conflict of different structural systems. If there was any learning theory underlying the

Audio-lingual or Aural-Oral materials, it was a commonsense application of the idea that practice

makes perfect. The reaction against traditional grammar was promoted by the movement toward

positivism and empiricism, which Darwin's origin of the species had helped promote (Darwin

believed that there may be a continuity between the human mind and animal mind).

By memorizing dialogs and performing pattern drills the chances of producing mistakes are

minimized. Skinner believed that we have no reason to assume that verbal behavior differs in any

fundamental respect from non-verbal behavior, or that any new principles must be invoked to account

for it. In accordance with behaviorist learning theory, teaching focuses on the external manifestations

of learning rather on the internal processes.

The fact that in the early stages learners do not always understand the meaning of what they are

repeating is not perceived as a drawback. The method itself is never to blame when there is a failure,

because it results from the improper application of the method. The teacher teaches the use of

structure through pattern practice. And he teaches spoken language in dialogue form. Instructional

materials are primarily teacher-oriented. Since audio-lingulism is primarily an oral approach, it

involves extensive oral instruction. As much as possible, the target language is used as the medium of

instruction, and translation or use of the native tongue is discouraged. Classes of ten or less are

considered optimal. Certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basis for

pattern drills of different kinds. The dialogue is memorized gradually line by line. Correction of

mistakes of pronunciation or grammar is direct and immediate.

Principles: 1. Aural-oral Method aimed at initially developing listening and speaking first as the

ground for reading and writing to be built on. 2. Audio-lingual Approach is the same as the Aural-oral

Approach. 3. Since language is considered as speech, oral training is before teaching reading and

writing. 4. Sounds should precede the graph representations of the sounds. 5. The procedure is based

on the natural order of acquiring the mother tongue. 6. The objective is speech. 7. Language is a set of

patterns and language learning is learning a set of habits. 8. Structural linguists reject the idea of the

17
universality of language, and state that languages are different. 9. Pronunciation is correct and native-

like, since the teacher is native or native-like, there is an emphasis on the mastery of the correct

sounds. Audio-lingual Method produces students who can speak with almost perfect pronunciation

through imitation, repetition and drilling. 10. Audio-lingual Method advocates the teaching of the four

skills in the natural order, the oral skills before the written skills. 11. Audio-lingual Method lessons

normally begin with a dialogue. 12. Dialogues are taught by a process of mimicry memorization and

choral repetition. 13. Tabula rasa means that the mind is blank. It refers to the passive role of human

mind. 14. Grammar is taught inductively through pattern practice and mim-mem. 15. No rules or

explanations are provided. 16. Rote-teaching, unconscious and mechanical processes without

understanding. 17. Contemporary colloquial cliches of conversation are taught. Because the language

taught is what the native speakers say and not what they should say. 18. Translation drills are used to

convert short sentences from second language to first language. 19. Languages are different. So the

problems of the learners come from the fact that the two languages contrast with each other. 20.

Reading and writing play a supportive role in the initial stages. 21. Vocabulary is kept to the

minimum and at the service of patterns of the language. 22. Problem solving which requires discovery

learning has no place in Audio-lingual Method. 23. In the beginning writing classes, variations of

structural pattern drills are written. Because in the initial stage, writing is purely imitative and a mere

copy of what they have learned orally. 24. There is no place for errors. 25. Audio-lingual Method is

more appropriate for children who have to mimic and act out roles and be active in the class. 26. The

teacher should be energetic. Because the method is very demanding for the teacher. 27. The cultural

background of the target language is stressed.

Disadvantages: 1. Native teachers are rare. 2. Vocabulary is limited. 3. Classes are boring. 4.

Language learning is not habit formation. 5. The lack of real language practice in all four skills and

the lack of variety of activity. 6. Excessive dependence on drills.

The typical audio-lingual textbook consists of chapters or units divided into three principal

sections: a dialog, pattern practice exercises, and some type of application activity. Primary attention

is given to structure rather than to vocabulary in order to spend more time in the development of

18
automatic responses to oral or written structure. The typical text is arranged in a poly-structural

format, i.e. several utterances are introduced in the dialog as they would occur in a normal

conversational situation. The class progresses through the book by memorizing the dialogs, practicing

the pattern drills until the students can give automatic responses to the stimuli, and then using the

learned vocabulary and structure. The teacher has the students memorize the dialog, do the drills, and

then practice. Audio-lingual Method places a heavy emphasis on the early and continued training of

the ear. Resorting to the mother tongue is not necessary except for the occasional need to clarify

meaning by means of the native language when all visual aids, gestures, and explanation in the second

language fail. Pattern drills do not attempt to simulate communication. Their purpose is to enable the

students to overlearn the structure involved to the point of automatic, non-thoughtful response. The

rules of the language are learned through practice. Grammatical explanations are to be descriptive.

The students are to learn correct forms from the beginning. The three and four-phase drills are the two

most commonly used: 1. Repetition drills. 2. Substitution drills. 3. Transformation drill. 4. Translation

drill. The teacher should be like an orchestra leader inducting guiding and controlling. Students are

imitators of the teacher's model. Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogs. Most of the

interaction is between teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher.

19
 Unit Five

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Larsen-Freeman (Chapter 9)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 5)

CLT is better categorized as an emphasis or an aim rather than as an approach. Communicative

competence is the aim of the course. It is difficult to focus on learned rules of grammar when one has

a message to get across. Sauvignon describes communication not as a certain quantity of grammatical

knowledge but as a continuous process of expression, interpretation and negotiation. Language is

acquired most effectively when it is used as a vehicle for doing something else (i.e., when it is used in

an indirect or implicit way). Sauvignon recommends that second language teachers begin with

meaning rather than structure and teach coping strategies to get the message across. Students should

participate in extended discourse in a real context. They should share information that the others do

not know, should have choices about what they are going to say and how they are going to say it,

should communicate with a definite purpose in mind, and finally should talk about real topics in real

situations. Teachers may choose to develop CLT course from one of three different bases: a

grammatical base, a functional / notional syllabus, or the natural approach. CLT is a communicative

orientation that stresses affective, cognitive, and social factors and its activities are inner-directed and

student-centered.

By the end of the sixties it was clear that the situational approach had run its course. Linguists such

as Chomsky noted that current teaching theories were incapable of accounting for the creativity and

uniqueness of individual sentences. Also, the functional and communicative potential of language

were emphasized. They saw the need to focus on communicative proficiency rather than on mere

20
mastery of structures. Advocators of CLT drew on the work of British functional linguists, American

work in sociolinguistics and on works in philosophy.

Unit-credit system: learning tasks are broken down into portions or units each of which correspond to

a component of a learner's needs and are systematically related to all the other portions. Wilkin's

contribution was an analysis of the communicative meanings: 1. Notional categories (time, location)

2. Functional categories (requests). The threshold level refers to the minimal level of language

proficiency which is needed to achieve functional ability in a foreign language. CLT pays systematic

attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language. The focus of CLT syllabus is on

communicative functions which the forms of the language serve. What is essential is that two parties

are involved in an interaction and transaction of some kind where one party has an intention and the

other party expands or reacts to the intention. The weak version of CLT entails learning to use English

(opportunities to use English) and the strong version entails using English to learn it.

Central Features of CLT: 1. Meaning is paramount. 2. Contextualization is a basic premise. 3.

Language learning is learning to communicate. 4. Effective communication and comprehensible

pronunciation are sought. 5. Any device which helps the learners is accepted (including translation).

6. Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very beginning. 7. The target linguistic system

will be learned best through the process of struggling to communicate. 8. Language is created through

trial and error. 9. Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal. 10. Learning by doing and

learning by experience are advocated. 11. CLT is experience based and learner-centered; experience is

the best of all schools.

For Chomsky, the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the abstract abilities speakers

possess that enable them to produce grammatically correct sentences in a language. But Hymes

believes that the speaker should be communicatively competent in a speech community. According to

Halliday, language has seven functions: 1. Instrumental (I want to; for getting things). 2. Regulatory

(do as I tell you; for controlling). 3. Interactional (me and you; for interacting). 4. Personal (here I

come; for expressing feeling) 5. Heuristic (tell me why; for exploring the world and learning). 6.

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Imaginative (for creating a world of imagination). 7. Informative or representational (for

communication of information). Proponents of CLT stated that learning a second language is

acquiring the linguistic means to perform different kinds of functions.

According to Canale and Swain there are four dimensions in communicative competence: 1.

Grammatical Competence. 2. Sociolinguistic Competence (social context: role relationships,

communicative purpose). 3. Discourse Competence (message elements in terms of their

interconnectedness). 4. Strategic Competence (initiation of meaning etc.). Thus, language is a system

for the expression of meaning. The primary function of language is for interaction and

communication. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses. The

primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features but categories of

functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

CLT’s theory of learning: 1. Communicative principle: activities that involve real communication

promote learning. 2. Task principle: activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful

tests promote learning. 3. Meaningfulness principle: supports the learning process. These principles

address the conditions needed to promote second language learning rather than the process of

language acquisition. Krashen's theories, although not directly related to CLT, are compatible with the

principles of CLT in that the learned system is believed to serve only as a monitor of the output of the

acquired system. A skill-learning model involves both a cognitive and a behaviorist aspect. The

syllabus is Wilkin's Notional Syllabus (semantic, grammatical, and functional categories)

The council of Europe developed a syllabus that included: situations, topics, functions, notions as

well as grammar and vocabulary. According to Widdowson, Wilkin's Notional Syllabus just specified

products rather than communicative processes. Widdowson stated that it is discourse which must be

at the centre of our attention. Thus, the only form of syllabus which is compatible with and can

support communicational teaching seems to be a purely procedural one which lists the types of tasks

to be attempted. A product is defined as a piece of comprehensible information, written, spoken or

presented in a nonlinguistic form (letter, report, and message). Products result from successful

22
completion of tasks. The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative

approach is unlimited (out-of-focus slides, incomplete diagrams, jigsaw listening; most of these

techniques operate by providing information to some and with holding it from others). Littlewood

distinguishes between functional communication activities and social interaction activities as major

activity types in CLT. The emphasis in CLT, which is on the processes rather than on forms, leads to

different roles for learners from those found in more traditional second language classes. The learner

is a negotiator and should contribute as much as he gains. Therefore, failed or successful

communication is a joint responsibility. Learners learn the language cooperatively. Often there is no

text, grammar rules are not presented, and the correction of errors may be absent or infrequent. The

teacher facilitates the communication process. He may also act as an independent participant. His

roles include a guide, an organizer, a needs analyst, a counselor, and a group process manager. The

role of counselor in CLT is similar to that of community language learning. Materials in CLT have the

primary role of promoting communicative language use (text-based, task-based, realia). Authentic,

from-life materials are advocated. Teaching points are introduced in dialogue form.

CLT is best considered an approach rather than a method. CLT appealed to those who sought a

more humanistic approach to teaching, one in which the interactive processes of communication

received the greatest attention. The idea is that preparation for communication will be inadequate if

only the language rules are taught. Students may know the rules of language usage, but will be unable

to use the language. When we communicate we use the language to accomplish some function such as

arguing, persuading or promising. Moreover, we carry out these functions within a social context.

Since, communication is a process, it is insufficient for students to simply have knowledge of target

language forms.

Whenever possible authentic language should be introduced (e.g., a handout that has a copy of a

sports column from a recent newspaper). Being able to figure out the speaker's or writer's intention is

part of being communicatively competent (predictions). The target language is a vehicle for classroom

communication not just the object of study. One function can have many linguistic forms. Students

should work with language at the discourse or supra-sentential level. They should learn about

23
cohesion and coherence. They should be given on opportunity to express their ideas and opinions.

Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills.

Student's success is determined as much by their fluency as it is by their accuracy. Teacher's

responsibility is to establish situations likely to promote communication. The social content of the

communicative event is essential in giving meaning to the utterance (role play: boss, employees).

Teacher acts like an advisor. In communication, a speaker has a choice not only about what to say but

also how to say it. Communicative competence involves being able to use the language appropriate to

a given social content. Learners must be able to manage the process of negotiating meaning with their

interlocutors. The teacher acts as a communicator, manager of the class activities, advisor, facilitator,

and a monitor. Students are above all communicators. They learn to communicate by communicating.

Activities that are truly communicative according to Morrow have three features: 1. Information gap

(one knows something that the other does not). 2. Choice (what and how to say something). 3. Feed

back (language is purposeful; one can evaluate whether his purpose has been achieved or not based on

the feedback he receives). It is considered desirable to give students an opportunity to develop

strategies for understanding language as it is actually used by native speakers. Students will be more

motivated to study a foreign language if they feel they are learning something useful. Also, when they

express their feelings, they can integrate the foreign language with their own personality and to feel

more secure. Language functions are emphasized over form. Students work on all four skills from the

start. Their native language has no particular role in the CLT. The materials used are authentic and

include scrambled sentences, language games, picture strip story, and role play. Problem-solving tasks

work well in CLT because they include the three features of communication. Social formulas and

dialogues are part of communicative interaction activities. Hymes‘ name is associated with

communicative competence.

Communicative competence complements to Chomsky's concept of linguistic competence. In

communication, it is important that the listener should be able to recreate meaning. The statement

"communication as a conversion process" refers to the fact that thoughts are changed to language. The

order in which grammar rules are learned seems to be more closely related to communicative needs.

24
The ability not only to apply grammatical rules of language in order to form grammatically correct

sentences but also to know where and when to use these sentences is called communicative

competence. According to Hymes', communicative competence includes linguistic competence as

well as a knowledge of when, how and to whom the language is appropriate.

Unit Six

Suggestopedia

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Larsen-Freeman (Chapter 6)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 10)

Its basic tenets are related to the field of parapsychology and also derived from several disciplines

including yoga, classical music, and autogenic therapy about which many teachers have little

knowledge. Lozanov believes that the individual's memory capacity and learning speed are limited by

the restraints society and the individual place upon his or her potential. His goal is to free individuals

from the confines of those limits by desuggesting ingrained and subconscious social norms. He

defines the term suggetology as the science for liberating the personality's capacities and

suggestopedia as an educational and curative desuggestive-suggestive pedagogical system. He

recommends that both the left and the right hemispheres of the brain be activated for maximum

learning efficiency and potential. Leaning should involve both analysis and synthesis. Everyone has

unmanifested but genetically predetermined capacities operating mainly in the para-conscious and

surpassing the normal ones several times over. Two socio-psychological factors limit students'

learning potential. The first negative factor is the students' fear of learning. The second factor has to

do with the limits society places upon students who do not learn more or faster. Two means of

breaking through the restraints of societal suggestion: the first is through infantilization; helping

25
students recapture the ability to concentrate, perceive, and learn the way they did as children. The

second is by means of pseudo-passivity which involves a relaxed physical state of heightened mental

activity, a state of concentrative psycho-relaxation. Teachers do not favor the use of mechanical drills,

rigid exercises, or the language lab. Like other alternative approaches, Suggestopedia emphasizes both

affective and cognitive influences on developing second-language skills. Its distinctive cognitive

feature is a super-cognitive approach to activate students' subconscious as well as conscious processes

in their learning activities. The distinctive affective feature is that Suggestopedia seeks to remove the

limiting social suggestions that students bring with them to the learning situation. Suggestology is a

science concerned with the systematic study of the non-rational and non-conscious influences that

human beings are constantly responding to. Suggestopedia tries to harness these influences and

redirect them so as to optimize learning. Lozanov promises success through Suggestopedia to the

academically gifted and ungifted alike. He stresses learning environment. He believes that most

learning takes place in a relaxed but focused state. Music is central. Decoration and furniture are

important. He uses music to assist in the liberation from discrete micro-psycho-traumata, for

destruction of incompatible ideas about the limits of human capabilities. He uses music to facilitate

the establishment and maintenance of personal relations, to bring about increased self-esteem.

Through increased self-satisfaction in musical performance, teachers can energize and bring order and

relax learners.

The emphasis is on memorization of vocabulary pairs (a target language item and its translation).

But Lozanov does occasionally refer to the importance of experiencing language material in whole

meaningful texts. Suggestion is at the heart of Suggestopedia and involves loading the memory banks

(reserves) with desired memories. Desuggestion involves unloading the memory banks of unwanted

or blocking memories. What distinguishes this method form hypnosis and other forms of mind control

is that these other forms lack a desuggestive-suggestive sense and fail to create a constant set-up to

reserves through concentrative psycho-relaxation. People remember best and are most influenced by

information coming from an authoritative source. Self-confidence, personal distance, acting ability,

and a highly positive attitude give an authoritative air to the teacher. Learners learn not only from the

26
effect of direct instruction but from the environment. Intonation, rhythm and concert pseudo-

passiveness help students. The musical background helps to induce a relaxed attitude or concert

pseudo-passiveness. This state is optimal for learning in that anxieties and tensions are relieved and

power of concentration for new material is raised. Music in super-learning (or Suggestopedia) is

important. When the body is relaxed, the mind becomes alert. Musical rhythms affect body rhythms

(heart beat) and with a slow heart beat, mind efficiency takes a great leap forward. Suggestopedia

aims to deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly. Lozanov emphasizes that increased

memory power is not an isolated skill but as a result of positive, comprehensive stimulation of

personality. The main aim of teaching is not memorization but the understanding and creative solution

of problems. However, memorization of vocabulary pairs is important. Dialogues are graded by lexis

and grammar. On the first day, a test is given to check the level of student knowledge, and students

are given new names. Students, acting a role play, are expected to speak extempore rather than from

memorized lines. The mental state of the learners is critical to success. Students must maintain a

pseudo-passive state, and encourage their own infantilization to help them regain the self-confidence,

spontaneity, and receptivity of the child. The textbook should have emotional force, literary quality

and interesting characters.

Traumatic themes and distasteful lexical material should be avoided. The class has three distinct

parts: 1. Oral review section (previously learned material is used as the basis for discussion). This

section may involve micro-students and macro-studies. 2. New material is presented and discussed. 3.

Concert section (is the one by which Suggestopedia is best know). The students do not do any

homework, except for reading the lesson once before sleeping, and once after it. Lozanov believes, as

does Silent Way's Gattegno, that language learning can occur at a much faster rate than what

ordinarily transpires. The reason for our inefficiency is that we set up psychological barriers to

learning. Students should eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful, and thus help them

overcome the barriers of learning.

Learning is facilitated in a relaxed, comfortable environment (cushioned armchairs, lighting is dim,

music). A student can learn from what is present in the environment, even if his attention is not

27
directed to it (Peripheral learning). Activating learners' imagination will aid learning. The more

confident the students feel, the better they will learn. The teacher should present and explain the

grammar and vocabulary but not dwell on them. Communication takes place on two planes; on the

conscious plane, the learner attends to the language; on the subconscious plane, the music suggests

that learning is easy and pleasant. When there is a unity between conscious and subconscious planes,

learning is enhanced. A pseudo-passive state is ideal for breaking psychological barriers. Fantasy and

dramatization reduce barriers to learning. Learning can be fun. Errors are to be to be tolerated. The

emphasis is on content not form. If students feel secure, they can be more spontaneous and less

inhabited. They should trust and respect the teacher. If students are relaxed and confident, they will

not need to try hard to learn the language. It will just come naturally and easily. Language is viewed

as the first of two planes in the two-plane process of communication. Vocabulary is emphasized.

Grammar is taught explicitly and deductively but minimally. Native language translation is used to

make the meaning of the dialog clear. There is no formal test. Visualization, role-play, concert,

choosing a new identity, positive suggestion. peripheral learning, and activation are emphasized. The

emphasis is on linguistic content and on vocabulary items. Learners play an active role and have a

relatively high degree of control over language production. Fine arts enable suggestions to reach

subconscious. Suggestopedia relies heavily and mainly on psychology rather than a theory of

language. A chief criticism of Suggestopedia students is that their speech is somewhat grammatically

and phonologically inaccurate. A most conspicuous feature of this method is the centrality of music

and musical rhythm to learning. The use of mother tongue is permitted. Suggestopedia and

Community Language Learning share the belief that the students' native language should be used to

clarify meaning. Grammar is taught deductively and explicitly. Lexical translation rather than

contextualization is stressed. Suggestopedia emphasizes both cognitive and affective influences.

Students are given new names because they should have a feeling of security. One of the learning

principles behind it is that efficient use can be made of music to eradicate limits of human learning.

Suggestopedia stresses an optimal learning environment. It draws its notions from the soviet

psychology which claims that all students can be taught a given subject matter at the same level. The

28
most important feature of Suggestopedia is the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning.

Music has a therapeutical effect. It facilitates and expedites learning. It provides a relaxing and stress-

free environment and affects the alpha of the brain and stimulates learning. There is an emphasis on

memorization of vocabulary pairs. However, this is for the sake of communication. Lexical translation

rather than contextualization is emphasized. Double planed ness means that they learn both directly

form the instruction and indirectly from the environment. The teacher, the atmosphere and the

decoration would indirectly affect learning. Lozanov makes a claim that Suggestopedia tries to prove

that attentiveness is manipulated to optimize learning and recall. Optimal learning takes place in a

relaxed and focused state of mind. The leaner is most attentive in the awar-alert state of mind.

Suggestopedia learning is built on the baroque music by Bach with its sixty beats. Research has

shown that if the baroque music is replaced by the music of Wagner, the learning result will

drastically change. Its main objective is to establish advanced conversational proficiency. This aim is

claimed to be achieved through the students' mastery of long lists of vocabulary pairs. Its central focus

is on a dialogue. The dialogue consists of 1200 words with a vocabulary list and grammatical

explanations. Dialogues are arranged according to their lexical and grammatical items. There is no

sector of life where Suggestology would not be useful. Voice quality, intonation, and timing in

reading dialogues are important. Soviet psychology stresses the learning environment, rhythmic

breathing, optimal learning environment, and optimal mind states. Lozanov states that suggestopedic

course directs the students not to vocabulary memorization and acquiring habits of speech, but to acts

of communication. Students study the recording of whole meaningful texts for the sake of the music

of the foreign speech. Authority is also used to suggest a teacher-student relation like that of parent to

child (infantilization). Memorization of vocabulary pairs continues to be seen as an important goal of

the suggestopedic method.

Three stages of the class time: 1. Pre-session phase (listening activities concerning the text and

discussion between the teacher and students about it). 2. Teacher reads the text, students relax. 3. The

material is acted out by the teacher in a dramatic manner with a music background while the students

lean back in chairs and breathe deeply. Students must be committed to the class (for example; no

29
smoking). Each unit should be governed by a single idea featuring a variety of sub themes, the way it

is in life. Lozanov believes that students won't need to try to learn; it will just come naturally. If the

students trust and respect the teacher's authority, they will accept and retain information better. Their

attention is off the form and on communication. Dramatization and fantasy reduce barriers to learning.

Novelty aids acquisition.

Unit Seven

Total Physical Response (TPR)

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Larsen-Freeman (Chapter 8)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 10)

Noticing that children pass through a silent period before they begin to speak, and that 50 percent

of adults' utterances to children are commands, Asher (1984) hypothesized that children can

determine meaning by comprehending cause-and-effect relationships, by seeing the changes that take

place in their physical environment as a result of language use, and by understanding the relationship

between the language used and the context of the situation. Asher's approach is called TPR because

during the class students act out commands. He believes that most students can rapidly internalize the

linguistic code (the structure and vocabulary) when language is synchronized with actual movements

of the student's body. He has objections to methods that require students to speak perfectly from the

beginning of instruction, because he believes these methods cause students to feel a high level of

stress. Asher mentions the strengths of TPR: 1. Students acquire a second language at an accelerated

rate. 2. They remember what they have learned for a long time and 3. They do not find second

language learning stressful. TPR is similar to a comprehension approach in that it favors a silent

period at the beginning of second language learning. Both have a cognitive orientation because they

30
stress internalization of linguistic data before asking students to generate utterances and because they

stress meaningful learning. Both recommend that students not be required to talk before they are

ready to talk and both stress that students should comprehend everything that they hear. TPR differs

from the comprehension approach in some ways: TPR's major objective is to eliminate stress.

Techniques in TPR are different (commands). Physical actions may promote long-term retention

through psychomotor memory and students acquiring a second language by acting out commands may

engage the right hemisphere of the brain while they tend to use the left hemisphere in traditional

approaches. TPR is built around the coordination of speech and action. It attempts to teach language

through physical (motor) activity. TPR is linked to the trace theory of memory in psychology which

holds that the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the

memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. Combined tracing activities such as

verbal rehearsal accomplished by motor activity increase the probability of successful recall. TPR is

also linked to the school of humanistic psychology in that it emphasizes the reduction of stress. Also,

as it was mentioned, it is linked to comprehension approach which believes: a) Comprehension

abilities precede productive skills in learning a language b) The teaching of speaking should be

delayed until comprehension skills are established c) Skills acquired through listening transfer to other

skills d) Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form e) Teaching should minimize learner

stress. The theory of language underlying TPR seems to be structuralist or grammar-based. Most of

the grammatical structure of target language and hundreds of vocabulary items can be learned from

the use of imperative by the instructor. Imperative verb has the central role. Asher believes that

learners can acquire a detailed cognitive map as well as the grammatical structure of a language

without recourse to abstractions. Abstractions should be delayed until students have internalized a

detailed cognitive map of the target language. Language can be internalized as chunks. Grammatical

structures and vocabulary are emphasized over other language areas. Feeling of success and low

anxiety facilitate learning. Asher sees a stimulus-response view as providing the learning theory

underlying language teaching pedagogy.

31
 The Bio-Program: There is a specific innate bio-program for language learning, which defines an

optimal path for first and second language development. TPR is a natural method inasmuch as Asher

sees first and second language learning as parallel naturalistic processes. He sees three processes as

central: a) Children develop listening competence before they develop the ability to speak (during the

period of listening, children make a mental blueprint). b) Children's ability in listening comprehension

is acquired because they are required to respond physically to spoken language in the form of parental

commands. c) Once a foundation in listening comprehension has been established, speech evolves

naturally and effortlessly out of it. Asher states that the brain and nervous system are biologically

programmed to acquire language in a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is

listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronize language with the individual's body.

Brain-Lateralization: Asher sees TPR as directed to right-brain learning. He holds that a child

acquires language through motor movement (a right-hemisphere activity). Right-hemisphere activities

must occur before the left-hemisphere can process language for production. When a sufficient amount

of right-hemisphere-learning has taken place, the left-hemisphere will be triggered to produce

language and to initiate other more abstract language processes.

Reduction of Stress: An important condition for successful language learning is the absence of

stress. First language acquisition takes place is a stress-free environment. The general objectives of

TPR are to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level (basis speaking skills). Comprehension is a

means to an end.

A TPR course aims to produce learners who are capable of an uninhibited communication that is

intelligible to the native speaker. The TPR syllabus is sentence-based (verb in imperative as a core).

TPR requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the form of item. So grammar is taught

inductively. The criterion for including a vocabulary item or grammatical feature at a particular point

in training is ease of assimilation by students and also the situations in which they can be used. If an

item is not learned rapidly, this means that the students are not ready for that item. The movements of

the body seem to be a powerful mediator for understanding, organization and storage of macrodetails

32
of linguistic input. Imperative drills are the major classroom activity in TPR (to elicit physical

actions). Conversational dialogues are delayed because they are highly abstract. Learners have little

influence over the content of learning but they are required to produce novel combinations on their

own. The instructor is the director of a stage play in which the students are the actors. Classroom

interaction and turn taking is teacher-directed and teacher-initiated. The teacher provides

opportunities for learning and also the raw material for the cognitive map. The teacher begins with a

wide tolerance for errors, but as training progresses, the tolerance narrows.

There is generally no basic text in a TPR course. Materials and realia play an increasing role. The

proponents of Communicative Language Teaching would question the relevance to real-world learner

needs of the TPR syllabus. Asher says that TPR should be used in association with other methods.

The TPR mainly focuses on developing listening comprehension. Asher believes that the aural-

discrimination method might well contribute to the refinement needed in TPR. Memory is activated

through learner response. The imperative is a powerful linguistic device through which the teacher

can direct student behavior. It is important that students feel successful. Feeling of success and low

anxiety facilitate learning. Students should not be made to memorize fixed routines. Correction should

be carried out on an unobtrusive manner. Novelty is motivating (flexibility in understanding).

Language learning is more effective when it is fun. Students are expected to make errors when they

first begin speaking and teachers should be tolerant of them. Students should enjoy their experience in

learning to communicate in a foreign language. The use of zany commands and humorous skills are

two ways of showing that language learning can be fun. Initially, the teacher is the director of all

students‘ behavior. Later, the students become more verbal and the teacher responds nonverbally. The

oral modality is primary. Grammatical structures and vocabulary are emphasized over other language

areas. TPR seems to be specially effective at the beginning levels of language. After the introduction,

rarely would the mother tongue be used. Meaning is made clear through body movements. As

students get more advanced, teachers can fine tune (i.e., correct more minor errors). Students in a role

reversal, command their teacher and classmates to perform some actions.

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 TPR is based in the cognitive psychology and linked to the trace theory. The humanistic

psychology is a parameter of TPR. Its main objective is coral proficiency through comprehension

(i.e., comprehension is central). The ordering of TPR classroom drills are built on the assumption of

the structural linguistics. Bio-programming refers to the naturalistic processes of first and second

language acquisition. That is to say, listening comprehension occurs before speaking. The TPR

syllabus pays attention to meaning rather than form. It does operate on a grammar-based or structural

view of the language.

Unit Eight

Community Language Learning

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Larsen-Freeman (Chapter 7)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 8)

Curran believed that anxiety, hostility and conflict play major roles in learning situations, especially

group or social learning situations. His concern was with finding ways and means of eliminating

these negative feelings and of removing the threat that group relationships create for individuals in

the group. The two major goals of CLL approach are to develop a whole person learning process and

a trusting relationship. The basic format for the class is to have the students sit in a circle or around a

table, with the teacher on the outside. The teacher waits to help the students with the language they

need to communicate with others in the class. Teachers place primary emphasis on affect and

cognition. The focus of the activities is centered on meaning and the exchange of meaning. CLL is

inner-directed meaning-oriented, and student-centered. It is also nonlinear, which means that

language elements are not separated and taught one at a time in a linear sequence as is common in

grammar-based courses. CLL is sometimes cited as an example of a humanistic approach. It is derived

34
from Rogerian counseling learning which consists of one individual (the counselor or knower)

assuming the internal forms of reference (of the client or learner), perceiving the world as that person

sees it and communicating something of this empathetic understanding. Counseling is one person

giving advice assistance and support to another who has a problem or is in need. In CLL, a learner

presents a message in L1 to the knower. The massage is translated into L2 by the knower. The learner

then repeats the message in L2, addressing it to another learner with whom he wishes to communicate

(this is the process adopted in bilingual education programs which are called by Mackey the language

alternation). The result is that every member can understand what others communicate. Humanistic

techniques engage the whole person including the emotions and feelings (affective realm) as well as

linguistic knowledge and behavioral skills. Self-actualization and self-esteem are promoted not self-

denial). La Forge (Curran's student) suggests that language as social process is different from

language as communication. He rejects this classic sender-message-receiver model in information-

transmitting models because communication, he says, is more than just a message being transmitted

from a speaker to a listener. Communication is not unilateral. La Forge believes that language is

people; language is persons in contact, language is persons in response. CLL interactions are between

learners (equals=symmetrical) and between learners and knowers (un equals=asymmetrical). Intimacy

in CLL is defined as the desire to avoid isolation.

Stages of interactions: 1. Dependent birth stage 2. Self-assertive 3. Resentful and indignant 4.

Tolerant of criticism 5. Independent. They change in degree from learner to learner (in the direction of

increasing intimacy) and in kind from learner to knower (dependent to independent). The student

gradually grows in ability and the nature of the relationship changes so that the teacher's position

becomes somewhat dependent upon the learner.

Curran's CLL is contrasted with two other types of learning: 1. Putative: the intellectual and factual

processes alone are regarded as the main intent of learning to the neglect of engagement and

involvement of the self. 2. Behavioral (Curran refers to this as animal learning in which learners are

passive and their involvement limited). CLL advocates a holistic approach (whole person learning).

Such learning takes place in a communicative situation where teachers and learners are involved in an

35
interaction in which both experience a sense of their own wholeness. Finally, the learner knows

everything the teacher dose and can become a knower for a new learner. The process of language

learning is like being reborn and developing a new personality. Learning is viewed as a unified,

personal and social experience. The learner is no longer seen as learning in isolation and in

competition with others. Convalidation or consensual validation is a key element of CLL classroom

procedures. In convalidation, mutual warmth, understanding and a positive evaluation of the other

person's worth develops between the teacher and the learner.

SARD: S: security, A: attention and aggression [seeking opportunity to show strength], R:

retention and reflection, D: discrimination [to sort out and see how one thing relates to another]. CLL

is in contrast with Audio-lingual Method and Natural Method because it is linguistically and

psycholinguistically based and addresses psycholinguistic and cognitive and personal commitments.

Neaur-native like mastery is the goal. CLL course is topic-based, it does not use a conventional

language syllabus and it is most often used in the teaching of oral proficiency.

Activities: translation, group work, recording, transcription, analysis, reflection and observation,

listening, and free conversation. In CLL, learners become members of a community and learn through

interacting with members of that community (learning is achieved collaboratively). CLL compares

language learning to the states of human growth: 1. The learner is like an infant, dependent, a new self

of the learner is born in the target language. 2. Measure of independence. 3. Separate-existence stage,

learner will respond uninvited assistance. 4. A kind of adolescence. 5. The independent stage. The

counselor (teacher or knower) is not responsible for paraphrasing the client's problem but rather for

capturing the essence of the client's concern, such that the client might say, yes, that's exactly what I

learnt. (Counselor helps the client try to understand his problems better). In CLL, personal learning

conflicts (anger, anxiety) are indicators of deep personal investment. The teacher's role is initially

likened to that of a nurturing parent. The teacher is responsible for providing a safe environment in

which clients can learn and grow. Security is a culturally relative concept. Learners do not learn in

too secure an environment (fear of examination is motivating). The textbook is not considered a

necessary component. Dialogues, mini-dramas, teaching machine, and rote drill are common. Three-

36
minute pair conversations equivalent to a wrestling session by which judo students practice are

common. There is no syllabus in CLL. CLL is the most responsive of the methods in terms of its

sensitivity to learner communicative intent. It places unusual demands on teachers. They must be

highly proficient and sensitive to nuances in L1 and L2. They must resist the pressure to teach in the

traditional sense. They must be nondirective.

Whole person learning means that teachers consider not only their students' feelings and intellect

but also have some understanding of the relationship among students' physical reactions, their

instinctive protective reactions and their desire to learn. People learn best when they feel secure and

feel more secure when they know the limits of an activity and when they have an idea of what will

happen in each activity. Language is for communication. The students' native tongue is used to make

the meaning clear. The teacher encourages student initiative and independence. Students need quiet

reflection time in order to learn. Cooperation, not competition is encouraged. The syllabus is designed

primarily by the students.

Responding to the students' feeling is considered very important. The focus shifts from grammar

and sentence formation to a sharing and belonging between persons. Curran believes that language is

for developing creative thinking. The most important skills are understanding and speaking the

language. Students' security is initially enhanced by using their native language. Teacher-made

integrative tests are given not a discrete point test as in ADM. Tape-recording student conversation,

transcription, reflection on experience, reflective listening, human computer, small group tasks are

common. CLL encourages openness to and acceptance of other members of the group as human

beings. It is learner-centered, not structure-based. Sociolinguistics sees structure in the speech

community as organization of diversity. It places principles of learning above those of teaching in

emphasizing the security of the learner in the investment phase and the discussion of the experience in

the reflection phase. CLL has no syllabus and operates on what learners need to know.

CLT is based on the principles of the humanistic psychology. The syllabus is topic-based. The

embryonic stage refers to the total dependence of the students on the teacher. The birth stage refers to

37
when the students speak independently, though imperfectly. Language is regarded as a social process.

CLL is holistic. In CLL, translation has a central role. Five stages: 1. Embryonic: the learner is like an

infant and he is completely dependent upon the knower. 2. Birth: the child develops a certain amount

of independence. The learner begins to establish independence by using the previously-heard

utterances. 3. Separate-existence stage: learners begin to understand the others directly in the target

language. 4. A kind of adolescence in which learner functions independently. 5. Learners refine their

understanding of register and language usage. They may become counselors to less advanced

students. Links can be made between CLL procedures and those of bilingual procedures referred to as

languages alternation or code switching. The social-process model is different from information-

transmission model. Interactions are unpredictable in content but are said to involve exchanges of

affect.

Teahcers should understand students' fears and be sensitive to them. Langauge is for

communication. Any new learning experience can be threatening. The suporior knowledge and power

of the learner can be threantening. So the teacher should not remain in front of the class. Students are

invited to talk about how they felt during the conversation. The teacher and students are whole

persons. Learners should feel free to lower their defenses. Retention will best take place somewhere in

between novalty and familiarity. Non-defonsive learning can result when teacher and learner treat

each other as a whole person. CLL is teacher-student centered. Culture is integrated within langauge.

The teacher encourages the learners to self evaluate. The teacher corrects their errors in a

nonthreatening way.

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 Unit Nine
Situational Language Teaching (Oral Approach)

This unit is a summary of:

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 3)

A language teaching method developed by British language teaching specialists between 1940 and

1960, Situational Language Teaching (SLT) is a grammar–based method in which principles of

grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points presented and practiced through

situation. Although no longer in fashion, techniques derived from SLT are found in many widely used

language teaching text books (Streamline English).

British applied linguists such as Palmer, Michael West and Hornby believed that vocabulary was an

essential component of reading proficiency. Palmer tried to develop classroom procedures suited to

teaching basic grammatical patterns through an oral approach. He viewed grammar as the underlying

sentence patterns of the spoken language. They tried to analyze English and classify its major

grammatical structures into sentence patterns which could be used to help internalize the rules of

English sentence structure. They, from the 1920s onward, developed an approach that involved

systematic principles of selection, gradation and presentation. SLT differs from Direct Method in that

DM lacked a systematic basis in applied linguistic theory and practice. One of its most active

proponents was the Australian George Pittman.

Features of Situational Language Teaching or Oral Approach: Language teaching begins with the

spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in written form. The target language

is the language of the classroom. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.

Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is

covered. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught

39
before complex ones. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical

basis is established.

The theory of language behind SLT was a type of British structuralism. Speech was regarded as

the basis of language and structure was viewed as being at the heart of speaking ability. The oral

practice of controlled sentence patterns should be given in situations. The knowledge of structures

must be linked to situations in which they could be used. SLT differs with Audio-lingual Method in

that in SLT language was viewed as a purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real

world. The theory of learning behind SLT is a type of behaviorist habit–learning theory. It stresses the

processes rather than the conditions of learning. Correct speech habits are fundamental. No

explanation and no translation are allowed. Language is taught inductively (induction from the

situations). Extending structures and vocabulary to new situations takes place by generalization

objectives: to teach a practical command of the four basic skills. But the skills are approached

through structure. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are

to be avoided at all costs. Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental

to reading and writing skills, and this is achieved through speech work writing derives from speech.

Oral composition can be valuable. The syllabus is a structural one and a word list. Structures are

always taught within sentences and vocabulary is chosen according to how well it enables sentence

patterns to be taught. Here, situation refers to the manner of presenting and practicing sentence

patterns. By situation, Pittman means the use of concrete objects, pictures, and realia which together

with actions and gestures can be used to demonstrate the meanings of new language items. The

meaning of new words and sentence patterns is not conveyed through translation; it is made clear

visually (with objects, pictures, action and mime). In the initial stages, learner has no control over the

content of learning. Later, more active participation is encouraged, although teacher–controlled

introduction and practice is stressed. The teacher serves as a model, a skillful conductor of an

orchestra, a skillful manipulator. Lessons are hence teacher-directed. The lesson consists of four parts:

pronunciation, revision, presentation of new structure or vocabulary, oral practice (drilling), reading

or written exercises. Drills are related to situations. SLT led to CLT.

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 Unit Ten

Silent Way

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Larsen-Freeman (Chapter 5)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 7)

In Silent Way (SW), teachers teach, test and get out of the way. They silently monitor learners'

interactions and even may leave the room. They must be sensitive to manage the timing and

sequence. Subordination of teaching to learning does not mean that teacher's role is not critical and

demanding. By teaching is meant the presentation of an item once, typically using nonverbal clues to

get across the meaning. The teacher is responsible for creating an environment that encourages

student risk taking and that facilities learning. This is not to say that the SW teacher becomes one of

the group. The teacher is a neutral observer, a disinterested judge, supportive but emotionally

uninvolved. The SW teacher, like a dramatist, writes the script, chooses the props, sets the mood,

models the action, designates the players, and is critical of the performance. The teacher uses gestures

and charts, and manipulates in order to elicit student responses. Mediators or objects are used to

illustrate the relationships between sound and meaning in the target language. The pronunciation

charts are called Fidels (symbols for vowels and consonants). The symbols are color-coded according

to pronunciation. The colored rods are used to directly link words and structures with their meanings

in the target language thereby avoiding translation into the native tongue. The colors of the symbols

correspond to conceptual groupings of words. The first part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation.

Then sentence patterns, structure and vocabulary are practiced. Students‘ errors are inevitable and are

signs to the teacher that they are actively testing their hypotheses. All four skills are worked on from

the beginning and meaning is thought to be at least as important as form. Although SW didn't emerge

41
from the cognitive code, it shares certain principles with it. The teacher does not model the new

sounds, but rather uses gestures to show the students how to modify the sounds (whenever they have

difficulty in pronouncing them). The teacher works with the students while the students work on the

language. Silence is a tool which helps to foster autonomy or the existence of initiative. Meaning is

made clear by focusing students' perceptions not through translation. If students are simply given

answers rather than being allowed to self-correct, they retain them. Students need to learn to listen to

themselves. Students learn at different rates. Student‘s attention is a key to learning. Language is for

self-expression. There is no homework assigned. The four skills reinforce one another. The teacher is

a technician or an engineer. Only the learner can do the learning. The teacher sets up situations to

force awareness. When the teacher does speak, it is to give cues not to model the language. It is

important that students acquire the melody of the language. There is no fixed, linear, structural

syllabus. The syllabus develops according to learning needs. The native language can be used to give

instruction when necessary, to help the students improve their pronunciation. The teacher looks for

steady progress not perfection. (Sound-color chart, word chart, Fidel chart, Rods; teacher's silence;

self-correction gestures; peer correction; structured feedback.) The main idea behind SW is to enable

the learners to rely on themselves.

In SW, students think and form the appropriate sentences. The proponents of SW believe that

mental activity has a great role in learning process. Moving form known to unknown, getting benefit

from the native tongue, and encouraging group cooperation by the teacher's silence are emphasized.

Students' errors are seen as a natural indispensable part of the learning process. Students can learn

from each other. They should not be assigned any homework. They need to learn to listen to

themselves. SW teachers do not praise or criticize students' behavior since it would interfere with the

students' developing their own inner criteria for correctness.

In the hypothetical mode, the students are not bench-bound listeners. Discovery learning increases

the intellectual potency, shifts the extrinsic to intrinsic rewards, promotes the learning of heuristics

and helps the memory to retain materials. Gattegno places importance on the self of the learner and on

the learner's commitments. The self in the SW consists of a learning-system and a retaining system.

42
The learning system is responsible for abstracting, analyzing, synthesizing and integrating. The

retaining system is involved in remembering. Gattegno speaks of memory as paying ogdens. An

ogden is a unit of mental energy. It is necessary to link two mental elements such as a shape or a

sound and an object. The spirit of language refers to the way each language is composed of

phonological and suprasegmental features that combine to give the language its unique sound system

and melody. The learning system is activated only by way of intelligent awareness. The learner must

constantly test his powers to abstract, analyze, synthesize and integrate. Recovery of innocence refers

to the return of our full powers and potentials. It is in fact the education of the spiritual powers and the

enlightenment of the inner peace. Spiritual powers increase the level of awareness. Mastery of

linguistic skills widens the horizon of awareness. SW emphasizes learning to learn. The general

objective is to establish near native fluency in the target language. Correct pronunciation and the

mastery of prosodic elements are emphasized. SW is basically a structural syllabus.

Lexical items are at the service of grammar. The functional and everyday life vocabulary is taught

initially. The grammatical items are presented according to their levels of difficulty. The imperative is

one of the first items to be taught because it is easy. The SW teacher is a director. His modeling is

minimal. According to Sterick, the teacher's task is to teach (present the materials through nonverbal

cues and clues), to test (elicit the student's production through the SW), and to get out of way (to step

aside. Language learning is a process of personal growth (trial and error, systematic analysis). The

lack of correction and repeated modeling from the teacher requires the students to develop inner

criteria for self correction and self evaluation. Vocabulary is considered as a central concern. The

functional vocabulary provides a key to the spirit of language. In SW, reading and writing are taught

from the beginning.

The rods and the color-coded pronunciation chats (Fidel charts) provide physical foci for students‘

learning and also create memorable images to facilitate student recall. The learner's grappling with the

problem of forming an appropriate and meaningful utterance in a new language lends the learner to

realization of the language through his own perceptual and analytical powers (problem-solving

discovery learning). The second language learner is unlike the first language learner and cannot learn

43
another language in the same way. The learning system (one part of self) is activated only by way of

intelligent awareness. Repetition (as opposed to silence) consumes time and encourages the scattered

mind to remain scattered. Silence is thus as aid to alertness, concentration, and mental organization.

The general objective of the SW is to give beginning level students oral and aural facility in basic

domains of the target language. The general goal set for language learning is near-native fluency in

the target language (correct pronunciation and prosodic elements). An immediate objective is to

provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the target language. SW

teaches learners how to learn the language. Vocabulary is selected according to the degree to which it

can be manipulated within a given structure and according to its productivity within the classroom

setting. Sequence and timing are important and the teacher's sensitivity to and management of them is

critical. The first part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation. The teacher does not model but uses

gestures. Reading is worked on from the beginning but follows from what students have learned to

say. Silence is a tool. It helps to foster autonomy. Errors are important and necessary to learning.

Language is for self-expression. The structures of the syllabus are not arranged in a linear fashion, but

rather are constantly being recycled. Students should rely on themselves. They begin with the study of

sounds. The syllabus develops according to learning needs. The students‘ native language can be

used. Structured feedback is received. Students are invited to make observations about the day's

lesson and what they have learned.

In SW, the silence of the teacher is an inducement for the students to take the initiative. They must

experiment with the target language internally at first and later overtly. Gattegno states that a natural

approach will not work with adults, because a child learning his first language and an adult learning a

second language in a classroom have little in common. A child has no idea what language is or what

to look for. An adult already knows one language and knows the purpose of language and how it

functions. He proposes an artificial approach that is strictly controlled. To tap the resources of the

students' minds, he advocates that the teacher subordinate teaching to learning. He chose the term

Silent Way to convey the idea that there are means of letting the learners learn while the teacher stops

44
interfering or side tracking. Visual Dictation is used to ask students to point to the works after the

teacher gives them.

As the students learn more, the teacher says less and less. Teachers neither approve nor disapprove

what students say. Instead, they require their students to make judgments. The principles include: 1.

Avoid the vernacular. 2. Create simple linguistic situations that are under the complete control of the

teacher. 3. Pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterance of the descriptions of the objects

shown or the actions performed. 4. Generate a serious game like situation. Gattegno maintains that

there are no grammatical structures that cannot be represented using the colored rods. Sterick

summarizes Silent Way in five basic ideas: 1. Learning should take precedence over teaching. 2.

Learning does not consist of imitation or drill. 3. Learning consists of the mind equipping itself for

what it needs to learn. 4. Leaning involves the mind drawing on what it already knows and 5.

Learning will take place more readily if the teacher will stop interfering and sidetracking the learning

process. SW is a cognitive, inner-directed approach, although the teacher has total control over course

content. Students are to use their own powers of mental perception and understanding to formulate

their own interpretations of how the language functions. Basic teaching aids in SW are: a set of

colored rods, wall charts, and a pointer.

Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is

to be learned. According to Bruner there are two traditions of teaching: 1. An expository mode in

which the teacher determines everything and the student is the listener and 2. A hypothetical mode in

which both are in a more cooperative position. SW belongs to the latter tradition, which views

language as a problem-solving, creative discovering activity in which the learner is a principal actor

than a bench-bound listener (discovery learning).

Learning is facilitated by mediating physical objects. These visual devices (colored rods-charts)

serve as associative mediators for student learning and recall. The use of associative mediator

produces better retention than repetition does and they have a powerful effect on memory.

45
 Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned (tell me and I

forget, involve me and I learn). Learner's memory benefits from creatively searching out, discovering

and depicting. Processing of the material to be learned at the greatest cognitive depth promotes

learning and recall. The teacher's strict avoidance of repetition forces alertness and concentration on

the part of the learners. SW student is expected to become independent, autonomous and responsible;

in other words, a good problem solver in language.

Gattegno views language itself as a substitute for experience. Students should grasp the spirit of

language and gain a feel of how language is composed of elements. SW takes a structural approach.

Language is seen as groups of sounds arbitrarily associated with specific meaning and organized into

sentences or strings of meaningful units by grammar rules. Language is separated from its social

context and taught through artificial situations, usually represented by rods. Sentence is the basic unit

of teaching, and the teacher focuses on propositional meaning, rather than communicative value.

Language is taught inductively. Vocabulary is central and the choice of vocabulary is crucial (semi-

luxury and luxury vocabulary). Functional vocabulary provides a key to comprehending the spirit of

the language. The learner needs to return to the state of mind that characterizes a baby's learning

(surrender). Processes of learning a second language are radically different from those involved in

learning a first language. Gettegno's artificial approach is based on the principle that successful

learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness

and then active trial. The self of the learner can intervene to make objective what it holds in itself. The

self consists of two systems: 1. A learning system: silence is the best vehicle for learning, repetition

consumes time. 2. A retaining system (as a matter of paying agdens; on ogden is a unit of mental

energy required to link two mental elements). Silence is a key to triggering awareness and hence the

preferred path to retention. The mind does much of retention during sleep. Awareness is educable.

The process chain that develops awareness proceeds from attention, production, self-correction, and

absorption. SW learners acquire inner criteria, which allows learners to monitor and self-correct (self-

correction through self-awareness). Gattegno sees language learning through SW as a recovery of

innocence (a return to our full powers and potentials). SW learning claims to consolidate the human

46
dimensions of being. It deals primarily with a basic level of aural-oral proficiency (the general goal)

and near-native fluency. An intermediate goal is to provide the learner with a basic practical

knowledge of the grammar of the language. Teacher modeling is minimal. Gattegno sees language

learning as a process of personal growth resulting from growing student awareness. Independent

learners are those who are aware that they must depend on their own resources. An autonomous

learner chooses proper expression in a given set of circumstances and situations. The teacher

cultivates the student's autonomy by deliberately building choices into situations. Responsible learners

know that they have free will to choose among any set of linguistic choices. The ability to choose

intelligently and carefully is evidence of responsibility. Students must learn to work cooperatively

rather than competitively. A learner must be a teacher, a student, part of a support system, a problem

solver, and a self-evaluator.

Unit Eleven

Natural Approach

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 9)

NA is the most fully developed of the comprehension-based approaches. NA, developed by Terrell,

is in essence the classroom approach most closely associated with Krashen's Monitor Model. It is

inner-directed, reduced-stress and mentalistic. Basic tenets include: 1. The goals are communicative.

Focus is on meaning rather than forms and structures. Grammar will be effectively acquired if goals

are communicative. Ironically, if goals are grammatical, some grammar will be learned and very little

acquired. 2. Comprehension precedes production. So, the primary goal is to ensure that students

47
understand what they hear. Teachers should speak in the SL. 3. Students are permitted to begin

producing language in stages. 4. Language teachers should stress acquisition activities rather than

learning activities. 5. Classroom activities should lower the students' affective filter. Teachers expect

students to use their monitors when writing, when preparing a speech and when doing homework, but

not in oral classroom communication activities. They stress providing students with large amounts of

comprehensible oral input. They attempt to lower the affective filler by making no demands for early

language production, by permitting students to decide when they are ready to talk, by allowing them

to answer in a manner that suits their perceived linguistic abilities, and by refraining from correcting

errors directly. Activities are not based on audio-lingual drills or dialogs. Acquisition is the process

which leads to the ability to understand and produce correctly in a communicative context. Terrell

adds the concept of binding (cognitive and affective mental process of linking a meaning to a form

and of access): the production of an appropriate form to express a specific meaning in an utterance.

Binding is formed by means of comprehensible input. Terrell concludes that acquisition as a process

is seen as a mixture of conscious and subconscious attempts at binding form and meaning for a

communicative purpose. Krashen and Terrell have identified the NA with what they call traditional

approaches to language learning, which are based on the use of language in communicative situations

without recourse to the native language, without reference to grammatical analysis, drilling or to a

particular theory of grammar. Natural Approach and older Natural Method are different (Natural

Method is another name for Direct Method). Unlike DM, NA places less emphasis on teacher

monologues, direct repetition, and formal questions and answers and less focus on accurate

production of target language sentences. In NA, there is an emphasis on exposure, or input, rather

than practice, optimizing emotional preparedness for learning: a prolonged period of attention to what

the language learners hear before they try to produce language. The emphasis is on the central role of

comprehension. Krashen and Terrell see communication as the primary function of language. They

refer to NA as an example of a communicative approach. They reject earlier methods such as

Audiolingual Method because they were built not around actual theories of language acquisition and

they viewed grammar as central. In NA, meaning is primary. Vocabulary is important. Grammar has

the subordinate role. Language is taught inductively. Language is viewed as a vehicle for

48
communication of meanings and messages. Messages have primary importance. Input hypothesis

(I+1) stresses the need to understand the input that contains structures slightly above the learner's

present level. Naturalists view language learning as do audio-lingualists: as mastery of structures by

stages. NA is based on an empirically grounded theory of second language acquisition. Critics of NA

state that NA focuses on initial fluency at the cost of accuracy and that NA dose not correct errors and

they may fossilize.

Theories of learning: 1- acquisition-learning hypothesis: acquisition refers to an unconscious

process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding

language and through using language for meaningful communication. Learning refers to a process in

which conscious rules about a language are developed. Learning cannot lead to acquisition.

2- The monitor hypothesis: conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks

and repairs the output of the acquired system. We may call upon learned knowledge to correct

ourselves when we communicate, but that conscious learning has only this function. Three conditions

limit the successful use of the monitor: a. time b. focus on forms c. knowledge of rules.

3- Natural order hypothesis: children acquiring their first language acquire linguistic forms, rules

and items in a similar order. It is acuired in a predictable manner. The same order exists in learning a

second language (natural order).

4- Input hypothesis: A) The hypothesis relates to acquisition and not to learning. B) People

acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence.

C) The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly. Rrather, it emerges independently in time,

after the acquirer has built up linguistic competence by understanding input. D) If there is a sufficient

quantity of comprehensible input, ―I+1‖ will be provided automatically. Just as the child is provided

with samples of caretaker or mother talk speech, so adult acquirers are provided with foreigner talk

which refers to the speech native speakers use to simplify communication with foreigners.

5- Affective filter hypothesis: there are three kinds of affective variables: motivation, self-

confidence, and low anxiety. This hypothesis argues that acquirers with a low affective filter seek and

49
receive more input, interact with confidence and are more receptive to the input they receive. Anxious

acquirers have a high affective filter which prevents acquisition from taking place. These five

hypotheses have obvious implications for language teaching: A) As much comprehensible input as

possible must be presented. B) Whatever helps comprehension is important. C) The focus should be

on listening and reading; speaking should be allowed to emerge. D) To lower the affective filter,

students should focus on meaningful communication rather than on form. The NA is for beginners

and is designed to help them become intermediates. Student should be able to make the meaning clear

but not necessarily be accurate in all details of grammar. NA is primarily designed to develop basic

communication skills (oral and written). The goals of a NA class are based on an assessment of

student needs. If input is provided over a wider variety of topics while pursuing communicative goals,

the necessary grammatical structures are automatically provided in the input. Acquisition activities are

emphasized (those that focus on meaningful communication rather than language forms). NA focuses

on providing comprehensible input and a classroom environment that cues comprehension of input,

minimizes learner anxiety, and maximizes learner self-confidence. To minimize stress, learners are

not required to say anything until they feel ready, but are expected to respond to teacher commands

and questions in other ways. Students are not expected to use a word until they have heard it many

times. Charts, advertisement, and other realia serve as the focal point for question. Commands from

TPR, mime and gesture from DM, group work activity from CLT, and situation-based practice from

SLL are used in NA.

The teacher is seen as the generator of comprehensible input. The language acquirer is seen as a

processor of comprehensible input. In the pre-production stage, students participate in the language

activity without having to respond in the target language. In the early production stage, students

respond to questions, use single words and short phrases and fill in charts. In the speech emergent

phase, students involve themselves in the role play and games, contribute personal opinions, and

participate in group problem slowing. The teacher is the primary generator and source of

comprehensible input. NA demands a much more centre–stage role for the teacher. He creates a

friendly, interesting classroom atmosphere in which there is a low affective filter. He must choose and

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orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities. Materials come from the world of realia rather than

from textbooks. The primary aim of materials is to promote comprehension and communication.

Terrell and Krashen suggest a syllabus of topics and situations. Games are useful. Pictures and other

visual aids are essential. In NA, the focus is on comprehension and meaningful communication. Like

Communicative Language Teaching, NA is evolutionary rather than revolutionary. Some scholars

claim that comprehensible input that is relevant or interesting to the acquirer, that is not

grammatically sequenced, and that is supplied in sufficient quantity will be optimal in encouraging

acquisition. According to Krashen, if affective filter is eliminated, learning will be facilitated. Krashen

in his monitor model believes that conscious grammatical knowledge is necessary to monitor speech.

His input hypothesis deals with how individuals internalize language. The principles underlying the

natural method were believed to conform to the principles of naturalistic language learning in young

children. The proponents of the natural method rejected the use of books in their teaching of a second

language and taught students to rely on their ears to pick up the language. The monitor hypothesis

deals with the function of conscious grammatical knowledge. There are different types of monitor

users, namely, over-users, under-users and optimal users. Silent period in children, the effect of

exposure and age differences all support the input hypothesis. The grammatical rules can serve only to

screen beforehand what the speaker plans to say or to edit afterward what he or she said. Thus,

individuals can use their monitor to increase their competence but they cannot use it in performance

itself. The only two skills through which language is received are listening and reading. The

productive skills of speaking and writing emerge as a result of the individuals having internalized

language while listening to and reading language that contains new vocabulary and structure.

Affective fitter or mental block prevents students from using the input to internalize language.

Krashen feels that aptitude is more highly correlated with second language learning and that attitude is

a more important factor than aptitude.

The natural approach involves setting up informal situations where students communicate with

each other and their teacher and, through communication acquire the target language. There must

exist a relationship of acceptance and equality between student and teacher and between student and

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student if any genuine interaction is to take place. Trust and confidence are the key words. The

Natural Approach almost necessarily implies a residence in the country where the language is spoken.

Krashen and Seliger believe that formal instruction plays an important role in language proficiency.

Terrell in 1977 established the Natural Approach. The emphasis is on the central role of

comprehension and this relates it to other comprehension–based approaches. Terrell bases his method

on Krashen's views of language acquisition theory. NA is based on comprehensible input. Krashen

sees the learner's emotional stages as an adjustable filter that freely passes, hinders or totally stops the

input necessary to acquisition. In the pre-production stage, students participate in the language activity

without having to respond in the TL. The students can act out and point to objects without saying

things. The NA requires the teacher to have a central role. The NA materials promote comprehension

and communication based on topics and situations. The acquisition of grammatical structures

proceeds in a predictable order. Because NA focuses on teaching communicative abilities, they refer

to it as an example of a communicative approach. Errors are signs of naturalistic development. At the

end of a NA course, one does not expect to acquire a certain group of structures or forms but expects

to deal with a set of topics and situations. Content selection should to create a low affective filter by

being interesting. Teachers talk focuses on objects in the classroom and on the content of pictures as

with DM. Acquisition activities (those that focus on meaningful communication rather than language

form) are emphasized. What characterizes NA is the use of familiar techniques within the frame work

of a method that focuses on providing comprehensible input.

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 Unit Twelve

Reading Method

This unit is a summary of:

Wilga Rivers (Chapter 2)

Celce-Murcia (Chapter 1)

RM was a reaction to impracticality of the Direct Method. Features include: Only the grammar

useful for reading comprehention is taught. Vocabulay is controlled at first and then expanded. 3.

Reading comprehension in the only langauge skill emphasized. 4. The teacher dose not need to have

good oral proficiency in the target language. Students are to be taught to read the new language with

direct apprehension of meaning, without a conscious effort to translate what they are reading. A

discussion is made between intensive and extensive reading and emphasis was placed on developing

autonomous silent reading and increasing individual reading rate. Only the minimum essentials of

gramman were to be incorporated into the course at this stage. Teachers who followed Palmer's lead

felt that facility in reading could not be developed unless the students were trained in correct

pronunciation, comprehension of uncomplicated spoken language, and the use of simple speech

patterns. Students could then read aloud to help them with comprehension and hear the text mentally

as they were reading silently (so this oral approach to reading was more in tune with the practice of

DM).

The study of language usally begins with an oral phase (familiarity with sound system of the

langauge. Listening to and speaking in simple phrases is emphasized. It is belived that the auditory

image of the langauge will assist them later when they turn to the reading of a text. Intensive reading,

under the teacher's supervision, is more analytic and produces material for grammatical study, for the

acquisition of vocabulary, and for training in reading complete sentences for comprehension. During

the intensive reading, the teacher is able to check in detail the degree of comprehension achieved by

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each student. For extensive reading, students work on their own, reading many pages of a text.

Students acquire a large passive vocabulary or recognition vocabulary. Their comprehension of what

they have read is tested by questions on the content of the reading material not by translation. The

system of extensive reading gives students the opportunity to progress at their own rate. This method

also arouses the students' interest in the people who speak the language and a curiosity about their

way of life. But the system of extensive reading can lead to satisfaction with quantity rather than

quality.

Since not many people traveled abroad around 1930 and since majority of students studied a

foreign language for a period of two years, the Coleman report maintained that only reasonable

objective for such a short period of study was the development of reading ability. Frequency word

count were developed and used as a basis for graded readers written to conform to certain levels of

word frequency. The words were often grouped around themes or centers of interest.

Disadvantages: the system of graded readers can give a false impression of the level of reading

achieved. As a justification for short, non-specialized language courses, the reading aim is thus

spurious. The reading method in the period following the Coleman report produced students who were

unable to comprehend and speak the language beyond the very simplest of exchanges.

In sum: 1. The founder of the reading method was Coleman in 1929. 2. The objective is to enable

students to read with moderate ease. 3. There is an emphasis on reading silently. 4. Reading aloud is

used to improve the pronunciation of the students. Some reading experts believe that correct

pronunciation helps comprehension. 5. Vocabulary is systematically controlled. 6. The presentation of

lexical items in RM is based on the frequency word counts. 7. The lesson begins with an oral phase. 8.

Listening comprehension is initially emphasized, because it is believed that the auditory images of the

language will help to develop the visual images. So, listening comprehension aids reading

comprehension. 9. Extensive reading develops the students' stock of recognition vocabulary.

Vocabulary is taught / learned through massive reading and trying to guess the meaning of the new

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words from the context. 10. The study of grammar is geared to the needs of the reader. So minimum

amount of grammar is included in the texts since grammar serves comprehension.

Unit Thirteen

Cognitive Approach

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Wilga Rivers (Chapter 2)

Celce-Murcia (Chapter 1)

CA was a reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audiolingual Method. Features include: 1.

Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition not habit formation. 2. Instruction is often

individualized and learners are responsible for their own learning. 3. Grammar must be taught but it

can be taught deductively and/or inductively. 4. Pronunciation is de-emphasized; perfection is viewed

as unrealistic. 5. Reading and writing are once again as important as listening and speaking. 6.

Vocabulary instruction is important, especially at intermediate and advanced levels. 7. Errors are

viewed as inevitable, something that should be used constructively in the learning process. 8. The

teacher is expected to have a good language proficiency in the target language as well as an ability to

analyze the target language. Cognitive psychologists turned to neurophysiological and information-

processing models as a basis for trying to understand the learning process. The cognitive definition

stresses the role of the mind in processing the information acquired. It states that learning is the

perception, acquisition, organization, and storage of knowledge in such a way that it becomes an

active part of the individual's cognitive structure. The learner has the central part in learning process.

Language is considered to be creative, rule-governed communication. Rote learning and motor

learning are considered to be unimportant in the explanation of basic and higher mental activity. The

extrapolation of learning outcomes from animal to human subjects is rejected. The teacher should

consider the students' existing cognitive structure. He should also try to couch the material in such a

55
context that learners can relate the content to their existing fund of knowledge. If learning is to be

meaningful, the new information must be relatable by the students to their past knowledge and

experience. The teacher should encourage an active, questioning attitude on the part of the students.

The basic tenets of a cognitive approach conform to the language models of transformational-

generative linguists. The goal is that of teaching the system that makes language production possible.

Language rules are of two types: generative rules and formational rules. Competence precedes

performance. Learners activate their competence to create the language needed in particular

communicative situations. Learners must use their first language knowledge as they learn the target

language by applying the universal elements Transformational Generative linguists allocate a larger

role in language to syntax and semantics and a lesser role to sounds. The goal is to develop students'

competence to the point at which they can formulate their own replies to previously unmet language

situations. The book is introduced at the very beginning of the course, since all four language skills

are introduced at approximately the same time. There is no pre-reading period and the students can be

expected to prepare written homework as early as the first day of class. Nor is it axiomatic that the

four skills be introduced in the first language sequence. Comprehension activities must precede

productive activities. The receptive skills are the means of developing and expanding competence.

The students should be aware of what they are learning. All learning is to be meaningful. The teacher

is a facilitator and an organizer. Carroll proposes a meaningful synthesis between the habit-formation

theory and the cognitive-code learning theory.

Students never are expected to meet new structures prior to the explanation of these forms. The

term ―cognition‖ implies proceeding from mental understanding and awareness to practice; from

studying a structure to seeing it used in context. It implies a conscious acquisition of competence

followed by a conscious application of the competence in the conscious development of performance

skills. A cognitive book would not proceed in an inductive fashion. A cognitive book would proceed

from focus on structural forms and functions, to exercises, to reading.

Order of learning (proposed by Chastain): 1. Comprehension of new grammatical concepts which

are presented deductively. 2. Practice in selection of linguistic forms. 3. The study of reading and

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listening materials. Chastain's view is formalist. A sequence in which the written skills are learned

prior to the oral might be just as effective. Cognitive habit formation theory (Carroll) states that a

habit is any learned disposition to perceive, behave or perform in a certain manner under specified

circumstances. To the extent that an individual's language behavior conforms to the habits of the

speech community of which he is a member, we can say that his behavior is rule-governed. A rule is

an abstraction, but a habit is what actually has been learned. So the notion of habit is much more

fundamental psychologically than the notion of rule. There should be inductive and deductive

presentation. The real problem is that an overemphasis on rules may lead to an under-emphasis on the

meaning associated with the communicative situation. Great attention should be paid to the formation

of truly functional habits (the habits of actual language behavior). Cognitive-code emphasizes internal

and mental learning. A cognitive teacher tries to help his students to go from competence to

performance. According to this approach, a language teacher should help his students to go from

thought to language by using receptive skills. Chastain's approach is deductive. A would-be cognitive

approach must make use of communicative activities, meaningful situations, and deductive teaching

but not of pattern drills. To incorporate new material into our knowledge system, we must have

related information in our mind. In cognitive approach, the teacher is viewed as a facilitator. The term

cognition implies proceeding from mental understanding to practice. The term cognitive styles refer to

the predispositions individuals have for using their intellect in specific ways to learn. Mother tongue

is used as a last resort in cognitive approach. Cognitive style is defined as self-consistent and enduring

individual differences in cognitive organization and functioning. CA is based on the principles of the

cognitive psychology and the transformational generative linguistics. There is emphasis on

communication (fluently, freely). Understanding is the most fundamental feature of CA. Cognition

implies a conscious acquisition of competence. Teaching of four skills occur simultaneously.

Grammar is taught deductively. Pronunciation is deemphasized. Vocabulary is emphasized. It is at the

service of four skills and communication. Vocabulary is learnt through context.

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 Unit Fourteen
Eclectic Approach

This unit is a summary of:

Chastain (Chapter 4)

Richards & Rodgers (Chapter 11)

A Comparison Between TPR and CLL: TPR has a written syllabus with paced introduction of

structures and vocabulary. Community Language Learning has no syllabus and operates out of what

learners feel they need to know. In TPR, the teacher's role is one of drill master, director, and

motivator. In CLL, the teacher-knower is a counselor, supporter and facilitator. TPR learners are

physically active and mobile while CLL learner are sedentary. TPR stresses the role of students as

individuals. CLL students and teachers have communal relationship. TPR practice is mechanical with

much emphasis on listening. CLL practice is innovative with emphasis on production. Both see stress

as a major block to success. Both view the stages of adult language learning as recapitulations of the

stages of childhood learning. Both hold that learning is multimodal and that students should not sit

passively in the classroom.

A teacher who uses the positive traits of different methods in his teaching is called eclectic.

Curriculum development requires needs analysis, development of goals and objectives, selection of

teaching and learning activities, and evaluation of the outcomes of the language program. Needs

analysis focuses on what the learner's present level of proficiency is and on what the learner will be

required to use the language for on completion of the program. Needs analysis acknowledges that the

goals of learners vary and must be determined before decisions about content and method can be

made. Objectives detail the goals of a language program. Classroom activities and materials are

accountable to goals and objectives and are selected according to how well they address the

underlying linguistic skills and processes learners will need in order to attain the objectives of the

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program. When a close degree of fit between method and program objectives is lacking, a choice can

be made through informed eclecticism (various procedures are selected from various method).

Evaluation addresses whether the goals and objectives of a language program are being attained, that

is, whether the program is effective. Descriptive data are objective descriptions and accounts, usually

by teachers, of specific procedures used in teaching according to a particular method. These are also

called thick descriptions (literal description of the activity being evaluated, the situations and

characteristics of the people). Observational data are recorded observations of methods as they are

being taught. The observer is not the teacher but a trained observer. Effectiveness data is data on the

extent to which particular methods have been found to be effective. Comparative data offer evidence

that one method is more effective than another in attending program objectives.

An eclectic approach may be the most practical approach to second language teaching. The

dictionary definition of the word eclectic is choosing what appears to be the best form diverse sources,

systems or styles. In the field of teaching, a teacher who uses the positive aspects of different methods

in his teaching has adopted an eclectic approach. In an eclectic approach, the best techniques of all the

well-known language teaching methods are employed and used for the purposes for which they are

most appropriate. Teachers obviously need techniques that work in their particular situation with

specific objectives that are meaningful for the kinds of students they have in their classes. A

thoughtful teacher evaluates his situation, has objectives in mind and chooses the most practical

procedures of all methods which fit his classroom conditions. Obviously there can be many eclectic

approaches. And to select a suitable eclectic approach is the most important duty of a teacher. To do

so, many factors from students' interests to social to biological factors should be taken into

consideration. More importantly, the goal of the course determines the type of eclectic approach the

teacher takes to teach. For example if the goal is to enable the learners to communicate orally in a

very short-term course, definitely, writing and reading skills can't be worked on. In this case, a

combination of direct method, communicative language teaching and TPR in which oral skills are

stressed may suffice.

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 Unit Fifteen

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 1: Language, learning, and teaching)

Learrning is acquiring or getting knowledge of a subject or skill by studying, experience, and

instruction. It is a change in an individual caused by experience. Teaching is showing or helping

someone to learn how to do something, giving instruction, and causing to know or understand. One‘s

understanding of how the learner learns will determine one‘s philosophy of education and teaching

style.

Schools of thought in second language acquisition: 1.Structural linguistics and Behavioral

Psychology. 2. Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology. 3. Constructivism: a

multidisciplinary approach

Structural linguistics argues that only "observable response" could be subject to investigation. The

linguistics' task was to describe human language. Languages can differ from each other without limit.

Language could be dismantled into small units and these units can be described scientifically and

added up to form the whole.

Skinner believed that any notion of ―idea‖ or ―meaning‖ is explanatory fiction, and that the speaker is

merely the locus of the verbal behavior. Behaviorist Psychology focuses on publicly observable

responses, those that can be objectively perceived, recorded, and measured. A typical behavioral

model includes classical and operant conditioning, rote verbal learning, instrumental learning, and

discrimination learning.

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Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology: Chomsky was trying to show that human

language can not be scrutinized simply in terms of observable stimuli and response. Generative

linguistics was interested not only in descriptive adequacy but also in an explanatory level.

Cognitive Psychology: Asserted that meaning, understanding, and knowing were significant for

psychological study (instead of focusing on stimulus-response connections). It tried to discover

psychological principles of organization and functioning. Cognitive psychologists, like generative

linguists use rational approach, that is, they freed themselves from the strictly empirical study of

behavior and employed the tools of logic, reason, and inference.

Constructivism: There are two branches of constructivism: A) Cognitive (Piaget) and B) Social

(Vygotsky). Cognitive constructivism emphasizes the importance of learners constructing their own

construction of reality. That is, learners must individually discover and transform complex

information if they are to make it their own.

Meaning of learning by Piaget: Learning is a developmental process that involves change, self-

generation, and construction, each building on prior learning experience.

Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cooperative learning in

constructing both cognitive and emotional images of reality. Vygotsky states: "children's thinking and

meaning-making is socially constructed and emerges out of their social interaction with their

environment."

Zone of proximal development:

The distance between learners' existing developmental state and their potential

development.(Vygotsky). It describes tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of learning

with appropriate stimuli. Piaget stressed the importance of individual cognitive development as a

relatively solitary act. On the other hand, Vygotsky maintained that social interaction was

foundational in cognitive development and rejected the notion of predetermined stages.

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 Unit Sixteen

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 2: First Language Acquisition)

Drawbacks of behaviorism: creativity is not accounted for. The abstract nature of language and

the integral relationship between meaning and utterance are unresolved (between surface and deep

structures). The surface and deep structures are not separable from a person‘s total cognitive and often

affective structures so what are the relationships between them? In order to acquire grammar through

mediation paradigms, a child must learn all the transitions among grammatical classes that are

allowable in English. The number of these is astronomical.

The Nativist Approach

Innateness Hypothesis: language acquisition is innately determined: we are born with a built-in

device of some kind that predisposes us to language. Language is a ―species specific‖ behavior and

certain moods of perception and other language related mechanisms are biologically determined. This

innate knowledge is embodied in LAD (Chomsky). Four properties of LAD: 1. Distinguishes speech

sounds from other sounds. 2. Organizes linguistic events into classes. 3. Provides knowledge of the

possibility of only a certain kind of linguistic system. 4. Constructs the simplest possible system out

of the linguistics data encountered through constant evaluation of the developing language system.

Universal Grammar (UG) attempts to discover what it is that all children regardless of the

environmental stimuli (the languages they hear around them ) bring to the language learning process.

The child‘s language at any stage is systematic in that the child is constantly forming hypotheses on

the basis of the input received and then testing those hypotheses in speech and comprehension.

Generative linguistics observed that the child‘s first two word utterances seemed to manifest two

separate word classes and not simply two words thrown together at random. Hence, the first rule of

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the generative grammar of the child is as follows: sentence  pivot word +open word. Linguists

noted that the words on the left hand side seemed to belong to a class that words on the right hands

side generally did not belong to. Chomskyan generative rule model was challenged by PDP or

connectionism which assums that those generative rules or items in a linguistic sense are connected

serially with one connection between each pair of neurons in the brain. In PDP neurons in the brain

are said to form multiple connections. Accordingly, linguistic performance is the consequence of

many levels of simultaneous neural interconnections and not a serial presses of one rule being applied

than another and so forth.

Contributions of the nativist framework: 1. Freedom from the restrictions of the so-called

scientist method to explore unobservable abstract linguistic structures being developed in the child. 2.

Systematic description of the child‘s linguistic repertoire as either rule-governed or operating out of

PDP capacities 3. The construction of a number of potential properties of UG.

Functional approach: The generative rules of nativist model dealt not with the very deepest level of

language. Linguists began to see that language can not be detached from cognitive or affective

framework. Linguistic rules written as mathematical questions failed to capture the elusive facet of

language. The generative rules of nativism failed to account for the functions of language.

Pivot grammar was criticized by Bloom (1971). ―Mommy sock‖ depending on the context could mean

a number of different things to the child: A) agent-action; Mommy is putting the sock on. B) agent-

object; Mommy sees the sock. C) possessor-possessed; Mommy‘s sock.

In all languages, semantic learning depends on cognitive development. Piaget described language

development as the result of children‘s interaction with their environment with an interaction between

their cognitive abilities and their linguistic experience.

Bloom (1976): an explanation of language development depends on an explanation of the

cognitive underpinnings of language. They tackle the formulation of the rules of the functions of

language and the relationships of the forms of language to those functions and look at the interaction

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between the child‘s language acquisition and the learning of how social systems operate in human

behavior; the function of language in discourse. The focus once again is on the performance

(communicative function of language). The linguistics can no longer deal with abstract formal rules.

Competence and performance: Langue and parole (or idealized speaker-hearer: Chomsky's point

was that a theory of language had to be a theory of competence for fear that the linguist vainly try to

categorize an infinite number of performance variables which are not reflective of the underlying

linguistic ability of the speaker-hearers.

Criticism: how do you infer competence from performance? By an idealized hearer –speaker, we just

disclaim responsibility.

Comprehension and production: Comprehension is as much performance as production is. General

superiority of comprehension over production is obvious since children understand more than they

produce, so it is necessary to make a distinction between production competence and comprehension

competence.

Nature or Nurture: LAD or UG simply postpones facing the central issue of the nature of the human

being's capacity for language acquisition (LA). Having explained "LA", one must now explain LAD.

What are the properties of LAD and how are they transmitted? What are those behaviors nature

provides innately and what are those that are learned and internalized by environment exposure, by

nature, or by teaching?

Bickerton (1981): Humans are bio-programmed to proceed from stage to stage.

Universals: The deep structure of language at its deepest level may be common to all languages.

Systematicity and Variability: The nature of the learning process is systematic, but there is an

equally remarkable amount of reliability in the process of learning both during LA and after it.

Language and Thought: Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity argues that each language

imposes on its speaker a particular world view. It is interesting to determine how thought effects

language, how language effects thought, what is the interaction of the two. We do know that language

is at the function of our being and interacts simultaneously with thoughts and feelings.

Imitation: can be 1. Surface-structure imitation 2. Deep-structure imitation

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Practice: A behavioristic model claims that practice is the key to habit formation by operant

conditioning. Children's practice seems to be a key to LA.

Input: Its role in child's LA is crucial; parental linguistic input is selective. Children react to deep

structure not surface structure (Example: Child: ―Dat Harry‖. Mother: ―No, that's John‖. Child: ―oh,

dad John‖). Adult input shapes child's acquisition, and the interaction patterns change according to the

increasing language skill of the child.

Discourse: For successful LA, interaction rather than exposure is required. Functions of language are

important (for example, questions are not simply questions; they can be requests for information).

Unit Seventeen

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 3: Age and Acquisition)

Comparing and contrasting first and second language acquisition: Stern (1970) has summarized some

myths about the relationship between L1A and L2A: 1. We must practice again and again. 2. Learning

is mainly a matter of imitation. 3. We practice separate sounds, then words (natural order). 4.

Understanding always precedes speaking. 5. Listening and speaking occur first then reading and

writing (natural order). 6. There must be no translation. 7. Teachers should not explain grammar.

David Ausubel (1964) tried to demythologize some of these statements.

The critical period hypothesis: A biologically determined period of life when language is acquired

more easily and beyond which time is increasingly difficult to acquire: a biological timetable. This

critical period for SL learning is to be around puberty beyond which people can‘t acquire a native like

accent.

Neurobiology: is the study of the function of the brain in the process of acquisition.

Neurobiological considerations: A) Hemispheric lateralization. B) Biological timetable (socio-

biological critical period). C) Right-hemispheric participation. D) Anthropological evidence

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The role of lateralization in second language acquisition suggested by Scovel: He suggested that

lateralization deprives the brain of its plasticity and makes a SL difficult to acquire. According to

Scovel, an accent emerging after puberty is the price we pay for our genetic ability to be articulate

apes.

Siocio-biological critical period: Birds and mammals develop a social bonding accent at puberty to

attract mates of their own kind and form an identity with their own community.

The role of right hemisphere in SLA: Obler: there is significant right hemisphere participation

during the early stage of SLA. This participation consists of strategies like guessing at meanings and

the use of formulaic utterances. One can make a strong argument for a critical period of language

acquisition by connecting LA and the concrete/formal stage transition(at puberty according to Piaget ,

a person becomes capable of abstraction and formal thinking).

Asubel: Adult learning a SL could profit from certain grammatical explanation and deductive

thinking that obviously would be pointless for a child. But why can't adult learn a SL

successfully?Maybe the problem is somewhere else.

Ellen Rosansky (1975): The child is highly centered and therefore is lacking flexibility and

decentration, unaware of acquiring a language, and of social values.

Lateralization: it is possible that dominance of the left hemisphere contributes to a tendency to

overanalyze and to be too intellectually centered on the task of second language learning.

Equilibration: cognition is the process of moving from states of doubt and uncertainty

(disequilibrium) to stages of resolution and certainty (equilibrium). In short: cognition is the process

of moving from disequilibrium to equilibrium. The final stages of equilibrium is at 14 or 15.

Disequilibrium is the key motivation for LA, language interacts with cognition to achieve equilibrium

(children are indifferent to cognitive ambiguity)

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D. Ausubel's distinction between rote and meaningful learning: Children's practice and imitation

is a meaningful activity, contextualized and purposeful. Maybe the superiority of children is not in

their age, but the context of learning; The child learns meaningfully and adults do not.

Affective considerations: A) Egocentricity. B) The role of attitude. C) Peer pressure. Children are

egocentric, see all events as focusing on themselves. As children grow older they become more self-

conscious (aware of themselves) and understand their self-identity (a rattle held in a baby's hand is an

extension of the baby as long as it's grasped; when the baby drops it, it ceases to exist). Older people

develop inhibition about their self-identity.

Alexander Guiora's language ego is the identity a person develops in reference to the language he or

she speaks. The child's ego is dynamic and a new language doesn't pose a threat or inhibition to the

ego. Later, language learners become defensive and protective. The acquisition of a new language is

an enormous undertaking (security with first identity) so that is why SLA in adults is difficult.

The role of attitude: children don't have attitudes towards races, cultures, ethnic groups, classes of

people, languages.

Peer pressure: children are harsher critics of one another's action and words. So they provide a

necessary and sufficient degree of pressure.

Linguistic considerations: Children learning two languages simultaneously acquire them by the use

of similar strategies (learning two first languages--two meaning system): coordinate and compound

bilingualism. In adults interference exists but this does not imply that interference is the most relevant,

most crucial factor in adult SLA. Adults show errors found in children learning their first language.

The first language, for cognitive and affective reasons, does not pose the same degree of interference

in children learning a second language as it does in adults. Adults show errors which are the result of

their creative construction and interference. Adults and children appear to have the capacity to acquire

a SL at any age. If a person does not acquire a SL successfully, it is probably because of cognitive or

affective variables and not the absence of innate capacity.

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 Unit Eighteen

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 4: Human Learning)

To train a dog: 1. Entry behavior is specified. 2. Goals of the task are specified. 3. The method of

training is determined. 4. Evaluation procedures are specified.

Classical behaviorism (Pavolov): Learning is the formation of association between stimulus (the

sound of the bell) and reflexive response (salvation). Here learning is a mechanical process not

mentalistic.

Skinner's operant conditioning: Operants are classes of response (crying) emitted and governed by

their consequences (unknown stimuli). In contrast, Pavolv's respondents are sets of responses that

are elicited by identifiable stimuli. Crying can be both respondent and operant. Respondent is

sometimes elicited in direct reaction to hurt. Operant: however, is an emitted response that produces

the consequences of getting fed. Punishment is the withdrawal of positive reinforcement or the

representation of an aversive stimulus. Skinner states that the best method of extinction is the absence

of any reinforcement.

Two side of the coin: 1. Human behavior can be predicted and controlled. 2. The other side which is

a complex variable can't be predicted.

Ausubel's Meaningful learning theory (subsumption): Rote learning: the process of acquiring

materials as discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to cognitive structure only in

arbitrary and verbatim fashion, not permitting the establishment of (meaningful) relationships.

Meaningful learning: a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established

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entities in cognitive structure. The very fact that the material is subsumable, that is, relatable to stable

elements in cognitive structure, accounts for its meaningfulness.

Manufacturing meaningfulness: we can make things meaningful if necessary and if we are strongly

motivated to do so.

Systematic forgetting: forgetting is really a second or "obliterative" stage of subsumption,

characterized as memorial reduction or the least common demonstrator.

Cognitive pruning: the elimination of unnecessary clutter and a clearing of the way for more material

to enter the cognitive field. Note that subsumptive forgetting and pruning is systematic.

Language attrition: reversal of the acquisition process (about second language long-term forgetting).

Reasons why language attribution happens include: 1. Strength and conditions of initial learning.

2. The kind of use that a second language has been put to. 3. Motivational factors. 4. Lack of

integrative orientation toward the target culture. 5. Subtractive bilingualism. 6. Neurolinguistic

blocking. 7. Left-right brain functioning.

Roger's Humanistic Psychology: 1. It has an affective focus rather than a cognitive one. 2. He

studied the "whole person" as a physical and cognitive but primarily emotional being. 3. Fully

functioning persons live at peace with all of their feelings and reactions. They are able to reach their

full potential. The implication is that the focus is away from "teaching" and toward "learning". The

goal of education is the facilitation of change and learning. Learning how to learn is more important

than being taught something from the "superior" vantage point of a teacher who unilaterally decides

what shall be taught. In this approach to be a facilitator, the teacher must: 1. Be real and genuine,

discarding masks of superiority and omniscience. 2. Accept the student as a worthy individual. 3.

Communicate openly and emphatically with students. Roger feels if the context for learning is

properly created, then human beings will learn everything they need to. Flaws of this psychology: 1.

Allowing students to discover facts is time-consuming. 2. A nonthreatening environment might

become so nonthreatening that the facilitative tension needed for learning is absent. 3. Positive effects

of competitiveness are well-known.

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Pedogogy of the oppressed (Paolo Freire): 1. Empowerment of student in classroom. 2. Objection to

banking concepts of education (filling student by making deposits of information that are considered

true knowledge which are detached from reality. 3. Students should be allowed to negotiate learning

outcomes, to cooperate with teacher and other students. 4. Engage in critical thinking. 5. They should

be empowered to achieve solutions to real problems in the real world.

Types of learning: 1. Signal learning: a general response to signal. 2. Stimulus-response learning:

a precise response to a discriminated stimulus. 3. Chaining: a chain of two or more stimulus-response

connections. 4. Verbal association: learning of chains that are verbal. 5. Multiple discrimination:

make a number of different identifying responses to many different stimuli. 6. Concept learning: a

process of forming concept. 7. Principle learning: a chain of two or more concepts. 8. Problem-

solving: requires thinking.

Transfer, interference, and overgeneralization: Transfer is the carryover of previous performance

or knowledge to subsequent learning. Two kinds of transfer: 1. Positive transfer: occurs when the

prior knowledge benefits the learning task. 2. Negative transfer (interference): occurs when

previous performance disrupts the performance of a second task. Generalization: to generalize means

to infer or derive a law, rule, or conclusion usually from the observation of particular instances.

Meaningful learning is generalization: items are generalized under higher-order categories for

meaningful retention. In second language acquisition, overgeneralization occurs as the second

language learner acts within the target language, generalizing a rule or item in SL -irrespective of

native language-beyond legitimate bounds. Note that all generalizing involves transfer and all transfer

involves generalizing.

Gardner’s different kinds of intelligence: 1. linguistic intelligence 2. logical-mathematical 3.

musical 4. spatial 5. bodily-kinesthetic 6. naturalist 7. interpersonal 8. intrapersonal. Our traditional

definition of intelligence is culture-bound. The sixth sense of a hunter in New Guinea or the

navigational abilities of a sailor are not accounted for in our Westernized definition of IQ.

Sternberg's three types of "smartness": 1. componential ability for analytical thinking. 2.

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experiential ability to engage in creative thinking, combining disparate experience in insightful ways.

3. contextual ability: "street smartness" that enables people to "play the game" of manipulating their

environment (others, situation, institutions, contexts). Oller believes that intelligence may be

language-based, the very foundation of intelligence may be language. The implication is that both NL

and SL must be closely tied to meaning in its deepest sense---meaningful experience.

Unit Nineteen

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 5: Styles and Strategies)

Process: is the most general of the three concepts. All human beings engage in a certain universal

process. It is characteristic of every human.

Style: consistent and enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual which differentiate you

from somebody else: general characteristics of intellectual functioning.

Strategies: contextualized "battle plans" that might vary from moment to moment or day to day or

year to year. Strategies vary intraindividually. There are many possible ways to solve a certain

problem and we choose one or more for given problem.

Learning styles: the link between personality and cognition is called cognitive style; when they are

related to an educational context they are called learning styles. Learning styles moderate between

emotion and cognition; our styles are determined by the way we internalize our total environment, and

cognitive, affective, physiological domains merge in learning styles. An "intelligent" and

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"successful" person is one who is "bicognitive"—one who can manipulate both ends of a style

continuum.

Field Independence/ Dependence: FI style enables you to distinguish parts from a whole, to

concentrate on something (like reading a book in a noisy train station), or to analyze separate

variables without the contamination of neighboring variables (too much can backfire: you can't see the

forest for the trees). Some degree of both is necessary. Authoritarian, socialized, empathetic feelings

and thoughts tend to produce more FD, democratic, independent, competitive society, self -confident,

deductive, analytical ones tend to produce more FI. Two hypotheses: 1. Superiority of FI style for SL

success: research supports this. 2. FD learners are successful in learning communication (they are

socialized). Research is lacking because of the lack of true FD tests. It seems that FD is for natural

learning and FI for classroom. The distinction between acquisition and learning can be explicated by

the FI/FD dichotomy. FL and FD are not in complementary distribution; it is incorrect to assume that

learners should be either FL or FD. Given certain contexts, the choice varies, so FI/FD is

contextualized and variable. Flexibility is needed on the part of the learner.

Left-right brain functioning: certain functions are lateralized, both hemispheres operate as a team.

Left-brain is deductive and right-brain is inductive (not in complementary distribution).

Ambiguity tolerance: tolerate contradictory ideas (closed-minded dogmatic versus open-minded).

Successful learning necessitates tolerance of ambiguity.

Criticism: few people see thing in black and white with no shade of gray.

Reflectivity and Impulsivity: (systematic vs. intuitive style). Reflectives make few errors but are

slower reader, more calculated. Inductives are reflective. Deductives are impulsive. Impulsives are

better learners but impulsivity does not always imply accuracy. Reflectives may require practice from

the teacher.

Visual and Auditory styles: Successful learners utilize both. There are cross-cultural differences;

Japanese are the least auditory.

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Strategies: 1. Learning Strategies. 2. Communication Strategies. 3. Compensation Strategies.

Learning strategies relate to input. Communication strategies relate to output.

Learning strategies:

A) Metacognitive: advance organizer, directed attention, selective attention, self-management,

functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production and self-evaluation.

B) Cognitive: repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination,

imagery, auditory representation, keyword, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing.

C) Socio-affective: cooperation, question for clarification.

Communication strategies: Avoidance: message avoidance, topic avoidance

Compensatory strategies: circumlocution, approximation, use of all-purpose words, word coinage,

prefabricated patterns, nonlinguistic signals, foreignizing, code-switching, appeal for help, stalling or

time-gaining strategies.

Unit Twenty

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 6: Personality Factors)

Bloom's definition of affective domain: 1. Development of affectivity begins with receiving. 2.

Responding. 3. Valuating (internalized values). 4. Organization of values into a system of beliefs. 5.

Understanding oneself in terms of their value system. This taxonomy was devised for understanding

human behavior but we know that language is behavior. Understanding how humans feel and respond

and believe and value is an important aspect of a theory of SLA.

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Affective factors in second language acquisition: Self-esteem, Inhibition, Risk-taking, Anxiety,

Extroversion/introversion, motivation

Self-esteem: is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual

holds toward himself; a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal

reports and other expressive behavior (Coopersmith, 1967).

Three general levels of self-esteem have been described in the literature to capture its

multidimensionality: 1. General or global self-esteem (stable). 2. Situational or specific self-esteem

(certain situations). 3. Task self-esteem (tasks)

Inhibition: We build defenses to protect the ego. High self-esteem has lower defenses and vice versa.

Human ego encompasses what Guiora calls "language ego". A new language brings a type of identity

conflict which may impede success.

Ehrman (1993): thin and thick ego boundaries form different pathway to success. A language without

making mistakes is impossible and this poses a threat to ego (external and internal threat) and

therefore there is conflict between the learner‘s critical self and his performing self. Thus, there exists

an alienation between the two, between NL and TL, me and teacher, me and students (Stevick, 1976).

Risk-taking: good language learners make intelligent guesses, also impulsivity enhances language

success. So risk-taking is an important feature of successful language learning; students should

gamble a bit, and take the risk of being wrong.

Beebe (1983): highly motivated students are moderate not high risk-taker. Fossilization may be due to

unwillingness to take risks. Rubin (1975): self-esteem is linked to risk-taking.

Anxiety: feeling of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt, apprehension, doubt. Two levels of anxiety:

Trait anxiety: is a more permanent predisposition to be anxious. State anxiety: is experienced in

relation to some particular event or act, is temporary, and is useful in SLA. Three components of

foreign language anxiety (state anxiety) have been identified in order to break down the construct into

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researchable issues: 1. Communicational anxiety 2. Fear of negative social evaluation 3. Test anxiety.

Two kinds of anxiety: 1. Debilitative 2. Facilitative.

Empathy: social nature of language, relationship between society and language is complex.

Acculturation and social interaction are complex. Transaction is the process of reaching out beyond

the self to others. Empathy and extroversion are variables of social transaction. Definition: putting

yourself into somebody else 's shoes, reaching beyond the self and understanding or feeling what

another person is understanding or feeling (immediate emotional apprehension of the affective

experience of another). Empathy and sympathy: they are not synonymous. Empathy implies more

possibilities of detachment.. Sympathy connotes an agreement or harmony between individuals. Two

aspects of empathy: 1. Knowledge of one's own feelings. 2. Identification with another person.

Communication requires empathy (in oral communication there is immediate feedback,

misunderstanding is resolved). Some interesting questions are: .how can one enhance empathy in

class? is it possible to define empathy cross-culturally? how different culture express empathy.

Extroversion /introversion: Talkativeness is not the criteria of extroversion. Extroversion is the

extent to which a person needs to receive ego enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness

from other people as opposed to receiving that affirmation within oneself. Extroverts need other

people in order to feel "good", and may be shy. Introverts have an inner strength of character that

extroverts don't have. Extroversion may not be related to empathy; extroverts behave in a way to

protect their ego not to empathize. Introverts may show high empathy by understanding others.

Cultural norms must be considered.

Mayer-Briggs Character Types: relationship between personality type and success. How unique

every individual is. Jung (1923): people are different in fundamental ways (importance of individual

variation).

Four Contrasts: 1. introverts vs. extroversion 2. sensing and perceiving the world vs. intuition 3.

thinking vs. feeling 4. judging vs. perceiving

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Personality types: We should not be so quick to conclude that psychological type can predict

successful and unsuccessful learners. Success in SLA depends on the mobilization of the strategies

associated with one's native learning-style preferences. That is, successful learners know their

preferences, their strength, and their weakness, and effectively utilize their strengths and compensate

for weaknesses regardless of their "natural" preferences.

Tests of measuring Affective Factors can be culturally ethnocentric , cross-culturally uninterpretable.

Motivation: An inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action. Keller

(1983): the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid and the

degree of effort they will exert in that respect.

Some define motivation in terms of needs like Ausubel‘s (1968) cognitive view: the need for 1.

exploration 2. manipulation 3. activity 4. stimulation 5. knowledge. 6. ego enhancement. This is called

the "need concept of motivation" (fundamental needs to higher needs of identity like self-actualization

(Maslow, 1970). Motivation from bahavioristic view: motivation is the anticipation of reward.

Motivation from the constructivist view: it is the social interaction. Motivation is of two types: a.

intrinsic b. extrinsic. Motivation has three levels:1. global 2. situational 3. task-based. SLA requires

some of all three levels of motivation. Motivation: 1. Integrative 2. Instrumental 3. Assimilative.

Instrumental motivation: refers to motivation to integrate oneself within the culture of the SL group,

to identify oneself with and become part of the society. Research findings: certain contexts point

toward instrumental motivation as an effective motive for SLA success and others favor instrumental

motivation (Gardner and Maclntyre, 1991). Some learners are successful in learning a language if

they are integratively-oriented and others in different contexts benefit from an instrumental

orientation. It is easy to conclude that SLA involves taking a new identity but such is not the case. The

identity crisis may be more cognitive than affective (French–speaking Africans are instrumentally

motivated but they don't face an affective crisis. The FL does not carry a heavy cultural loading. So,

assimilative motivation is the drive to become an indistinguishable member of a speech community

and it requires prolonged contact with the SL culture. Therefore, one can be integratively oriented

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without desiring to lose oneself in the target culture; the purpose is communication but does not

require prolonged context.

Intrinsic motivation: intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent

reward except the activity itself: activities for their own sake, for certain internally rewarding

consequences (feelings of competence and self determination).

Extrinsic motivation: anticipation of reward from outside and beyond the self; money, prizes,

grades, are positive feedback. Research favors intrinsic motivation.

Piaget: disequilibrium intending to conquer the challenging situation is motivating: incongruity is not

motivating but optimal incongruity is. No matter what extrinsic rewards are present or absent, we will

strive for self-esteem and fulfillment (Maslow, 1970).

Jerome Bruner (1966) praising the" autonomy of self-reward" claimed that one of the most effective

ways to help both children and adults think and learn is to free them from the control of rewards and

punishments.

Putting method into perspective from 1880s to mid 1980s, the search for methods (a hundred years of

methodical history), but the last few yeas of 20th century are characterized by a dynamic approach to

language teaching in which there is a search for valid communicative interactive techniques suitable

for specified learners learning specific goals in specific contexts.

Edward Anthony (1963): Approach (set of assumptions), Method (overall plan), Technique

(specific activities). Example: lowering anxiety is helpful in learning (approach); Suggestopedia

(method) and Baroque music(technique).

Richard and Rodger (1982): Approach (assumptions, theories), Design (relation of theories to class

materials and activities), procedure (technique and practices). To Richards and Rodger, method is

and umbrella term for the specification and interaction of theory and practice. Six important features

of design: 1. objectives 2. syllabus 3. activities 4. learner roles 5. teacher roles 6. the role of

instructional materials. Methods are too restrictive, pre-programmed and pre-packaged; all methods

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make the oversimplified assumption that what teachers do in the classroom can be conventionalized

into a set of procedures that fits all contexts. Methodology: study of pedagogical practices in general

(theoretical underpinning of related research). Approach: theories about the nature of language,

language learning, applicability of both to pedagogical setting. Method: a set of prescribed classroom

specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives, role of teacher, learners, materials sequencing.

Curriculum (syllabus): designs for carrying out a particular program, objectives. So, methods are

now given minor attention. David Nunan (1991): it's been realized that there never was and probably

never will be a method for all, and the focus in recent years has been on the development of classroom

tasks and activities which are concerned with what we know about SLA, and which are also in

keeping with the dynamics of the classroom itself. In other words, we are in a post-method era.

Unit Twenty One

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 7: Socio-cultural Factors)

Culture: ideas, customs, skills, and tools that characterize a given group of people in a given period

of time, but culture is more than the sum of its parts. The mental constructs that enable us to survive

are a way of life that we call "culture". Universals of cultural patterns of behavior (George

Mordock , 1961): 1. They originate in human mind 2. Facilitate human and environment interactions

3. Satisfy basic human needs 4. They are communicative and adjust to changes 5. Tend to form a

consistent structure are transmitted to new generations.

Culture is a context of cognitive behavior, a blueprint for personal and social existence, but we tend to

conceive reality strictly within the context of our own culture. This is a reality we have created which

is not necessarily an objective reality. The universe of reality in which each of us exists is not a

universal reality but a category of reality consisting of selectively organized features considered

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significant by the society in which we live (Condon 1973). Perception involves filtering information

before storing it, resulting in a selective form of conscious misunderstanding. SLA is also the

acquisition of a second culture.

Cultural Stereotypes: A differing perception is seen either as false or storage and is thus

oversimplified. A stereotype is an oversimplification and a blanket assumption: it is assuming an

individual as having a certain feature based on his group membership; it may be the feature of a

"typical" member but every person is unique and all his behavioral features can't be predicted based

on cultural norms (all American are rich and informal, the British are reserved and polite). Positive

aspects of stereotyping: accumulation of stereotyped images help understand another culture in

general and the differences between that culture and his own (example: Americans think of distances

in broad categories while French think of distances in narrower categories). Negative aspects of

stereotypes: 1. False stereotyping: our oversimplified concepts are downright false (Americans think

Japanese are unfriendly because of their politeness). 2. Judging a single member of a culture by

overall features of the culture 3. Devaluing people from different cultures. Learners and teachers need

to understand cultural differences, appreciate them, respect, value, prize the personalities of every

human being; people are unique.

Attitude: stereotyping implies some type of attitude toward the second culture or language. Biased or

negative attitudes are based on insufficient knowledge, misinformed stereotyping and extreme

ethnocentric thinking. The most important component of motivation is the learners' attitudes toward

the people whose language they are learning. That attitude is a factor of their attitudes toward their

native culture, their degree of ethnocentericism and the extent to which they foster their own language

over the SL. Positive attitudes enhance motivation and this in turn leads to better learner's learning.

Acculturation: the process of becoming adapted to anew culture is complex (a new identity). A

person's world view, self-identity, and system of thinking , acting, feeling and communicating can be

disrupted by a change from one culture to another.

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Culture Shock: refers to phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological crisis. It's

associated with feelings in the learner of estrangement, anger, hostility, indecision, frustration,

unhappiness, sadness, loneliness, homesickness, and even physical illness. As long as one can filter

and internalize the environment in his own world view he feels at ease. As soon as he feels cognitive

and affective contradictions, he becomes disoriented. (insecurity→alienation→defensive mechanism;

repression, regression, isolation and rejection).

Four successive stages of acculturation: 1. Period of excitement over the newness of surroundings.

2. Culture shock. 3. Gradual recovery (culture stress), some problems of acculturation are solved.

Slow progress: the learner slowly become more empathetic (Anomie: Durkheim, 1897: the first

symptom of the third stage, a feeling of homelessness where one feels neither bond firmly to one's

native culture nor fully adapted to the second culture). 4. Full recovery→adaptation, assimilation,

acceptance, self-confidence in the new identity. Peter Adler (1972) points out that culture shock,

while surly possessing manifestation of crisis, can also be viewed more positively as a profound

cross-cultural learning experience during which one becomes aware of himself, understands his

identity, his own culture, cultural values and influences.

Culture in the classroom: Stevick (1978): learners can feel alienation in SLA; alienation from

people from their home culture, the target culture, and themselves. We need to be sensitive to the

feelings of students by using methods that promote cultural understanding (role play promotes cross-

cultural dialogue). The teacher can help them more through the stages of acculturation. They should

not try to bypass the second stage (anomie: these are real feelings→need to be openly expressed).

Learners from different cultures bring with them to the new situation the patterns of good behavior

learned in their home culture, and apply those expectations to their new situation (Example: A

Japanese student→respect to teacher, never call him by a first name→in America→confusion and

contradictions).

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 Unit Twenty Two

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 8: Cross-linguistic Influence and Learner Language)

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis is deeply rooted in the behaviorism and structuralism approaches.

CAH claimed that the main barrier to SLA is the inference of NL-system (first language system) with

the SL system (second language system). CAH, by analyzing of the two languages provides a

taxonomy of linguistic contrasts between them which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the

difficulties a learner would face. It was considered feasible that the tools of structural linguistic, such

as Fries`s slot-filler grammar, would enable a linguist to describe the language. Behaviorism that

human behavior is the sum of smallest parts of that SLA is the acquisition of all of these discrete

unites. Robert Lado: these elements that are similar to NL will be simple for him and those that are

different will be difficult the way to ease or difficulty in SLA was in the comparison between NL and

TL.

Four procedures of CAH (Randal Whitman): 1) Description2) Selection 3) Contrast 4) Prediction. It is

clear that CAH is subjective.

Clifford Parator: A) Level 0: no difference or contract is presented between the two languages. B)

Level 1: coalescence: two items in the native language become coalesced into TL (Ex: distinction

between teach and learn, and the use of just the one word apprendre in French). C) Level 2:

underdifferentiation: an item in the native language is absent in the target language. (Ex: ‫ چ‬in Arabic).

D) Level 3: reinterpretation: an item that is given a new shape or distribution. (Ex: an English speaker

learning French must learn a new distribution for nasalized vowels.) E) Level 4: overdifferentiation:

a new item must be learned. F) Level 5: split: one item becomes two (Ex: ‫ او‬in Persian becomes he or

she).

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Note: Such a narrow view of interference ignored the intralingual effects of learning.

Moderating the CAH: A) Ronald Wardhaugh called the attempt to predict difficulty by means of CA

the strong version of CAH and believed that it was unrealistic and impracticable because of: 1) The

lack of a set of linguist universals formulated within a linguistic theory. 2) The lack of an adequat

procedure for actually contrasting the forms of languages. 3) Subjectivity of CA.

Also in a research project Witman and Jackson concluded: CA is adequate to predict the inference

problems of language learning. It is really only in the phonological component of language that CA is

mildly successful (it is a psychomotor skill relay on muscular coordination but syntactic, semantic or

lexical interference is not that predictable because it is a relay on cognitive coordination).

B) The Weak version of CA recognize the significance of interference across languages but it also

recognizes that linguistic difficulties can be more profitably explained aposteriori (after the fact) not a

priori in order to understand sources of error. So, the weak version is observational and is based on

experience, intuition and observation. C) The Moderate version of CA (Oller and Zia Hosseiny):

English spelling is more difficult for people whose native language uses a Roman script than for those

whose NL uses a non-Roman script (Arabic). The strong version of CA here would have predicted the

opposite. They concluded a moderate version based on the nature of human learning and not just on

the contrast between two the languages has a more explanatory power. The moderate version states

wherever patterns are minimally distinct in form or meaning in one or more systems, confusion may

result.

Markedness and UG: Fred Eckman: marked items in a language will be more difficult to learn than

unmarked ones (an is more difficult than a). The unmarked form has a wider distribution.

Interlanguage: SLA is a creative process of constructing a system, hypothesis testing about TL. The

learner is constructing what is a legitimate system of language in its own right, a structural set of rules

that for the time being provide order to the linguistic input that confirm them. It's a gradual process of

trial and error in which learners succeed in establishing closer and closer approximation to the system

used by native speakers of the language. Interlanguage (Selinker) refers to the separateness of a SL

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learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the NL and TL. Nemser

called this an appreciative system. Corder called this an idiosyncratic dialect (the learner's language

is unique to a particular individual). Interlanguage is a system based on the best attempts of learners to

provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. The learner's interlanguage

should not be considered as an imperfect system (hypothesis testing). Correct production yields little

information about interlanguage. So a better approach is to study the errors of learners.

Error Analysis: Learning is a process in which success comes by profiting from mistakes, by using

mistakes to obtain feedback from the environment and with that feedback to make new attempts

which successively more closely approximate desired goals. Children make countless errors. SLA is

like NLA in its trail and error nature. Corder: A learner's errors are significant in that they provide to

the researcher evidence of how language is learned, what strategies he is employing in the discovering

of the language.

Mistakes and Errors: A mistake is a performance error that is either a random guess or a slip in that

it is a failure to utilize known system correctly. It is not the result of a deficiency in competence.

Errors are idiosyncrasies in the interlanguage of the learner that are direct manifestations of a system

with which a learner is operating at the time. An error is a noticeable deviation from the adult

grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner.

(He cans sing------error------he can sing ----mistake)

(He wills sing------error------he will sing ----mistake)

(He mays sing------error------he may sing ----mistake)

Error Analysis becomes distinguished from CA by its examination of errors attributable to all possible

sources, not just those which result from negative transfer of the NL. Why EA easily superseded

CA? Because 1) Learners do not make all the errors that CA predicted they should. 2) Only some

errors are attributable to native language. 3) Learners from different languages make similar errors.

Shortcoming of Error Analysis: 1) Too much attention to errors; correct utterances may go

unnoticed. Reinforcement of fluency, correct form may be given less attention. 2) Overstressing

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production data, ignoring comprehension data. 3) Absence of error does not reflect native like

competence since learners may be avoiding the very structures that create difficulty for them.

Identifying and describing Errors: Problem in understanding the linguistic systems of NL and SL

learners are that: 1) Such systems cannot be directly observed but infered from production and

comprehension data. 2) Instability of learner`s systems. In Corder`s Model for identifying errors, a

distinction is made between: 1) Overt or sentence level (ungrammatical at the sentence level). 2)

Covert or discourse level errors (grammatically well-formed at the sentence level but are not

interpretable within the context of communication).

Lennon`s categories for description of errors: 1) The most generalized breakdown can be made by

identifying errors of addition, omission, substitution, and ordering, following standard mathematical

categories. 2) Within each category, levels of language can be considered: phonology or orthography,

lexicon, grammar, and discourse. 3) Errors may also be viewed as either global or local. Global errors

hinder communication (A scissors). 4) Two related dimensions of errors, domain and extent should be

considered in any error analysis. Domain is the rank of linguistic unit (from phoneme to discourse)

that must be taken as context in order for the error to become apparent, and extent is the rank of

linguistic unit that would have to be deleted, replaced, supplied, or reordered in order to repair the

sentence.

Stages of learner language development: Variability of learners  stages of development defy

description. Corder and Brown: 1) The first is a stage of random errors, what Corder called "

presystematic"; the learner guesses. 2) The second is emergent: learner has begun to discern a

system and to internalize certain rules. These rules may not be correct by target language standards,

but they are legitimate in the mind of the learner (in "backsliding", the learner regresses to some

previous stage; avoidance of structures and topics). 3) A third stage is systematic stage: rules are not

still all well-formed but are more internally self-consistent; more closely approximate the target

language system. The most salient difference between the second and third stage is the ability of

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learners to correct their errors when they are pointed out. 4) A final stage is stabilization stage; in

Corder`s terms "post systematic" stage: few errors, fluency, ability to self-correct.

Shortcomings of the stages of interlanguage development: 1) The four stages do not describe a

learner's total SL system. 2) It's hard to say that a learner in at an emergent stage globally for all of the

linguistic subsystems of language. 3) They do not account for functional, sociolinguistic or nonverbal

strategies which are important in assessing the total competence of SL. 4) Learners‘ production errors

are inadequate measures of overall competence. 5) Correct utterances deserve our attention and

especially in the learning process, deserve positive reinforcement.

Sources of Error: 1) Interlingual Transfer 2) Intralingual Transfer 3) Context of Learning (teacher,

textbook can lead learner to make faulty hypothesis  induced errors or false concepts  bookish for

example) 4) Communication strategies (learners use production strategies to enhance conveying their

messages but these strategies may be a source of error).

Fossilization: Persistent errors despite what is otherwise a fluent command of the language. The

relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a person's second language

competence has been referred to as fossilization. Fossilization and learning take place by means of the

same learning processes. So, fossilization is consistent with the laws of human learning.

Oller: two kinds of information transmitted between source and audience: 1) Information about the

affective relationship (non-linguistic) between source and audience. 2) Cognitive information

(linguistic). The feedback from an audience can be positive, negative or neutral. Negative feedback

regardless of the degree of cognitive feedback will result in the abortion of future attempts to

communicate. Positive feedback is positive. Fossilized forms are those that gain first positive affective

feedback (I like it) and then positive cognitive feedback (I understand), reinforcing an incorrect form

of language. Cognitive feedback must be optimal not too much negative or positive.

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 Unit Twenty Three

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 9: Communicative Competence)

CC was coined by Dell Hymes. He believed Chomsky's notion of competence was too limited.

Chomsky's rule –governed creativity did not account sufficiently for the social and functional rules of

language. In his paper on communicative competence, he distinguished four components of CC:

knowledge of what is: 1) Possible 2) Feasible 3) Appropriate 4) Actually done. Chomsky had

distinguished between: 1) Competence (the speaker-hearers knowledge of his language) and 2)

Performance (the actual use of language in concrete situations). Chomsky argued that only the

knowledge of an idealized speaker-hearer (the former) is the proper subject-matter of linguistics.

Hymes‘s main point is that there must be other kinds of knowledge (= rules of use) to use the

language effectively. Hymes stresses the need for a theory that can deal with a heterogamous speech

community, differential competence (variation between individuals), the rule of sociocultural features,

contextual styles, etc.

Hymes's four components of CC: 1) Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible

(linguistic and nonverbal and cultural grammaticality). This aspect of competence is dependent both

on knowledge and ability for use. It can't be separated from what persons can do. 2) Whether (and to

what degree) something is possible (psycholinguistic factors, process ability, and memory limitation:"

the cheese the rat the cat the dog saw chased ate was green" is grammatically correct but

psycholinguistically difficult to process) 3) Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate

(socially). 4) Whether (and to what degree) something is actually done.

Canale and Swain's components of CC: 1. Grammatical 2. Sociolinguistic 3. Discourse 4. Strategic.

Strategic Competence was defined as verbal and nonverbal communication strategies that may be

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called into use. Canale defined strategic competence as efforts to enhance the effectiveness of

communication. Brown: Strategic Competence is the way we manipulate language in order to meet

communication goals. Widdowson suggested that each of the four elements of Hymes's CC should be

regarded as having both a competence aspect and a performance aspect. This expands Hymes's four

components to eight, but thereby avoids the constant confusion as to whether we are talking about

static interpersonal language or dynamic interpersonal.

Widdowson’s Discourse-based approach: Widdowson distinguishes between 1) use and 2) usage.

Use is the realization of the language system at meaningful communicative behavior. Usage is the

manifestation of the knowledge of language system. Both are the aspects of performance, the

distinction is based on the notion of effectiveness for communication. An utterance with a well-

formed grammatical structure may or may not have a sufficient value for communication in a given

context. Whether an utterance has a sufficient communicative value or not is determined in discourse.

This is why his approach is called discourse based approach.

Savignon: CC is relative, not absolute and depends on the corporation of all the participants involved.

It is not as much interpersonal but a dynamic interpersonal construct that can only be examined by

means of the overt performance of two or more individuals in the process of negotiating meaning, the

value of context and prior experience. James Cummins proposed a distinction between: 1)

cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) or context-reduced communication. 2) Basic

interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) or context-embedded.

Pragmatics: The effect of context on strings of linguistic events. It‘s the study of how language is

interpreted by its users in its linguistic and non-linguistic context. Pragmatic meanings which are

contextually variable are often contrasted with semantic meanings which are more fixed. The non-

linguistic context may include relationships between participants, their attitudes, their inference

procedures, their culture and world knowledge, their perception of the situation and their

paralanguage. The linguistic context may include other parts of the same text (co-text) and

participants' language of other texts (intertext). Pragmatic conventions of language are sometimes

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difficult to learn because of the disparity between language forms and functions. While forms are the

outward manifestation of language, functions are the realizations of those forms.

Language function: Communication is functional, purposive and designed to bring about some

effect. Halliday used the term function to mean the purposive nature of communication and proposed

seven different functions for language: 1) Instructional (manipulate the environment, cause certain

events to happen. 2) Regulatory (the maintenance of control). 3) Representational (make statements,

convey facts). 4) Interactional (ensure social maintenance). 5) Personal (express feelings). 6) Heuristic

(acquire knowledge). 7) Imaginative (joking, creative imaginations). These seven functions are not

mutually exclusive

Discourse Analysis: The analysis of the functions of language is called DA to capture the notion that

language is more than a sentence level phenomenon. A sentence can't be fully analyzed without

considering its context. "I didn‘t like that soup" could be an argument, a complaint, or a comment.

One learns how to do conversation how to interact verbally and out of this interaction syntactic

structures are developed. Conversation rules are one major category of discourse analysis (Hatch and

Long): 1) Attention getting 2) Topic nominalization; conversational maxims for nominating and

maintaining a topic: a) Quantity (say as much as in necessary only) b) Quality (say only what is true)

c) Relevance d) Manner (be clear) 3) Topic development, using conventions of: a) Turn-taking b)

Clarification c) Avoidance d) Shifting e) Interruption 4) Topic termination.

Styles and registers: We use different styles depending on the context of a communicative activity in

terms of: A) subject matter B) audience C) occasion D) shared experience E) purpose of

communication. A style is not a social or regional dialect but a variety of language used for a specific

purpose.

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 Unit Twenty Four

This unit is a summary of:

Douglas Brown (Chapter 10: Theories of Second Language Acquisition)

Factors to Consider: 1. a theory of SLA includes an understanding of that language is, learning is

teaching is. 2. Knowledge of children‘ learning of their L1 provides insights to an understanding of

SLA. 3. Differences between adults and child learning between L1 and SLA must be carefully

accounted for. 4. SL learning is a part of and adheres to general principle of human learning. 5. There

is variation among learners in cognitive style and within a learner in strategy choice. 6. Personality

will affect both the quality and quantity of SL learning. 7. Learning a second culture is a part of

learning a SL. 8. Inevitable aspects of the process of forming and interlanguage system are errors

form which learners and teachers can gain further insight. 9. Communicative competence is the

ultimate goal of learners as they struggle with function, discourse, register and nonverbal aspects of

human interaction and linguistic negotiation. 10. Ultimately, we can‘t know whether our teaching is

valid unless we can devise tests of language that tap into the learners‘ competence and provide us with

meaningful interpretable information. 11. A theory of SLA must be comprehensive in including as

many relevant factors as possible while at the same time it must have practical application in the real

world. Important: These 11 statements form a framework for a theory of SLA. No single component

of this theory is sufficient and the interaction and interdependence of the other components is

necessary.

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis : Two means for internalizing the TL: acquisition (a subconscious

and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language) and learning (learners attend to

form, figure out rules, and are aware of their own process). The ―monitor‖ is an aspect of learning

: it is a device for watchdogging one‘s output ,editing and making changes or corrections as they

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are consciously perceived. Fluency in SLA is due to acquisition not learning. Learning can not

become acquisition: conscious and subconscious learning of acquisition processes are mutually

exclusive; there is no interface between acquisition and learning. An important condition for LA

to occur is that the acquirer understand input language that contains structures a bit beyond his

current level of competence (i + 1) not far beyond it (i + 2) and not too close to it (I + 0) . It must

be challenging. Speech will then emerge. Krashen also claims acquisition best occurs when the

affective filter is low.

Criticisms: 1. Mclaughlin criticized his fuzzy distinction between subconscious (acquisition) and

conscious (learning) processes. Psychologists are in wide disagreement in their definition of

consciousness. The distinction is suspect. 2. There is a lack of evidence to support the claim that

there is no interface between acquisition and learning. Krashen plays loose with his distinction. 3.

He claims that comprehensible input is the only causative variable in SLA. Success can be

attributed to input alone but intake is different from input. 4. (i +1) is nothing new: Ausubel‘s

subsumption theory. How do we determine ―I‖? Speech dose not emerge at the silent period.

According to Mcaughlin‘s Attention Processing Model, we are better off not appealing forever to

the conscious-unconscious continuum, because consciousness is a tricky term (Mclaughlin).

Controlled processes (need more attention) are capacity limited and temporary and automatic

processes are relatively permanent. Automatic processes (need little attention) refer to processing

in a more ―accomplished‖ skill, where the hard drive of your brain can manage hundreds and

thousands of bits of information easily. The automatizing of this multiplicity of data is

accomplished by a process of restricting in which the components of a task are coordinated,

integrated or reorganized into new units, thereby allowing the old components to be replaced by a

more efficient procedure (Ausubel‘s subsumption). Both ends of this continuum of processing can

occur with either focal or peripheral attention to the task at hand, focusing attention either

centrally or simply on the periphery. While most controlled processes are focal, some like L1

learning can be peripheral. Similarly most automatic processes are peripheral but some can be

focal (pianist):

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Bialystok‘s Automaticity Model: A destination between explicit and implicit linguistic

knowledge. Explicit knowledge includes the facts a person knows about language and the ability

to articulate these facts in some way. Implicit knowledge is information automatically used in

language tasks. Processes are universal while strategies are optional. Modification: consisted of

hypothesizing a two dimensional framework in which analysis automaticity can interact; mental

representation can be either analyzed or unanalyzed. We are unaware of structure of unanalyzed.

Automaticity is a function of the relative access to the knowledge irrespective of its degree of

analysis. .

Unit Twenty Five

Task-based approaches to teaching and learning languages

Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an approach which offers students material which they

have to actively engage in the processing of in order to achieve a goal or complete a task. Much like

regular tasks that we perform everyday such as making the tea, writing an essay, talking to someone

on the phone, TBLT seeks to develop students‘ interlanguage through providing a task and then using

language to solve it.

Here are some of the main features of TBLT:

 meaning is primary
 there is some communication problem to solve
 there is some sort of relationship to comparable real world activities
 task completion has some priority
 the assessment is done in terms of outcomes

On the other hand, tasks:

 do not give learners other people‘s meanings to regurgitate

 are not concerned with language display
 are not conformity oriented
 are not practice oriented
 do not embed language in materials so that specific structures can be focused on

What is a task-based approach?

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We all do tasks every day; they are central to our lives. Many tasks require us to use and understand

language. Typical language-based tasks are going to the post office to send a parcel, or making an

appointment at the doctor‘s. According to where we are and who we are with we may perform

language- based tasks in our mother-tongue, in another language in which we are competent or in a

language that we are learning. In their classroom, language learners can try to complete tasks that

need language in a safe environment. As a language teacher these days, you will be familiar with

tasks to at least some extent. Most modern coursebooks are based on the principles of Communicative

Language Teaching (CLT). CLT aims to help learners use language in real communication and this

real communication often takes the form of tasks. CLT tasks are often designed to give learners

practice in particular communicative functions, for example, ‗suggesting‘, or in particular structures,

for instance, the ‗going to future‘. Unlike many earlier approaches CLT encourages genuine

interaction amongst learners. Obviously a task-based approach also requires the learners to do tasks!

So what is different about a task-based approach? Well, both approaches make use of tasks but with a

different emphasis. We could sum it up this way: in CLT tasks provide communicative practice for

language items that have been introduced in a traditional way. For example the teacher presents some

phrases for making suggestions in a context such as two friends with problems. The practice task that

follows is a role-play in which A has a problem and B has to make helpful suggestions (using the

phrases presented by the teacher) with the goal of getting A to accept one of them.

Task-based language teaching on the other hand sees tasks as giving learners direct and immediate

experience of language use in communication. Focused tasks together with pre-tasks and feedback on

tasks allow learners to notice language forms, to use them under real operating conditions and to

receive feedback on their language use. Priority is given to getting something done through language

rather than to practising predetermined language items. The emphasis is therefore on task outcome or

product, not on whether learners used a particular language form to complete the task. In other words

they have been successful if they got the task done, regardless of what language they chose to do the

task.

Tasks may involve products we find in the real world, for example, learners could be asked to produce

a restaurant guide for their town (real-world task). Or the task may involve an artificial or classroom-

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oriented product such as producing clues for a crossword puzzle (pedagogic task). In both cases

however, the learners will need to use real-world language functions such as making suggestions and

negotiating. But their task is to create an end product, not to practise ‗making suggestions‘. Meaning

is paramount.

Why use a task-based approach?

There are three main reasons for using a task-based approach to teaching and learning. 1) It would

seem sensible to predicate our teaching on the best available current knowledge about how people

learn a second or foreign language. Research into language acquisition suggests that language

learning is not like adding bricks to a wall one by one. Instead it is a developmental, organic process

in which competence in the target language grows by using it in meaningful activities (Lightbown

1992, Mackey 1999). 2) It is an ―action-oriented approach‖ (Trim et al 2001) that fosters

communicative linguistic competences. These competences are the basis of the CEF (Common

European Framework) ‗can-do‘ descriptors that represent the goals towards which many of our adult

learners will be working. 3) A task-based approach is motivating for teachers and learners. It

provides learners with interesting challenges and is clearly related to their language needs. It is

obvious to the learners that their classroom work will help them to operate effectively in English.

Task types

If learners are to benefit from this approach we need to make sure that they try out a variety of task

types. A good coursebook series should offer learners:

• information gap tasks in which they exchange pieces of information to complete a task,

• opinion gap tasks in which learners think about and state their personal preferences, attitudes or

feelings in order to complete a task,

• reasoning gap tasks in which learners create new information or a new product by putting together

various bits of data.

The tasks should also require learners to use a number of different sub-task types such as listing,

selecting, ordering and sorting, comparing, evaluating, solving problems, sharing personal

experiences and creating a product.

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Pre-tasks In a good coursebook we would expect to find pre-tasks where necessary. Pre-tasks are

activities that: 1) Allow the learners to see the logic in what they are being asked to do in the task. 2)

often input the language the learners will need for the task. 3) prepare and motivate the learners to

perform the task. Pre-tasks may involve performing part of the task or a simpler version of the main

task, being given a model of the task, activating relevant background knowledge or planning how to

perform the task.

Unit Twenty Six

Post-Method Era (this unit is by Tony Hung)

Can we really teach a language? ‗We cannot really teach a language: we can only present the

conditions under which it will develop spontaneously in the mind in its own way‘

Teachers as Reflective Practitioners: John Dewey (1933): How We Think. Teachers -not just

transmitters of knowledge, but problem-solvers; creative, context-sensitive.

Interactive Reflection: B. Kumaravadivelu (2003): Reflection should not be merely introspective,

but interactive as well (involving students, colleagues, planners, etc.).

Method vs. Methodology: Method established methods conceptualized and constructed by experts

in the field. Methodology what practicing teachers actually doing the classroom in order to achieve

their (stated or unstated) teaching objectives.

The Myth of Method (Kumaravadivelu, 2006): 1.‗There is a ‗best‘ method out there ready and

waiting to be discovered‘. ‗While sciences have advanced by approximations in which each new stage

results from an improvement, not rejection, of what has gone before, language-teaching methods have

followed the pendulum of fashion from one extreme to the other‘(Mackey 1965, p.138). 2. Method

constitutes the organizing principle for language teaching: ‗By concentrating excessively on method,

we have ignored several other factors that govern classroom processes and practices –such as teacher

cognition, learner perception, societal needs, cultural contexts, economic

imperatives….‘(Kumaravadivelu2006, p.165). 3.‗Method has a universal and a historical value‘.

Methods tend to be idealised, top-down and ignorant of local conditions and traditions. 4.‗Theorists

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conceive knowledge, and teachers consume knowledge‘. An unfortunate division which has ‗not only

minimisedany meaningful dialogue between them, but has also contributed to some degree of mutual

disrespect‘(Kumaravadivelu2006, p.166). 5.‗Method is neutral, and has no ideological

motivation‘.

Postmethod Pedagogy: Some Proposals: Stern‘s ‗Three-Dimensional‘framework (1992): (i) the L1-

L2 connection, (ii) the code-communication relationship, (iii) the explicit-implicit option. Strategy =

‗intentional action‘, Technique= ‗practical action‘. Allwright‘s Exploratory Practice framework

(2003 etc.).

Kumaravadivelu’s (2003) Macrostrategic Framework: Theory-neutral and method-neutral

Macrostrategies: General plansderived from currently available theoretical, empirical, and

pedagogical knowledge related to L2 learning and teaching; broad guidelines based on which

teachers can generate their own location-specific, need-based ‗microstrategies’or classroom

procedures.

Ten Macrostrategies: 1. Maximiselearning opportunities: Teaching as a process of creating and

utilizing learning opportunities; teachers as planners and mediators of learning. 2. Facilitate

negotiated interaction: Meaningful learner-learner and learner-teacher interaction, where learners

have freedom to actively initiate and navigate talk, not just react and respond to it. Textual,

interpersonal and ideational functions. 3. Minimiseperceptual mismatches : Cognitive,

communicative, linguistic, pedagogic, strategic, cultural, evaluative, procedural, instructional and

attitudinal mismatches between teacher‘s and learners‘perceptions. 4. Activate intuitive heuristics:

Provide enough language data for learners to discover and inferunderlying rules of form and function

for themselves. 5. Foster language awareness : Draw students‘attention to less obvious properties of

L2 to promote learning (where necessary). 6. Contextualiselinguistic input: Discourse features need

to be contextualized instead of introduced in isolated and discrete fashion. 7. Integrate language

skills: Language skills are essentially interrelated and mutually reinforcing. The traditional separation

of skills is more logistic than logical. 8. Promote learner autonomy: Help learners learn how to

learn, equip them with the necessary cognitive (etc.) strategies, and help them take responsibility for

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their own learning. 9. Ensure social relevance: Understand learning purpose and language use in the

local social context. 10. Raise cultural consciousness: Global cultural consciousness, not just

awareness of L2 culture.

Microstrategies: Classroom procedures that are designed to realisethe objectives of a particular

macrostrategy, keeping in mind the learners‘needs, wants and lacks, and their current level of

language ability.

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 Part Two

Linguistics

Unit One

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 1: The Origins of Language)

We don't know how language originated. We do know spoken language developed well before

written language.

1. The divine source: God created Adam and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that

was the name thereof. But children held in isolation without any contact with human speech tend not

to confirm this divine source.

2. The natural sounds source: primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds

which early man heard around him. (onomatopoeic or bow-wow theory) using sound of an object to

name it.

3. Pooh-Pooh theory: original sounds of language came from natural cries of emotion: pain, anger,

joy.

4. Yo-heave-ho theory: social context sounds of people involved in physical social effort could be

the source of language.

5. Oral gesture theory (oral gesture source): there is a link between physical gesture and orally

produced sounds: bye-bye.

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 6. La-la theory: the romantic side of life-sounds.

7. Ding-Dong theory: people happened to make noises when they saw certain objects and the

noises acquired the status of words naming the objects.

Demerits: we can't communicate this sentence by oral gestures: my-uncle thinks he is invisible. Or

there are lots of abstract entities in the world which do not back to natural sounds. Apes have grunts

and social calls but they do not seem to have developed the capacity for speech.

Physiological adaptation: human has some physical features which by themselves would not lead to

speech production but which are good clues that a creature possessing such features probably has the

capacity for speech. (Human teeth are upright not slanting outwards, Human lips are flexible, Human

mouth is small and can be opened and closed rapidly). Human brain is lateralized, that is, it has

specialized functions in each of the two hemispheres. These functions which are analytic, such as

tool-using and language, are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.

Language has two major functions: A. Interactional: it has to do with how humans use language to

interact with each other, socially or emotionally; how they indicate friendliness, cooperation, or

hostility, or annoyance, pain or pleasure. B. Transactional: whereby humans use their linguistic

abilities to communicate knowledge, skills and information. It must have developed for the transfer of

knowledge from one generation to the next.

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 Unit Two

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 2: Animals and Human Language)

When we intentionally utter a sentence (I have a cold), we are sending communicative signals. (a

black bird squawking after seeing a cat). Informative signals: are unintentionally sent (you sneeze and

one understands that you have a cold).

Properties of language:

1. Displacement (prevarication): telling lies allows the users of language to talk about things and

events not present in the immediate environment, about things and events whose existence we cannot

even be sure of (fairies, angles); it slows us to create fiction and to describe possible future worlds (in

the case of bees it is very limited). 2. Arbitrariness: linguistic signs have arbitrary relationship with

the objects they are used to indicate. There is no natural connection between a linguistic form and its

meaning. They do not fit the objects they denote (in the case of animals, signals are finite and fixed,

used at particular times). 3. Productivity (creativity; open-endedness): Human is able to utter novel

utterances which he may have never heard before (potential number of utterances in any language is

infinite. Animal signals have a feature called fixed reference: each signal is fixed as relating to a

particular object or occasion. Bees can communicate horizontal distance and have no word for up. 4.

Cultural transmission: we acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental

genes. This process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as

cultural transmission. 5. Discreteness: each sound in the language is treated as discrete. They are

meaningfully distinct (Difference between a b sound and a p sound leads to a difference in meaning

between back and pack). 6. Duality: (double articulation): language is organized at two levels

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simultaneously. At one level we have distinct sounds, at another level we have distinct meanings

(with a limited set of distinct sounds, we are capable of producing a very large number of sound

combinations which are distinct in meaning (economy). A dog producing woof can't separate w,o,f

and produce foow or oowf. 7. Reciprocity: any speaker / sender of a linguistic signal can also be a

listener / receiver. Reciprocity is not a property of human language only. 8. Specialization: linguistic

signals don't normally serve any other type of purpose, such as feeding. 9. Non-directionality:

linguistic signals can be picked up anyone within learning, even unseen. 10. Rapid fade: linguistic

signals are produced and disappear quickly.

Unit Three

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 3: The Development of Writing)

Pictograms or picture writings: each picture or pictogram is a direct image of the object it

represents. There is a nonarbitrary relationship between the form and the meaning of the symbol. This

early form of writing did not have any direct relation to the language spoken, because the pictures

represented objects in the world rather than the linguistic names given to these objects. Pictograms are

used today in international road signs. They can be understood by anyone, because they don't depend

on the words of any language.

Ideograms: represent ideas rather than objects. The meaning of a pictogram is extended to

concepts associated with it (picture of a sun could represent warmth, heat, light, daytime: $, %, &, +, -

, = are ideograms)

Cuneiform: wedge-shaped writing of Sumerians was logographic.

Logogram or word-writing: in the writing system, the symbol stands for the sounds used to

pronounce the word and for the concept which it may resemble abstractly.

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 Syllabic writing: symbols represent the sounds of the syllables. Words are written syllable by

syllable.

Rebus writing: when a graphic sign no longer has say visual relationship to the word it represent,

it becomes a symbol for the sounds that represent the word. A single sign can be used to represent all

words with the same sounds. The sounds of the two monosyllabic words are identical, even though

the meanings are not. ‫ סּ‬for eye and I.

Hieroglyphics: sacred carvings. Hieroglyphs began to represent the sounds of the word they

symbolized. This phoneticization of the pictography made hieroglyphics a word-writing system.

Alphabetic systems are those in which each symbol typically represents one sound unit. Such systems

are primarily phonemic rather than phonetic.

Chinese writing (logographic) utilizes a system of characters, each of which represent the meaning

of a word. The Chinese government has adopted a spelling system using the Roman alphabet,called

pinyin. The spoken word for rice is different in the various Chinese languages but the written

character is the same. Japanese is more suited for syllabic writing.

The term sound writing is sometimes used in place of alphabetic writing.

Spelling is the written trace of a word. Pronunciation is its linguistic form.

Why should spelling not always be tied to the phonetic pronunciation of words? Because if each

dialect were spelled according to its own pronunciation, written communication among the English-

speaking people of the world would suffer more than the spoken communication does today. One

advantage of a conservative spelling system is that we can read and understand the language as it was

written centuries ago.

Writing has affected speech only marginally, most notably in the phenomenon of "spelling

pronunciation". That is, to pronounce words according to their spelling.

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 Unit Four

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 4: The sounds of Language)

Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics and includes

articulatory phonetics (the study of how speech sounds are made), acoustic phonetics (deals with the

physical propertied of sound waves) and auditory or perceptual phonetics (deals with perception, via

ear, of sounds).

Voiced and voiceless sounds: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes

between them unimpeded (voiceless sounds). When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from

the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration (voiced sounds).

Bilabials: sounds formed using both lips (b, m, p, w)

Labiodentals: formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip (f, v)

Dentals: with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth (o, s)

Alveolars: with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge (t, d, s, z, n, l, r)

Alveo-palatals: with tongue at the very front of the palate (š, č, ž,). [y] is often called palatal

Dorsal=Velars: back of tongue against velum (k, g, y)

Glottals: without active use of tongue (h, 2). (2) is called glottal stop (glottis is closed completely and
then released)

Stops: are produced by some form of complete stopping of air stream and then letting it go abruptly
(p, b, t, d, k, g, z)

Fricatives (or spirant): almost blocking the air stream, pushing the air through; a type of friction is
produced (f, v, ө, ś, s, z, š, ž)

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 Affricatives: combination of a brief stopping of the air stream with an abstracted release which
causes some friction (č  tš, į  dž).

Nasals: velum lowered, airflow allowed to flow out through the nose (m, n, j)

Liquids: letting the air stream flow around the sides of the tongue as it makes contact with alveolar
ridge (l, r)

Glides: with the tongue moving or gliding (w, y, h)

Bi Lab-dent Dent Alve Alv-pala Velar Glottal

- + - + - + - + - + - + - +

S p b t d k g z

F F V Θ ∫ s z š ž

A č ĵ

N m n ĵ

L L,r

G w y ĥ

F C B

i u
H i u

e ə o
M
ε ‫כ‬
L
Λ

œ а

IPA aims to describe the sounds of all language.

A sonorant is a speech sound which is produced with a relatively free passage of air from the lungs

either through the mouth or the nose. All vowels are sonorant.

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 Unit Five

This unit is a summary of:

Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 2) and Julia Falk (Chapters 7 and 8)

For all human languages, sound is the concrete means of expression.

1. Voice: sounds produced with vibrating vocal cords (b, d, g, j, m, n, y, v, ∫, z, ž, L, r, y, w, i, I,

e, ε, œ, ə, u, U, o, ‫כ‬, a, ay, aw, ‫כ‬y). Sounds not being produced with vibrating vocal cord are [-

voice]: (p, t, k, f, θ, s, š, č, h).

2. Vocalic: air moves through vocal cords, vocal cords vibrate, air passes out. All vowels and

[L], [r] are [+vocalic]. In [-voc] sounds, there is a complete obstruction (momentarily) or a

partial obstruction which is sufficient for interference.

3. Consonantal: there is an obstruction. Sounds that are [-vocalic] will be [+cons] and vice versa.

But [L, r] are [+v, +c] and [h, w, y] are [-v, -c].

4. Lateral: air flows over the side of the tongue: [L] is [+lateral], [r] is [-lat].

5. Semivowels: glides [h, w, y] are sometimes called semivowels, since they are [-cons] like

vowels and [-vocalic] like consonants.

6. Continuant: obstruction is partial. The air streams in a sufficient space: fricatives, vowels,

glides and liquids are [+continuant]. In [-conti] air is stopped in oral cavity. [+continued]

sound will be [-abrupt release] since there is no obstruction, not the vice versa, because (č, ĵ)

are [-conti]. [+c]: (f, v, θ, ∫, s, z, š, ž). [-c]: (p, b, t, d, k, g, č,) (m, n, j).

7. Fricatives: [+consonantal, +continuant] sounds are (f, v, θ, ∫, s, z, š, ž). Partial obstruction

results in a friction-like noise. [-vocalic, +consonantal] sounds are [-continuant] because there

is a complete obstruction.

8. Nasals: (m, n, ĵ). air flows through nasal cavity, oral cavity is blocked.

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9. Abrupt release: the obstacle is released suddenly allowing air to move in oral cavity (p, b, t, d,

k, g)  [- continuant, +abrupt r, -nasal] = stops as opposed to affricates (č, ĵ).

10. Strident: friction noise in fricatives (f, v, s, z, š, ž) and affricates (č, ĵ). Obstruction causes

turbulence. (∫, θ) which are fricatives are [-strident]. Sibilants and labiodental fricatives are

classified as [+strident].

11. Anterior: is a matter of obstruction, so it is relevant to [+consonantal] sounds. [-consonantal]

sounds are [-anterior]. In [+ant], the obstruction is in front half, and in [-ant] it is in back half,

dividing line being the palate. [-ant] sounds are [+back or +posterior] labiodentals and

alveolars are [+an], (palatal, velars, glottals) are [-ant]. Labials, dentals, alveolars are

[+antevoir] and palatals and velars are [-ant].

12. Coronal: raising of blade of the tongue. Dentals, alveolars, palatals are [+coronal] labials,

and velars are [-coronal]. In labials, tongue is not involved. In velars body of the tongue is

involved not its blade. Sounds produced at centre are [+coronal] and at the very front or at

the every back are [-coronal]. Vowels are [-coronal].

13. Systematic phonetics: features in systematic phonetics are [anterior], [coronal], [high], [low],

[back]. The first two are important for consonants. The last three are for vowels.

14. Covered: articulation of vowels includes a tightening of the walls of the throat. All English

sounds are [-covered].

15. Tense: muscles in vocal tract are tense. [-voice] consonants are [+tense] and vice versa. All

vowels are [+voice] but not necessarily [-tense]. [+tense] sounds are longer in duration than

[-tense] sounds.

16. Lax: there is little movement of the tongue in the production of lax vowels (r, u).

17. Aspiration: there is a pressure before the release of air stream at the position of articulation

(puff). (p, t, k, č) are [-voice, -continuant]. [+voice, -continuant] sounds are [-aspiration].

Nasals, fricatives, liquids, glides and vowels are [-aspiration] because the air stream is not

fully blocked. [p] in pun not [p] in span.

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18. Lip rounding: (u, U, o, ‫ )כ‬are [+round]. [-back] vowels, and all consonants are [-round].

[+high, +back] vowels and [-high, -low, +back, +tense] vowels are [+round]. The only

combination of features for which rounding is not predictable is [-high, -low, -tense, +back].

19. Diphthongs: [‫כ‬y], [ay], [aw]: a vowel + a glide.

20. Suprasegmental features: features describing properties of units longer than a single sound

segment (stress is the prominence of a syllable).

21. Tone: describes the relative pitch at which a syllable is produced (generally unimportant in

English): bean to mean = [-nasal] to [+nasal].

22. Intonation: when a pattern of pitch change occurs during a phrase or sentence.

23. Length: duration or quantity of a sound; bead /bid/  [+voice] beat /bit/  [-voice].

24. Stress: prominence of a syllable (relative increase in loudness, longer in duration).

25. Affricates: (č, ĵ): [-continuant, -sonorant, -nasal, +strident, -abrupt release].

26. In [-high, -low, -back] sounds like [e], [ε] the body of tongue doesn't move.

27. Level (or register) tone language: since the use of tone is significant in reflecting differences

in meaning and since the tone remains level throughout a syllable, a language such as Hausa

is called a level tone language.

28. Contour tone languages: such as Chinese where pitch changes can occur during a syllable.

The meaning of a word depends on tone.

29. Phonetics: the study of the speech sounds utilized by all human languages to represent

meaning (systematic phonetics).

30. Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of the sounds themselves.

31. Auditory phonetics: studies the way listeners perceive these sounds.

32. Articulatory phonetics: studies how the vocal tract produces the sounds.

33. Pulmonic aggressive air stream mechanism: the majority of sounds used in languages are

produced by a pulmonic (lung air is used) aggressive (air is pushed out) air stream

mechanism.

34. Oral sounds: nasal passage is blocked; the air escapes only through the mouth. These sounds

are [+oral, -nasal].

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35. Stops: are stopped completely in the oral cavity for a while (p, b, m, t, d, n, k, g,).

36. Plosives: the nonnasal or oral stops are also called plosives because the air that is blocked in

the mouth "explodes" when the closure is released.

37. Sibilants: the friction created in the production of the fricatives and the affricates cause a

hissing sound. Often classified as sibilants (s, z, š, ž, č, etc).

38. Obstruents: speech sounds where the passage of the air from the lungs is obstructed in some

way or other; sounds such as /n/ and /m/ are not obstruents because although the air is

stopped in the mouth, it is allowed free passage through the nose. [+obstruent] is [-sonorant]

[vowels, nasals, liquids and glides] are [-obstr, +sonor].

39. Sonorants: are produced with a relatively free passage of air from the lungs, either through

the mouth or through the nose. [+sonorant] is [-obstruent]. The sounds [L], [r] are nonnasal

sonorants. Specified as [+consonantal, +sonorant]. Nasal sonorants are (m, n, ng). (m, n, ng)

are nasal stops, so they are [-continuant, +sonorant]. All vowels are sonorant and glides (w,

y, h),

40. Syllabic sounds: vowels are [+syllabic] because they constitute syllable peaks, and can be

the centre of a syllable. Consonants [with a few exceptions] do not usually form syllables on

their own and they are at the beginning or the end of syllables. A syllable can be divided into

three parts: 1. onset (beginning), 2. nucleus or peak (central part), 3. code (the end).

41. Important: Glides are like consonants in that they are in the class of [-syllabic] sounds, but

they are like vowels in that they are [-consonantal, +sonorant]. Similarly, liquids and nasals

are in [+consonantal] class with obstruents, but share the feature [+sonorant] with vowels and

sometimes are [+syllabic] because they function like vowels. Nonsyllabic liquids, nasals and

glides are in the class of [+sonorant, -syllabic] sounds.

42. Nasalization: letting the air from the lungs escape through the nose. Nasal vowels only occur

before nasal consonants.

43. Prosodic features: sound characteristics which affect whole sequences of syllables. They

may involve: pitch, tone, stress.

44. Orthography: the science of spelling by the eye instead of the ear (Ambrose Bierce).

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 45. A laminal sound is produced by the front upper surface of the tongue (the block or laminal

touching the upper teeth or the gum ridge behind the upper teeth (the alveolor ridge) /sh/ or

/s/ is laminal before /oo/.

46. [-rounded] Front Central Back [+rounded]

High
i beet boot u

I bit put U

Mid e bait boat o

sofa ə

ε bet bore ‫כ‬

Low
but Λ

œ bat bar a

Unit Six

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 5: The Sound Patterns of Language)

Phonology and Phonetics: The former is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language

which allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say and hear, while the latter

is concerned with actual physical properties of sounds.

Phonemes: meaning-distinguishing sounds. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and

we get a change of meaning, then the two sounds must be phonemes. Phonemes are in square

brackets. A phoneme functions contrastively. Sounds which have features in common would behave

phonologically in some similar way.

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 Minimal pairs and sets: when two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a

contrast in one phoneme accruing in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair.

When a group of words are differentiated in this way, then we have a minimal set. There are definite

patterns to the types of sound combinations permitted in a language.

Phones and allophones: while a phoneme is an abstract unit of sound, there can be different

phonetic realizations of one phoneme. These phonetic units are technically described as phones.

Phonetic variants are known as allophones (Individual sounds as they occur in speech). Substituting

allophones only results in a different pronunciation of the same word.

Assimilation: when two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or

copied by the other, the process is known as assimilation. (Vowels become nasal whenever preceding

a nasal) I can go [aykəygo]; you and me [yuənmi]  elision.

Elision: the process of omitting a sound like [d] in pronunciation of words like friendship [frεnšip],

grandpa [grœmpa] assimilation.

Unit Seven

Julia Falk (Chapters 9 and 10)

Universally: [+abrupt] release segment, are [-continuant, -strident]

Predictive [-vocals, +consonantal] are [-low, -round, -lateral]

Features [+ anterior] consonants are [-high] and [-high] consonants are [-back]

[-continuant, -voice] are [+aspiration]

Phonetics: studies the most concrete, directly observable aspect of language-sounds.

Phonology: is the study of all aspects of the sounds and sound system of a language and it includes

both phonetics and phonemics.

109
 Phonemics: the investigation of the relations among sounds and the rules according to which

morphemes are pronounced.

Distinctive features: serve to distinguish one word or morpheme from another (not all phonetic

features are of equal importance). The feature [nasal] is a distinctive feature (bean, mean). Pairs of

words such as bean and mean, distinguished by a single phonetic feature, are called minimal pairs.

Redundant or predictable features: occur only when certain features occur or only in certain

environments (in a sequence of sounds). The feature [voice] for vowels is redundant. Aspiration is

predictable since it can't distinguish between a [-voice] vowel and a [+voice] because all vowels are

[+voice].

Morphophonemics: the part of phonemics that deals with providing a single lexical entry for each

morpheme was know traditionally as morphophonemics, a combination of traditional morphology and

phonemics. A traditional phonemic description would include a list of the phonemes of the English.

The only [-vocalic] sound that appears before a [-continuant] sound segment is s: ski phone.

Phoneme and allophone: phones are individual sounds as they occur in speech: the vowel in the

word ―can‖ has probably three phones: longer [œ], shorter[œ], nasalized [œ]: all are phones of

phoneme /œ/. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.

Allophone is defined as any of the different forms of a phoneme: [ph] and [p] for the phoneme /p/.

Redundancy rules: the phonological generalizations which add redundant or predictable

information about features to the phonemic representation: if at the beginning of a word, there is a [-

continuant, -voice] sound segment, then it will be [+aspiration]. If a consonant is [+voice], then it is [-

tense] and voice verse. If: [-consonantal, +high, +back], then: [+ round]. If: [+consonantal, + voice],

then: [- tense]. By means of phonological generalizations, the phonemic representation can be

converted into a phonetic representation appropriate for actual pronunciation. (plurals may be

pronounced actually [əz], [s], [z]). Phonological rules, unlike redundancy rules, which simply fill in

information about predictable features in sound segments, may add or delete sound segments or even

change the features within a segment.

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 Phonemic representation for plural is [-voice, +strident, +anterior, +coronal]. When the sound

segment preceding the plural morpheme is [s, z, š, ž, č,] which are identified by features [+strident,

+coronal] the vowel [ə] appears between [z] of plural and the preceding segment. When the sound

segment preceding plural [s] is [+voice]. Then [s] changes to [z] which is voiced (this process is

known as assimilation. These rules are as follows: Ø  [ə] / [+strident, +coronal] – [-voice, +strident,

+anterior, +coronal]

[-voice]  [+voice] / [+voice] [-voice, +strident, +anterior, +coronal]

Allomorph: different forms of a morpheme: the morpheme {z} plural has the allomorphs: /əz/

which occur after /s, z, š, ž, č/, /s/ which occurs after other voiceless consonants and /z/ which occurs

after other voiced sound segments.

Assimilation: in this process some feature of a sound segment changes to become identical to a

feature in a neighboring segment. We have nasal assimilation (nasalization) and voicing assimilation.

Umlaut: a feature of the suffix vowel leads to a change in the root vowel.

Vowel harmony (bride, undo, ziller, eller): certain features of the root vowel determine features in

the suffix. [+back] consonants such as [k] and [g], become [-back] when they occur before [-back]

vowels. [k] in [kup] is articulated at the velum, while [k] in [kip] is articulated at palate.

Dissimilation: some feature of a sound segment changes to become different from a feature in a

neighboring segment. It is less common than assimilation: [dadaiti]. Insertion of a segment between

two segments [wišs]  [wišəz], [čərčs]  [čərčəz].

Factors relevant to phonological change: 1. Physiological characteristics of the speech and

hearing system (fewer instructions to vocal tract). 2. Language contact. 3. The social nature of

language and 4. The acquisition of language by children. (two steps: the addition of a rule by adult

(phonemic representations differ) and the child's analysis of the effects of that rule. The consequence

is a changed linguistic system.

111
 Phonemic representation: an abstract description containing only essential, unpredictable

information.

Phonetic representation: a concrete description containing all information necessary describe

actual pronunciation.

Phonological generalization or redundancy rules convert phonemic to representation phonetic

representation. Each morpheme has both an abstract phonemic representation (feature that can't be

predicted) and a concrete phonetic representation.

Unit Eight

This unit is a summary of:

Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 3: Phonology: the Sound Patters of Language)

Phonology: is the study of sound patterns of human language. It studies the ways in which speech

sounds form systems and patterns in human language. It is the system and pattern of the speech

sounds.

Phonemes: distinctive sounds which contrast words. Substituting one phoneme for another

produces a different word.

Minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment

that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. (sip, zip, rib, rid,

boy, buy)

112
 Nonsense or possible or accidental gaps: possible but nonoccuring words such as Bic /bik/ before it

was coined as a brand name are accidental gaps in the vocabulary. They obey all the phonological

rules of the language but have no meaning.

Distinctive feature: when a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another, it is a distinctive

feature or phonemic feature; when two words are exactly alike phonetically except for one feature, the

phonetic difference is distinctive, since this difference alone accounts for the contrast or difference in

meaning (feel, veal) substituting nasalized vowels does not change the meaning, so this is not a

distinctive feature (because the two are not phonemes). That is, oral and nasalized vowels do not

contrast. Oral vowels occur in final position and before consonants; nasalized vowels occur only

before nasal consonants. When a feature is not distinctive, it is predictive. The value (+ or -) of the

feature [± nasal] is predictable for vowels.

Phonemes, phones, allophones: A phonetic unit or segment is called a phone. A phoneme is a more

abstract unit which can distinguish two words. The different phones derived from one phoneme are

called allophones. An allophone is a predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme. The choice of an

allophone is rule-governed. Each vowel phoneme has both an oral and a nasalized allophone.

Complementary distribution: when two or more sounds never occur in the same phonemic

context or environment they are in complementary distribution (aspiration). When oral vowels occur,

nasal vowels don't occur. Nasality is a predictable or redundant feature for vowels in English. But in

Akan language it is distinctive. That is, Akan has nasalized vowel phonemes.

The feature aspiration is predictable, redundant, nondistinctive and nonphonemic in English. The

aspirated and the nonaspirated phones are in complementary distribution. There are two phones but

one p phoneme. /p/ is a phoneme. [p], [ph] are allophones.

The phonetic representation of utterances shows what speakers know about the pronunciation of

utterances; the phonemic representation of utterances shows what the speakers know about the

abstract underlying phonology. [ph] in pot and [p] in spot are phonemic representations or

113
(manifestations) of the same phoneme /p/. The phonological context determines the value of the

feature. All stops ([- continuant] segments) are universally and predictably [-syllabic].

Free variations: the different pronunciations of economics are free variations; one meaning of

each word is represented by tow different phonemic forms.

Vowel length is noncontrastive in English. Pronouncing a vowel longer does not change the

meaning. So it is nonphonemic and predictable (vowel duration). Vowels before voiced consonants

and also at the end of words are longer in duration. Vowel length is phonemic in Japanese. Long

segments symbolized by a colon as in /ti/ or /ai/ or by doubling the segment are geminates.

Homorganic consonants: are articulated at the same place of articulation – that is labial, palatal

etc.

Natural classes: a natural class is one in which the number of features that must be specified to

define that class is smaller than the number of features required for distinguishing any member of that

class.

Prosodic or suprasegmental futures: they refer to units larger than the segment, such as syllable,

word. They are also called autosegmental features and are represented by autosegmental tires. They

include pitch or tone, melody or intonation and stress. Languages that use the pitch of individual

syllables to contrast meanings are called tone languages. In some tone languages the pitch of each

tone is level. Such tones are level or register tones. Tones that glide are called contour tones. The

lowering of the pitch is called downdriff.

Intonation languages: languages that use pitch syntactically to change a sentence from a statement

to a question or in which the changing pitch of a whole sentence is otherwise important to the

meaning are called intonation languages. It is the pitch contour of the phrase or sentence that is

important.

Stress: is a property of a syllable rather than a segment, so it is a prosodic or suprasegmental

feature.

114
 The rules of phonology: All three kinds of information (segments affected, phonemic

environment, phonetic change must be included in the statement of a phonological rule, for instance,

voiceless stops are aspirated before stressed vowels at the beginning of a word. The formal notation is

used because it better represents what we know about phonological rules.

Assimilation Rules: when a speech sound changes and becomes more like another sound which

follows it or precedes it. In regressive assimilation, the following sound brings about the changes

(intolerant) whereas in progressive assimilation the preceding sound brings about the change (dogs).

Coarticulation: the spreading of phonetic features either in anticipation of sounds or the

preservation of articulatory processes (the tendency toward sloppiness).

Dissimilation: a segment becomes less similar to another segment. This is natural from the point of

view of the hearers rather than the speaker. (/f/  /p/ in the word diphthong /fθ/), that is [+

continuant] becomes [- continuant]. (in Sanskrit, [+ aspira] becomes [- aspira] after an [+ aspirated]).

Feature Addition: adds nondistinctive features that are predictable from the context. Aspiration is

neither present nor absent in any phonemic matrices in English. The assimilation rules do not add new

features but change phonemic feature values, whereas the aspiration rule adds a new feature not

present in phonemic matrices.

Segment Deletion rules: remove phonemic segments in certain contexts. Contraction rules in

English are deletion rules. In French, word-final consonants are deleted when the following word

begins with a consonant or liquid (petit tableau [pəti tablo], he is [hiz], mystery [mistri]).

Segment Addition Rules (Epenthesis): add phonemic segments in certain contexts. [e] insertion in

Spanish phonological rules can be optional or obligatory. Another example for segment addition is the

insertion of a voiceless stop after a nasal followed by a voiceless consonant: mince [mints] from kin

[frompkin].

115
Movement (Metathesis) Rules: move phonemes from one place in the string to another. Ask [œks]

animal [œminal]; reversal of a pronoun-final consonant with the first consonant of the following verb

if the verb starts with a sibilant.

We change a vowel to a [ə] when it is unstressed, we might say that [ə] is an allophone of all

English vowel phonemes. In English /t/ and /d/ are both phonemes. When /t/ or /d/ occurs between a

stressed and an unstressed vowel then both become a flap [D]; writer, [rajDər]. The "flap rule" is as

follows: an alveolar stop becomes a voiced flap when preceded by a stressed vowel and followed by

an unstressed vowel.

Neutralization: the voicing contrast between /t/ and /d/ is neutralized in certain environments. That

is, /t/ never contrasts with /d/ in the environment between a stressed and an unstressed vowel. We can

not decide what the phonemic representation of a word is given; only the phonetic form; [bunt] can be

derived from either /bund/ or /bunt/. However, given the phonemic representations and the rules of the

language, the phonetic forms are automatically derived.

The function of the phonological rules in a grammar is to provide the phonetic information

necessary for the pronunciation of utterances. The input to the phonological rules is the phonemic

representation: the phonological rules apply to the phonemic string and produce as output the phonetic

representation. The application of rules in this way is called a derivation.

In the word panda /pœndœ/ [phœndə] we have three rules: the aspiration, rules the vowel

nasalization rule, and the schwa rule.

116
 Unit Nine

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 6: Words and Word-formation Processes)

1. Coinage: invention of totally new terms (quiz, fun, snob).

2. Borrowing: taking over of words from other languages (robot, yogurt).

3. Loan-translation or calque (a special type of borrowing): direct translation of the elements of

a word into the borrowing language (skyscraper, superman).

4. Compounding: joining of two separate words to produce a single form (bookcase, wall paper,

textbook)

5. Blending: taking the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word

(gasoline + alcohol  gasohol; smoke + fog  smog; break fast + lunch  brunch; motel,

telecast, Chunnel: channel + tunnel, Reaganomics).

6. Clipping: a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form (gas, ad, fan, flu, bus)

(lab, plane, prof).

7. Backformation: a word of one type is reduced to form another word of a different type.

(televise, edit, donate, exot, opt, enthuse)

8. Conversion: a change in the function of a word without any reduction (functional shift or

category change) (paper, better, bottle, vacation, can, guess, must, spy, dirty, empty, total,

crazy, nasty, up, down).

9. Acronyms: words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words (NATO, NASA)

(UNESCO, laser, radar, scuba, snafu).

10. Derivation: is accomplished by means of affixes (un, mis, pre).

11. Infixing: incorporated inside another word (Abso bloody lutely, unfucking believable).

12. Extension: when the trade name of a leading brand is used for all brands of the product.

(Kleenex, thermos, Xerox).

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 13. Narrowing: when an ordinary lexical item takes on a special meaning in addition to its

original general meaning (pinto car, camel cigarettes) (hound, deer, girl, starve).

14. Reduplication: the repetition of a word or part of a word.

Car-phone  clipping  compounding

Footballer  compounding  derivation

Blueprinted  compounding  conversion

Skyjacking  brooding  derivation

Unit Ten

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 7: Morphology)

Morphology: The study of forms: a type of investigation which analyzes all those basic elements

which are used in a language. These elements in the form of a linguistic message are morphemes.

Morpheme: a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function (minimal units of syntax in a

language); free morphemes can stand by themselves as single words. Bound morphemes cannot

stand alone and are attached to another form. All affixes in English are bound morphemes. The basic

word-form is known as stem to which affixes are attached. But all stems are not free morphemes. Free

morphemes include lexical and functional morphemes. Bound morphemes include derivational ones

(change parts of speech  teacher) and inflectional ones  longer, ing, s, ś, est, er (do not change

the parts of speech but change function of words).

Morphs and allomorphs: we can propose morphs as the actual forms used to realize morphemes.

So a particular morph (morpheme) can have different allomorphs. {Cat + plural  s, sheep + plural

 zero morph, man + plural (plural has three allomorphs).} S  morpheme (morph)

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 Reduplication: a repetition of the first part of the word. bi: first part in singular form  bibi plural

(talon  tatalon)

Infixes are special kinds of affixes which are inserted within the root.

Unit Eleven

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 9: Syntax)

Syntax: the part of the grammar that concerns the structure of phrases and sentences.

Syntactic Category: constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of

grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.

Phrase Structure Rules: through which the grammatical knowledge is represented and which state

explicitly all and only the possible combinations of constituents of the language. They reveal

speakers' knowledge of the linear order of words, the grouping of words into constituents, and the

syntactic categories of each constituent.

Subcategorization takes place between the head of a phrase (the Noun in a Noun phrase, the

adjective in an Adjective phrase). The selectional restrictions state, for example, that the verb "cry"

must co-occur with an animate subject.

Recursion: is common in all languages. It allows speakers to recycle syntactic constituent within

the same sentence. With a small number of rules and syntactic categories, an infinite set of sentences

can be generated.

The dog bit the man.

logical subject logical object

structural subject structural object

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 The man was bitten by the dog.

logical object logical subject

structural subject

Topic: what is being talked about (old information: it represents something already under discussion).

The topic often corresponds to the structural subject of a sentence.

Comment: what is being said about the topic (new information)

The dog bit the man.

topic comment

As for pets, sheepdogs are the best.

topic subject

Posposing: when a rule moves constituents to the right.

Preposing: when a rule moves constituents to the left.

Transformation are structure-dependent. Logical subject and logical object are determined by the

phrase structure rules and are not affected by the transformation rules.

Recoverability: means that enough information must be left in the tree after the transformation has

applied to indicate what was deleted or moved

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 Unit Twelve

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 10: Semantics)

Neither God nor Humpty Dumping: We cannot assume that there is some God-given, meaningful

connection between a word in a language and an object in the world. Nor can we say that when we

use a word, it means what we choose it to mean (could one say the melon is blue to mean the pen is

beautiful?).

Conceptual, denotative, or core meaning vs. Associative or connotative meaning: the former

covers those basic, essential components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal use of a word.

Conceptual meanings of needle are [thin, sharp, steel, instrument]. But we may have associations or

connotations attached to a word like needle which lead you to think of "painful". Linguists are

interested in conceptual meaning.

Semantics: deals with the description of word and sentence meaning. We describe those aspects of

conventional meaning which are conveyed by the words and sentences of a language. Semantic

features: + animate; - animate; + human; - human; +male; -male. The following sentence is

syntactically good, but semantically odd. The hamburger ate the man. Boy (+ human; +male; +adult).

But there is a problem which seems to be that the approach involves a view of words as some sort of

containers, carrying meaning-components.

Lexical relations: characterizing the meaning of a word not in terms of its component features, but

in terms of its relationship to other words.

1. Synonymy: are two or more forms with very closely related meanings which are often, but not

always intersubstitutable in sentences (cab-tax, liberty-freedom).

2. Antonymy: two forms with opposite meaning are called antonyms (big, small) and are

divided into two types: A. Gradable: such as the pair big-small, can be used in comparative

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 bigger than-smaller than and the negative of one member of the pair does not necessarily

imply the other. If you say that day is not old, you do not have to mean that day is young. B.

Non-gradable [complementary pairs]: with them comparative constructions are not used

(deader, aliver are add because the negative one implies the other).

3. Hyponymy: when the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another. If any

object is a daffodil, then it is necessarily a flower, so the meaning of flower is included in the

meaning of daffodil or daffodil is a hyponym of flower or daffodil is a kind of flower. The

flower is the superordinate.

4. Co-hyponymy: two or more terms which share the same superordinate (higher up) term are

co-hyponyms. So horse and dog are co-hyponyms and the superordinate term is animal.

(hierarchical relationship)

5. Homophony: two or more different (written) forms have the same pronunciation (bare-bear,

meat-meet).

6. Homonymy: one form (written or spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings. They are

words which have quite separate meanings but which have accidentally come to have exactly

the same form (bank, pupil, mole).

7. Polysemy: relatedness of meaning accompanying identical form is known as polysemy, which

can be defined as one form having multiple meanings which are all related by extension (head,

foot).

Difference between Homonymy and Polysemy: if a ward has multiple meanings (polysemic), then

there will be a single entry with a numbered list of different meanings. But homonyms have different

entries in dictionaries.

Pragmatics: the study of intended speaker meaning. Context: 1. Linguistic context or co-text of a

word in the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. 2. Physical context: physical

location of a word will influence our interpretative (bank on the wall of building).

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 Deictic expressions: depend for their interpretation on the immediate physical context in which

they were uttered. Words like (have, there, they, I, you, now, tomorrow, then) are deictic expressions

which can only be interpreted in terms of the location that the speaker intends to indicate.

Unit Thirteen

This unit is a summary of:

Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 6: Semantics: The Meanings of Language)

Semantics: The study of the linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called

semantics. The lexicon: Your mental storehouse of information about words and morphemes.

Semantic feature: The basic unit of meaning in a word:

(Mare: + females, – human, – yourg, + horseness) (Stalk: + motion, + slow, + purposeful.)

By Redundancy rules we can say that any word having the property [+ human] will have the

property of [+ animate] so it is not needed to mention the latter for words like father, girl, professor,

child.

Meaning postulates: formal rules, similar to semantic redundancy rules. (x) metal  (x) concrete

are meaning postulates that state that if anything is metal , it must be a concrete object. (x) open 

not (x) closed are meaning postulates that state that if anything is open , it must not be closed. (x)

owns (y)  (y) belongs to (x). Meaning postulates and redundancy rules are part of lexicon.

Lexical ambiguity: A word or a sentence is ambiguous if it can be understood or interpreted in

more than one way. Homonyms may create ambiguity (bear children). The use of synonyms may

create lexical paraphrase. Structural ambiguity: the two meanings are the result of two or more

structures underlying the same string of words. The degree of semantic similarity between words

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depends on the number of semantic properties they share. Antonyms: share all but one semantic

property.

Marked and unmarked distinction: Another characteristic of many pairs of gradable antonyms is

that one is marked and the other unmarked (is the one used in questions of degree: How big is it?

How high is it? How tall is it?)

Rational opposites: display symmetry in their meaning.

If X gives Y to Z, then Z receives Y form X ( (x) gives (y , z)  (z) receives ( y , x))

(x) teacher (y)  (y) pupil (x)

(x) shorter (y)  (y) taller (x)

Words like buy / sell are rational opposites because both contain the semantic property ―transfer of

property― and they differ only in one property ―direction of transfer―.

Sense and Reference: The meaning of an expression is called sense and if the expression refers to

something, it has reference.

[The man who is my father] [The man who is married to my mother] are with the same referent and

different sense.

Thematic relations or θ–roles: 1- Goal: where the action is directed. 2- Source: where the action

originated. 3. Instrument: an object used to accomplish the action. 4. Theme or dative or patient or

recipient of the action. 5. Agent: doer of action. 6. Location:

The boy carried the red brick from the wall to the wagon.

agent theme Source Goal

He put it on the wall.

Location

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 The boy broke a window with the red brick.

agent theme Instrument

From (someone), to (goal), with (instrument), by (agent), on and in (location)

Truth is determined by the semantic rules.

Discourse: larger linguistic units. Discourse analysis: the study of how sentences in spoken and

written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs.

Cooperative principle: a speaker‘s contribution to the discourse should be as informative as ir

required neither more nor less.

Anaphora: The process of replacing a longer expression by a pronoun or another kind of pro form is

called anaphora.

[I love Disa and Jack loves her too]

Antecedent

[I went and he did too]

Antecedent

[I am sick , which make me sod]

Antecedent

Coreferential expressions: when two expressions refer to the same thing.

Pragmatics and semiotics: The general study of how context influences the way sentences convey

information is called pragmatics and it comes from the field of semiotics or the study of signs. Within

semiotics, syntax means ―the way signs are arranged and ―semantics means ―what signs mean of

signify and pragmatics means ―The relationship between signs and their users‖.

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 Performative verbs: using them in a sentence does something extra over and above the statement

(bet, challenge, warn, dare, fine, nominate, more, promise, resign, apologize [bequeath] ) we can add

hereby and test if the sentence is performative.

Entailment or Implicative: meaning of a sentence implies or entails that there has already been

something. It gives knowledge of another sentence.

Deictic expressions: require pragmatic information in order for the listener to make a referential

connection and understand what is meant. (Person deixis: I, my; time deixis: now; place deixis :from,

back). Deixis abounds in language use and marks one of the boundaries of semantics and pragmatics.

Anomaly: a violation of semantic rules to create nonsense (The bachelor is pregnant) (+male) ≠ (-

male).

Metaphor: nonliteral meaning – nonliteral interpretations of sentences. Metaphorical use of

language is language creativity at its highest. Many idioms may have originated as metaphorical

expressions that took hold in the language and became frozen in their form and meaning.

Uninterpretable sentences: contain words without meaning.

Unit Fourteen

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 12: Discourse Analysis)

Discourse analysis: is the study of linguistic norms; the study of how sentences in spoken and written

language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews. How is it that

we as language users, make sense of what are read in texts, understand what speakers mean despite

what they say, recognize connected as opposed to incoherent discourse, and successfully take part in

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that complex activity called conversation (We try to arrive at a reasonable interpretation of what the

writer intended to convey) it is this effort to interpret and how we accomplish it that are the key

elements investigated in the study of discourse.

Cohesion: the ties and connections which exist within texts (is crucial in judging whether a text is

well-written or not). Conventions of cohesive structure differ from one language to another.

Coherence: exists in people not in language. People make sense of what they read and hear, feel

the gaps; they try to arrive at an interpretation which is in line with their experience of the way the

world is (Interpretation of casual conversation). Such conversations are understood in terms of the

conventions performed by the speaker in such interactions.

Speech events: (debate, interview, various types of discussions). Often a great deal of what is

meant is not actually present in what is said.

Conversational interaction: an activity where two or more people take turns at speaking. One of

the features of conversational discourse is that it is very cooperative.

Completion point: participants wait until one indicates that he has finished usually by signaling a

completion point.

Co-operative principle: in most conversational exchanges, the participants cooperate with each

other.

Grice: make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs, by

the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Four maxims of co-

operative principle are: quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more

or less than is required (well, to make a long story short. I won't bore you with all the details), quality

do not say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence. (as far as I know, now

correct me if I'm wrong, I am not sure). Relation: be relevant (implicature is additional conveyed

meaning: (- are you coming to the party tonight? - I've got an exam tomorrow). Manner: Be clear,

brief and orderly.

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Background knowledge: inference is a piece of information not directly stated in the text. (Last week

he had been unable to control the class  he is a teacher). We create what the text is about, based on

our expectations of what normally happens. In attempting to describe this phenomenon, many

researches use the concept of schemata; schemata are considered to be conventional-knowledge-

structures which exist in memory and are activated under various circumstances in the interpretation

of what we experience (restaurant schema).

Unit Fifteen

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 13: Language and the Brain)

Minor production difficulties have been investigated as possible clues to the way our linguistic

knowledge may be organized within the brain. The tip of the tongue phenomenon suggests that our

word storage may be partially organized on the basis of some phonological information and that some

words are more easily retrieved than others.

1. Broca's area: anterior speech cortex- Paul Broca reported in the 1860s that damage to this

specific part of the brain was related to extreme difficulty in producing speech. Damage to the

corresponding area on the right hemisphere had no such effect.

2. Wernicke's area: posterior speech cortex. Carl Wernicke in 1870s reported that damage to

this part of the brain was found among patents who had speech comprehension difficulties.

3. Supplementary motor area: superior cortex, involved in the actual physical articulation of

speech. In the 1950s, Penfield and Roberts by applying minute amounts of electrical current to

specific areas of the brain, identified that those areas where the electrical stimulation would

interfere with normal speech production is very close to a fissure along which control of a

large number of motor movements appeared to be located.

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The localization view: is one way of saying that our linguistic abilities have identifiable locations in

the brain. (Words are heard and comprehended via Wernicke's area, then this signal is sent to Broca's

area where preparations are made to produce it, then a signal is sent to the motor area to physically

articulate the words). This was rejected.

1. Malapropism (tip-of-the-tongue): the confusion of the meaning of two learned words

resulting in peculiar sentences. You know the word, but it just won't come to the surface; our

word-storage may be partially organized on the basis of some phonological and that some

words in that store are more easily retrieved than others. There are often strong phonological

similarities between the target word and the mistake. (secant, sextent, sexton)

2. Spoonerism (slip-of-the-tongue): errors in linguistic performance caused by fatigue,

distraction and the like result in tangled expressions such as (long shory stort, the thin sing)

interchange of two sounds (Noble tons of soil, shoving leopard to his flock, hissed all mystery

classes, work is the curse of the drinking classes) a sound carried over from one word to the

next (black bloxes, numan numeral). Slips of the tongue indicate the existence of different

stages in the articulation of linguistic expressions.

Lateralization: each side of the brain is assuming specific duties not assumed by the other

side [cerebral dominance]; the development of control over different functions in different

parts of the brain is known as cerebral dominance or lateralization. The apparent

specialization of the left hemisphere for language is called lateralization. The assumption that

brain has specialized functions on each of the two hemispheres.

3. Slips-of-the-ear: we may hear great ape instead of grey tape or cross-aged instead of cross.

4. Aphasia: un impairment of language function due to localized cerebral damage which leads

to difficulty in understanding or producing linguistic forms (as a result of stroke); difficulty in

understanding can lead to difficulty in production.

A. Broca's aphasia (agrammatism): serious language disorder (motor aphasia), reduced amount

of speech, distorted articulation and slow effortful speech (omission of functional morphemes

and production of lexical morphemes).

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 B. Wernick's aphasia: result in difficulty in auditory comprehension (sensory aphasia).

Production of very fluent (general terms used) speech which is difficult to understand. Anomia

is the difficulty in finding the correct word or names (difficulty in speaking is accompanied by

difficulty in writing and impairment of auditory comprehension is accompanied by reading

difficulty).

Dichotic listening: anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left

hemisphere and any thing on the left side is processed in the right hemisphere [language functions are

located in the left hemisphere]

Right ear advantage: anything received through the right ear will be sent directly to the left

hemisphere.

The critical period: during childhood, there is a period when the human brain is most ready to

receive and learn a language: if he does not learn in this period, he will have great difficulties. But

study on Genie provided some evidence against this view and also against lateralization view. Genie

did not learn the language during the critical period and when she did begin using language, she

appeared to have a right-hemisphere specialization and a left ear advantage.

Dyslexia: perceptual difficulties in reading and writing which is characterized by the displacement

of letters.

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 Unit Sixteen

This unit is a summary of:

Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 11: Brain, Mind, and Language)

Neurolinguistics: the study concerned with the biological foundations of language and the brain

mechanisms underlying its acquisition and use is call neurolinguistics.

The cerebral cortex is the decision-making organ of the body. The brain or cerebrum is divided into

two parts (called cerebral hemispheres): one on the right and one on the left. The left hemisphere

controls voluntary movements of the right hand and foot and the right hemisphere, the movements of

the left side.

Localization: different human abilities and behaviors are traceable to specific parts of the brain.

Phrenology (Spurzheim): personality traits and intellectual abilities could be determined by an

examination of the bumps on the skull.

Lateralization (Paul Broca) refers to any cognitive functions that are primarily localized to one

side of the brain or the other. (Language is related to the left side of the brain); two side of brain get

specialized for different functions.

Aphasia: any acquired (as opposed to developmental) language disorder that follows a focal or

localized brain lesion caused by a stroke, a tumor, a gunshot wound or an infection.

Broca's aphasia (agrammatism): serious language disorder (motor aphasia), reduced amount of

speech, distorted articulation and slow effortful speech.

Wernicke's aphasia: results in difficulty in auditory comprehension (sensory aphasia) (patients

have difficulty in lexical selection).

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 Semantic jargon (aphasia): a patient might call a chair an engine, with the substituted word

bearing little semantic relation to the intended word.

Semantic verbal paraphasias: are more like normal speech errors, with the two words

semantically related (boy for girl-table for chair).

Paraphasiaim is pronunciation of words or the production of inappropriate words.

Phonemic jargon: one type of paraphasia, results from the substitution of phonemic segments

(sable for table).

Neologistic jargon: an extreme variety of phonemic jargon, results in the production of neologisms

(nonoccuring but possible words) (demaploze).

Global aphasia: a combination of Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias can result from separate

lesions. Aphasia studies support the distinction that has been made between competence and

performance. Production or comprehension errors may occur one day and not another. The linguistic

knowledge (competence) must exist in the mental grammar of these patients although their ability to

access it reveals performance difficulties. Also, they provide evidence that language is primarily

processed in the left hemisphere.

Monogenetic theory: all languages originated from a single source.

Unit Seventeen

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 14: First Language Acquisition)

Language faculty: there is come innate predisposition in the human infant to acquire language. A

newborn child is endowed with such capability. It is not enough. First language acquisition is

remarkable for the speed with which it takes place. Basic requirements: 1. Interaction (a very crucial

factor) with other language-users in order to bring the language faculty into operation with a particular

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language. 2. Cultural transmission whereby the language a child learns is not genetically inherited, but

is acquired in a particular language-using environment. 3. Capability of sending and receiving sound

signals in a language, the child should be able to hear that language being used.

The acquisition schedule: all normal children develop language at roughly the same time along

much the same schedule. There is some general biological program (underlying language acquisition)

for the development of motor skills and it is dependent on an interplay with many social factors. The

child has the biological capacity to cope with distinguishing certain aspects of linguistic input at

different stages during the early years of life (controversy over innateness). Chomsky proposed that

language development should be described as language growth because the language organ grows like

any other body organs. This view underestimates the importance of environment and experience in the

child's development of language.

Caretaker speech: the characteristically simplified speech style adapted by somebody who spends

a lot of time interacting with a young child is called caretaker speech. (frequent questions,

exaggerated intonation, excessive repetition, simple structures vocabulary).

Pre-language stages (cooing and babbling = prelinguistic sounds): A) by 3 months child

produces some sounds described as cooing (velar consonants such as [k], [g] and high vowels such as

[i] and [u]). B) by 6 months he produces a number of vowels and consonants such as fricatives and

nasals which are described as babbling (syllable-type sound, such as mu and da). C) in late babbling

stage, by 9 months, the child produces consonant and vowel combinations with recognizable

intonation patterns, by later 11 months the child is capable of using his vocalizations to express

emotions and emphasis. This late babbling stage is characterized by a lot of sound play and attempted

imitations.

Holophrastic stage (a single form functioning as a phrase or sentence) or one-word-stage is

characterized by speech in which single terms are uttered for everyday objects such as milk ([Asdel]

for what's that, so one-word stage is misleading).

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 The acquisition process: the child's linguistic production is mostly a matter of trying out

constructions and testing whether they work or not. It's extremely unlikely that the child is acquiring

the language simply through a process of consistently imitating (parrot fashion) adult speech, because

the child does not say the things his embarrassed parents say at home. The view that child is being

taught the language underestimates what the child does.

The two word stage: around 18-20 months the child utters a variety of combinations of two separate

words such as baby chair (interpretation depends on the context). The significance of this stage is that

the adult behaves as if communication is taking place. That is, the child produces speech and receives

feedback.

Telegraphic speech (multiple word utterances): is characterized by strings of lexical morphemes

in phrases such as ―Andrew want ball‖. The child has some sentence-building capacity and a number

of grammatical inflections begin to appear and simple prepositions (in, on) turn up.

Morphology (3 years): A) –ing form expressions. B) regular plurals with –s (often with

overgeneralization mans, foots). C) possessive inflection 's. D) different forms of verb 'to be'. E)

irregular past tense forms appears before the more regular forms. F) third person singular present

tense verbs –s marker appears.

Syntax:

A) questions: 1. the child adds a wh-form to the beginning of the expression or utters the expression

with a rise in intonation towards the end. (where Rilty? Sit chair?). 2. More complex expressions,

rising intonation continues, more wh-forms are used (what book name? you want eat?). 3. Inversion

of subject and verb. Wh-forms do not undergo inversion always, they prefer wh-form (can I have a

piece? What did you do?).

B) negatives: 1. ―no‖ or ―not‖ is stuck on the beginning of any expression (no fall). 2. Additional

negative forms ―don't‖ and ―can't‖ are used and ―no‖ and ―not‖ begin to be placed in front of the verb

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(He no bite you. You can't dance). 3. Appearance of auxiliary forms such as didn't and won't and

disappearance of the stage 1 forms (She won't let go).

Overextension: to use a word to refer to a large number of unrelated objects due to similarities of

shape, sound, size and movement.

[by the age of 5 the child knows more than 2000 words]

[by the age of 2 he knows more than 50 words]

[by the age of 2 and a half he initiates more talks]

Unit Eighteen

This unit is a summary of:

Formkin & Rodman (Chapter 10: Language Acquisition)

Children do not learn a language by storing all the words and all the sentences in some giant mental

dictionary. They learn to construct and understand they have never produced or heard before. They

construct the rules. No one teaches them these rules. Children have the sensory and motor abilities to

produce and comprehend speech, even in the period of life before language acquisition occurs. The

child‘s first noises are, however, simply responses to stimuli. During the babbling stage, children

learn to maintain the right sounds and suppress the wrong ores. Babbling does not depend on the

presence of acoustic, auditory input. It is a prelinguistic stage, for it is not prerequisite for language

acquisition. Children during this period perceive and produce semantically different intonation

contours. Holophrastic sentences (after one year): One–word sentences. One word=one sentence.

Words in this stage serve three major functions: They are either linked with children action or desire

for action, or are used to convey emotion, or serve a naming. Children in the holophrastic stage can

perceive or comprehend many more phonological contrasts them they can produce themselves. Two–

word stage: (around 2) during this stage there are no syntactic or morphological markers.

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 Mean length of utterances (MIU): children producing utterances that average 2.3 to 3.5

morphemes in length seem to be at the same stage of grammar acquisition.

Telegraphic stage: utterances of children longer; function wordy such as ―to, the, can, is‖ are

missing. Only the words that carry the main massage occur. Reinforcement and imitation are involved

in child language acquisition. But they are not necessary. Because it is truth value rather than

syntactic well–formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parent.

The innateness hypothesis: posits that only is the human species genetically prewired to acquire

language.

Sign languages: are human languages that do not utilize sounds to express meanings. Instead, hand

and body gestures are the forms used to represent morphemes and words. They are fully developed

languages. Language acquisition and use are not dependent on the ability to produce and hear sounds,

but on a much more abstract cognitive ability, biologically determined which accounts for the

similarities between spoken and sign languages.

American Sign Language (ASL): The major language by the deaf; is an independent fully

developed language. It continues to change. ASL has its own morphological, syntactic and semantic

systems, Its formal units, corresponding to the phonological elements of spoken language were

originally called cheremes (to correspond to the term phoneme) and are now more often referred to as

primes. (Hand configuration, the motion of the hands toward or away form the body and the locus of

the sign‘s movement). ASL has minimal pairs and forbidden combinations of features.

Signed English (sighish): consists in the replacement of each spoken English word and morpheme

by a sign. It is an unnatural language.

In ASL , if there is no sign , signers utilize the system of finger spelling .

Despite differences in the modality in which the language is performed, sign languages resemble

spoken languages in all major features; it is language, not speech, that is biologically based.

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Critical age hypothesis: refers to a biological period in which language can be acquired without

overt teaching.

A careful examination of the utterances in ASL by chimps shows that unlike children, their language

exhibit little spontaneity, is highly imitative (echoic/and reveals little syntactic structure).

Unit Nineteen

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 15: Second Language Acquisition/Learning)

Acquisition barriers: 1. An L2 is mostly learned in teenage or adult years. 2. In brief periods at

school 3. while the learners are busy with other things and 4. already have an L 1 to use for

communicative purposes.

Optimum age: for L2 learning is during the years 11-16 when the flexibility of the language

acquisition faculty has not been completely lost.

Joseph Conrad phenomenon: shows the ability of adults to master aspects of the written

language, though speaking with a foreign accent. Some features of L 2 such as vocabulary, grammar

are easier to acquire than others (phonology).

Question: why would self-consciousness interfere with learning a second language? Somebody who is

self-conscious may be unwilling to try to produce unfamiliar sounds in another language and may not

want to sound like a speaker of another language.

Errors: traditionally errors were regarded negatively and had to be eradicated, but recent views do

not consider them as simply failures to learn correct language (they could be remedied by extra

practice). Rather, they indicate that the actual acquisition process is in action and that some progress

has been made.

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 Creative construction: just as children acquiring their L1 produce certain ungrammatical forms, so

we might expect the L2 learners to produce overgeneralizations at certain stages (Womans) which are

know as interlanguage (some in-between system used in L2 acquisition which certainly contains

aspects of L1 and L2, but which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own).

Unit Twenty

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 16: Gestures and Sign Languages)

Four most commonly used languages are English, Spanish, Italian and ASL (American Sign

Language). Because it was easy, it was believed that the use of sign language by deaf children

inhibited the acquisition of speech.

Oralism: required that the students practice English speech sounds and develop lip reading skills

in order to make them members of hearing community.

Signed English: is essentially a means of producing signs which correspond to the words in an

English sentence, in English word order (coded English  manually). It facilities interaction between

the deaf and the hearing community, enables the deaf to take power in the learning world. It is neither

English nor ASL. Its major aim is to prepare students to be able to read and write.

Origins of ASL: developed from the French sign language used in Paris school. ASL and BSL are

separate languages.

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 Articulatory parameters (four key aspects of visual information): shape, orientation, location

and movement. Shape (configuration of the hands used in forming the sign: flat hand), orientation

(palm-up, palm-down) location (at the chin, at the waist level) movement (downward).

Fing-spelling: a system of hand configurations conventionally used to represent the letters of the

alphabet.

ASL: is a linguistic system designed for the visual medium. Signing is done in face-to-face

interaction. Signs of ASL are not clear visual representations or pictures of the objects or actions they

refer to. It is not pantomime or mime. It ranges over every concrete and abstract entity. ASL is not

iconic but is based on conventional linguistic symbols. It is difficult to get the meaning of a sign

simply on the basis of what it looks like if signs are located around the neck and head and if a sign is

made near the chest or waist. It needs to be two-handed.

Difference: a spoken word is a linear sequence of sound segments, while a sign is a combination of

components within spatial dimensions which occur simultaneously.

Icons: are symbolic representations which are physically similar to the objects represented.

Pictograms and ideograms are types of iconic representation.

Writing in ASL: the fact that a sign language exploits the visual medium in quite subtle ways

makes it difficult to represent accurately on the page. One solution is to produce one line of the

manually signed words and over this line to indicate the extent and nature of the conventional facial

expression which accompanies those words.

ASL as a linguistic system: it has all characteristics of spoken language. It has all properties of

speech. There are equivalent levels of phonology, morphology and syntax. It is a natural language.

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 Unit Twenty One

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 17: Language History and Change)

In 1786, Sir William Jones suggested that Sanskrit has a strong affinity to Greek and Latin. He

believed that a number of languages from very different geographical areas must have some common

ancestor.

Philology: the study of the historical development of language and regular processes which are

involved in language change. (during 19th century this was the major preoccupation of linguists).

Proto-indo-European was established as the great-grandmother. Some close similarities (in

pronunciations of the forms or familiar letters) are good evidence for proposing a family connection.

Cognates: A cognate of a word in one language is a word in another language which has a similar

form. False cognates or false friends; two similar forms in two languages with different meaning.

Similar meaning: English forms mother, father and friend are cognates of German forms Mutter,

Vater and Freund.

Comparative reconstruction: its aim is to reconstruct what must have been the original or proto

form in the common ancestral language. Linguists operate on the basis of two major principles:

Majority principle: if, in a cognate set three forms begin with a [p] sound and one form begins

with a [b] sound, then our best guess is that majority have retained the original sound ([p]) and the

minority has changed a little through time.

The most natural development principle: is based on the fact that certain types of sound-change

are very common, whereas others are extremely unlikely (final vowels often disappear, voiceless

sounds become voiced between vowels stops become fricatives under certain conditions, consonants

become voiceless at the end of words).

mupe  mup akana  agana [k]  [š]

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 Metathesis: a reversal in position of two adjoining sounds (bridd  bird, hros  horse, pretty 

purty).

Epenthesis: the addition of a sound to the middle of a word (spinel  spindle, aemtig  empty,

film  filan).

Prothesis: the addition of a sound to the beginning of a word (schola  escuela, spirits 

espiritu).

Syntactic changes: in old English we find v-s, o-v, ob at the beginning of a sentence, not double-

negative. The most sweeping change was the loss of a large number of inflectional affixes.

Lexical changes: the most obvious way in which Old English and Middle English differ is that the

number of borrowed words has decreased.

Broadening: dog in OE was used to refer to a single breed but we use it to refer to all breeds of

dogs.

Narrowing: narrowing a word meaning.

The process of change: the most pervasive source of change in language is the continual process

of cultural transmission. In this unending process, each new language-user has to recreate for him the

language of the community. There is an unavoidable propensity to pick up some elements and others

only approximately. Language change is inevitable.

Diachronic study of language: from historical perspective of change through time.

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 Unit Twenty Two

This unit is a summary of:

Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 8: Language Change: The Syllables of Time)

Regular sound correspondence: correspondence (between two dialects) of sounds (or between

older and newer forms of a language).

Pie: /aj/  /paj/ - /a/  /pa/ or house /haws/  /huis/ or f-p correspondence

in Spanish, French, English t-n correspondence [anim , atim]

Padre pére father [nitim ninim]

This is due to changes in the languages' phonological system that affect certain sounds, or classes of

sounds, rather than individual words (so we observe regularity). Regional dialect differences in

pronunciation arise from the natural linguistic phenomenon of sound change. Many of the world's

modern languages were at first regional dialects that became widely spoken and survived as separate

languages. English and German are languages said to be genetically related because they developed

from the same parent language. All genetically related languages were dialects of the same language

at an earlier stage. A parent language has the sound A. Its speaker become two groups with no contact

between them. One group underwent a sound shift AB. The other AC. BC correspondence

shows that the two languages came from a common source, the parent language.

The inventory of sounds can change by the loss of phonemes or by the addition of new phonemes.

Also an allophone can become a distinctive phoneme ([f], [v] were the allophones of [f]). Also

phonological rules can change both by addition and loss of rules.

The great vowel shift took place between 1400 and 1600, which is a primary source of the spelling

inconsistencies of English.

There has been a trade-off between morphological and syntactic rules.

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 In old English, word order was freer because the case endings alone disclosed the thematic or

meaning relations in a sentence. The phrase structure rules changed in the history of English, Old

English (SOV), Modern English (SVO).

Loan words are nonnative words. A native word is one whose history (or etymology) can be traced

back to the earliest known stages of the language. A language may borrow a word directly or

indirectly (Arabic  Spanish  English)

Broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader, that word means every thing it used to

mean (holiday meant holy day: but it signifies any day on which we do not have to work).

Narrowing (deer meant animal). Meaning shifts: knight meant youth-fond meant foolish.

Comparative historical linguistics: deals with how languages change, what kinds of changes occur,

and why they occur. It is historical because it deals with the history of particular languages. It is

comparative because it deals with relations between languages.

They based their theories on the observations that there is a resemblance between certain languages

and that the differences among languages showing such resemblance are systematic and that there are

regular sound correspondences, and that languages showing systematic differences had descended

from a common source language (were genetically related). They aimed to develop the genetic

relationships that exist among the world's languages, and to establish the major language families of

the world and to define principles for the classification of languages (Sir William Jones). Rask was

the first scholar to describe formally the regularity of certain phonological differences between related

languages.

By observing cognates (words in related languages that developed from the same word, often with

the same meaning) we can observe sound correspondences and from them deduce sound changes.

Pitar (Sanskrit)  pater (Latin)  father (English)

Neo-grammarians claimed that sound laws have no exception. They viewed linguistics as a natural

science and believed that laws of sound change were unexceptionably natural laws.

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 Stammbaum (family tree): it was believed that each language can be traced to a common ancestor

(biological naturalism inspired by Darwin's theory).

Comparative method: the method of reconstruction of a parent language from a comparison of its

daughters.

How do we discover phonological changes: (historical records, spelling in early manuscripts, non-

English words, private letters, writings of prescriptive grammarians known as orthoepists or purists,

puns and rhymes in literature, dialect differences).

Internal borrowing or Analogic change (economy of memory): results in a reduction of the

number of exceptional or irregular morphemes. We borrow from one part of the grammar and apply

the rule generally (lighted instead of lit).

The theory of least effort: sound changes are primarily due to an economy of effort. We tend to

assimilate one sound to another, to drop out unstressed syllables. Regularization of exceptional plural

forms is analogic change. We tend to generalize the rules of language (Analogic changer or internal

borrowing) which is a major cause of language change.

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 Unit Twenty Three

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 18: Language and Regional Variation)

The standard language: is a variety which forms the basis of printed English in newspapers and

books, which is used in the mass media and which is taught in schools and also taught to teachers of a

second language (correct, pure, politic).

Dialect and Accent: the term accent is used only to describe pronunciation, whereas dialect covers

grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. From a linguistic point of view, no one dialect or variety is

better than another.

Isogloss: represents the limit of an area in which a particular linguistic feature is used.

The dialect continuum: since one variety merges into another, we can view regional variation as

existing along a continuum and not as having sharp breaks from one region to the next. Personal

dialect of each individual speaker is called idiolect.

Bidialectal and Bilingual: one speaking two dialects is bidialectal and one speaking language is

bilingual. Even in individual bilingualism (simply the result of having two parents speaking two

different languages) one language tends eventually to become the dominant one, with the other in a

subordinate role.

Language planning: in this process there are five stages: 1. Selection (choosing an official

language). 2. Codification (in which basic grammars, dictionaries and written models are used to

establish the standard variety). 3. Elaboration (the standard variety is developed for use in all aspects

of social life and the appearance of a literary work written in the standard). 4. Implementation

(government attempts to encourage use of the standard). 5. Acceptance (the final stage when a

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substantial majority of the population have come to use the standard and to think of it as the national

language, playing a part in not only social, but also national identity).

Pidgin: has no native speakers; is a variety of language which has developed for some practical

purpose, such as trading, among groups of people who did not know each other's language (pidgin is a

Chinese form for business) [absence of complex grammatical morphology and a limited vocabulary.

Functional morphemes take the place of inflectional morphemes found in the source language]. The

syntax of pidgin could be quite unlike the languages from which terms were borrowed and modified.

Creole: has native speakers, when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trade language and

becomes the first language of a social community, it is described as a creole.

Unit Twenty Four

This unit is a summary of:

George Yule (Chapter 19: Language and Social Variation)

Social dialects (sociolect): are varieties of language used by groups defined according to class,

education, occupation, age, sex, and a number of other social parameters. One who spends a long time

going through college will tend to have spoken language feature derived from written language (talks

like a book). Education, occupation, social class, age and sex should be taken into consideration.

Granddaughters often use words which their grandparents never used. Also it's been found that female

speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than male speakers with the same general social

background.

Black English: is a widespread social dialect, often cutting across regional differences (absence of

the copula: forms of the verb to be [they mine, you crazy] and the use of double negative

constructions [he don't know nothing. aren't afraid of no ghosts] which far from being illogical, this

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type of structure provides a very effective means of emphasizing the negative part of a message in this

dialect).

Idiolect: the personal dialect of an individual speaker.

Style: is occasioned by the situation of use (formal, informal).

Register: variation according to use in specific situations is also studied in terms of register

(religious: Ye shall be blessed). The choice of register, when you speak, will have a direct effect on

the style of what you say.

Diglossia: is used to describe a situation in which two very different varieties of language (high and

low) co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of social function.

Language and culture: language reflects culture. Linguistic variation is tied very much to the

existence of different cultures.

Linguistic determinism: language determines thought. You can only think in the categories which

your language allows you to think; in the language of an Eskimo allows him to categorize different

entities by observing a wintry scene.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (linguistic relativity): Different languages lead people to view the

world differently. The conclusion drawn from this hypothesis is that we dissect nature along lines laid

down by our native tongues. Some tribes perceive the world differently from other tribes because their

languages lead them to see the world from different angles. The way people view the world is

determined by the structure of their native language. This view ignores the fact that users of a

language don't inherit a fixed set of patterns to use. They inherit the ability to manipulate and create

with a language in order to express their prepress their perceptions.

Language universals: common properties shared by all languages.

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 Unit Twenty Five

This unit is a summary of:

Fromkin & Rodman (Chapter 7: Language in Society)

Idiolect: The language system of an individual.

Dialects: Mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways from each other.

When dialects become mutually unintelligible–when the speakers of one dialect group can no longer

understand the speakers of another dialect group, these dialects become different languages. Dialect

differences tend to increase proportionately to the degree of communicative isolation between the

groups. Dialect leveling is a situation in which dialect differences disappear. When enough

differences give the language spoken in a particular region its own flavor, that version of the language

is referred to as a regional dialect. So a dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a

country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class (social dialect or

sociolect).

Accent: Regional phonological or phonetic distinctions that convey information about the speaker‘s

dialect, background (what country or what part of a county) or about the sociolinguistic group the

speaker belongs. It is also used to refer to the speech of somebody who speaks a language non-

natively. In this sense, it refers to phonological differences or interference from a different language

spoken elsewhere.

Dialect Atlases (maps): dialect differences are geographically plotted on them. A line drawn on

the map separating dialect areas is called an isogloss. When we cross an isogloss, we are passing from

one dialect area to another. Dialects differ phonologically, syntactically, and lexically.

Standard dialect: the dominant or prestige dialect such as Standard American English (SAE). SAE

is an idealization. Nobody speaks this dialect. One dialect is neither better nor worse than another, nor

purer, nor more corrupt; it is simply different.

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 Black English (non–middle class blacks): Delete /r/ except before a vowel; consonant cluster

simplification at the end of words (meant, mend, men /mən/ - told, toll, too /təu/ this rule is optional);

the lack of distinction between /I/ and /ε/; double negatives (He don‘t know nobody).

The lack of third–person singular verb forms–Deletion of the verb to be (He nice) (But referring to

a habitual action, an uninflected form of be is required; He be happy; He is always happy).

Code–switching: a change by a bilingual form one language or language variety to another one,

sometimes within a single sentence (form English to Spanish).

Lingua Franca: a language that is used for communication between different groups of people, each

speaking a different language. Any language can be a lingua France. English is the lingua Franca of

the whole world. It serves more frequently as trade language.

Pidgin: a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak

different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. (a marginal language,

with no native speakers–with rule–governed phonological system–small vocabularies). Pidgin is not

good at expressing fine distinctions of meaning, with absence of case, tense, mood, voice, simple but

not baby talk); pidgin has its own newspapers, literature, writing system

Creole: when a pidgin comes to be adopted by community as its native tongue and children learn it as

a first language, that language is creolized.

Slang: one mark of an informal style is the frequent occurrence of slang. Slang often consists of

ascribing totally near meanings to old words. One generation‘s slang is another generation‘s standard

vocabulary.

Jargon: every science, profession, trade and occupation has its own set of words, some of which

are considered to be slang and others technical, depending on the status of the people using these ―in―

words, such word are celled jargon or argot (in linguistics: morpheme, phoneme) (in computer: bit,

byte, floppy, morf, modem). Taboo words are not to be used or forbidden.

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 Euphemism: is a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid frightening or

unpleasant subjects. (Pass away for die, funeral director for under taker). One fact about the

asymmetry between male and female terms in many languages is that when there are male/female

pairs, the male form for the most part is unmarked and the female term is created by adding a bound

morpheme or by compounding (prince  princess) folk etymologies (nonscientific speculations about

the origin of words)

Esperanto is an artificial language, a highly developed pidgin with immense vocabulary.

Unit Twenty Six

This unit is a summary of:

Julia Falk (Chapters: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

Linguistic: the scientific study of language. Its goal is to describe languages and to explain the

unconscious knowledge all speakers have of their language. The earliest records of Greek interests in

language relate to the sophists in the 5th century B.C. who were primarily interested in linguistic form

and nature of language and the relationship between pronunciation of a word and its meaning. Those

who stressed the regularity in language were known as analysts, while those who emphasized the

presence of irregularity were called anomalists. It is clear today that language is essentially

systematic and regular. The scholastic philosophers concerned with the study of language (13 th, 14th

centuries) were known as Modistae. Both the Modistae and the later rationalist philosophers were

concerned with the meaning of linguistic utterances as well as with their form.

Language family (in philology): languages that are believed to have developed from a single

language, because of similarities in vocabulary, sound and grammar, are said to belong to the same

language family.

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 Syntax: the grammatical principles of sentence formation. The study of how words combine to

form sentences.

Structural linguistics: because of its attention to the form, or structure of language, American

linguistics in the first half of the 20th century came to be known as structural linguistics. In discovery

procedure, they concentrated on the observable aspects of language.

Language and speech: are not synonyms. Speech is a concrete, physical act, the production of

specific utterances containing particular words arranged in particular ways and expressed by means of

certain sounds, and is the representation of language. Language is a mental phenomenon; a body of

knowledge about sounds, meaning and syntax which resides in the mind.

Competence (langue): is the unconscious knowledge about sounds, meanings and syntax

possessed by the speakers of a language. Performance (parole): actual language behavior, the use of

language in daily life. The linguist is primarily interested in competence and seeks to describe the

properties of language and to determine the nature of competence. Grammar: the end product of the

linguistic investigation of competence is a systematic description of linguistic knowledge called the

grammar. It doesn't describe the processes of production or comprehension but simply the underlying

knowledge that forms part of all language use.

Creativity: language is a creative system in that the system enables its users to regularly produce

and comprehend new sentences. Constitutive rules: are essential for the very existence of an activity

or phenomenon. Regulative rules: regulate an already existing activity. Linguistic universals provide

the basis of linguistic theory and linguistic theory, in turn, provides the basis for the writing of

grammars of individual languages. A grammar must be natural, in the sense that it doesn't

unnecessarily propose rules or forms which conflict with the kinds of phenomena normally found in

other languages.

Descriptive and prescriptive grammars: the former describes the knowledge that characterize

actual language use and the rules in such a grammar are constitutive because they describe what the

language is; the latter contains regulative rules, rules of what the language should be. This type of

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grammar tries to change actual language use by prohibiting certain forms. Linguists are not interested

in prescriptive grammar. The factors involved in the selection of an official language or dialect are not

linguistic; they are political, cultural, social and historical. The development of a general linguistic

theory and the descriptions of particular languages are the primary goals of linguistics.

Morphemes (formatives): the minimal units of syntax in a language; units from which words are

formed. Morphology: the identification, analysis and description of morphemes as well as the study

of word formation is called morphology. Bound morphemes do not occur independently, while free

morphemes can stand by themselves. Every free morpheme is a word, but the reverse is wrong.

Morphemes that serve as the basis for words are called roots, while the attached bound morphemes

are (all affixes, prefixes, infixes, suffixes).

An isolating language is one in which word order determines grammatical function. In an isolating

language word forms do not change.

Affixes: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes do not change the part of speech of the

root to which they are attached. ('s, plurals, ed, ing) but derivational affixes change the part of speech

(al, ly, ize, pre). Inflectional affixes are highly productive. Derivational affixes are partially

productive, because they are normally native to language. Derivational affixes are often borrowed.

Children learn past tense and plural at three stages: 1. memorization, 2. generalization (even he

utters forms that are exceptions), 3. the exceptional forms are recognized. Lexicon is the collection at

all the words and phases, a dictionary usually of an ancient language and all the lexemes in the base

component of TG grammar.

Nominalization: derivation of nouns from verbs (construction from construct by ion).

Lexicon and Lexical entry: the list of morphemes in a grammar is called a lexicon. Each

morpheme in the lexicon along with the information about it is. A lexeme or lexical item is the

smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units.

Lexeme is an abstract unit (phrasal verbs, compounds, expressions, word).

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Compounding: the combination of two roots [usually free forms] such as match box-text book.

Idiom, Proverb and Metaphor: an idiom is any string of words in which the meaning of the

whole expression cannot be determined from the meanings of the individual morphemes that make up

the string. The proverbs are similar to idioms and their meanings are understood as something more

than the meaning of the morphemes they contain. Metaphors are expressions that attribute qualities to

an object not normally associated with those qualities. The literal meaning of a metaphor is complete

nonsense, but idioms, compounds, and proverbs may have both a literal and a nonliteral meaning.

Idiosyncratic expressions: their meaning cannot be predicted by means of generalizations and they

should be memorized.

Etymology and Borrowing: the study of the origin and development of words, is etymology. The

addition to the lexicon of a word from another language is borrowing. When a language borrows a

word, the new word is pronounced according to the sound system of the language to which it is being

added. Intercommunication: whereby speakers of one language are in linguistic contact with

speakers of another language. It is necessary for lexical borrowing. The necessity involved in

borrowing is social, political and economic but not linguistic. Learned words: words used in formal

speech and writing, generally borrowed from a classical language such as Latin or Greek.

Loan translation or calque is a process in which the morphemes of foreign words are translated

into native morphemes (without addition to morpheme). Extension and Narrowing: when the trade

name of a leading brand is used for all brands of the product, the process is extension (Kleenex) and

when an ordinary lexical item takes on a special meaning in addition to its original meaning, the

process is narrowing (camel cigarettes).

Acronyms: are the results of forming a word from the first letter or letters of each word in a phrase,

often the title of an organization (NATO). Back formation and Coining: in the first one, a short

word is created from a longer one on the basis of similarities between the longer word and other

words (edit, televise). Coining is the original creation of words (jazz, quiz, snob, fun).

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 Onomatopoeia: is a modified type of coining in which a word is formed as an imitation of some

natural sounds (is also called bow-wow theory). Pooh-pooh theory is based on the view that

language started with grunts, groans and cries of pleasure. And ding-doing theory is based on the

assumption that people made noised when they saw objects and the noises gradually acquired the

status of words naming the objects.

Definition of language: is a productive system of communication, completely adequate for the

needs of its speakers.

Slang and professional words: slang shares the characteristics of other vocabulary items, anything

that can be said using slang can also be expressed without slang. There are as many kinds of slang as

there are separate social groups. Differences: 1. Is between the people who use them and 2. The way

in which new words are produced (professional words are formed with morphemes of Latin or

Greek).

Obscenity is the use of words that offend the morality of certain people; vulgarity involves words

that violate good taste. Styles: the varieties of language using associated with different situations.

There are as many styles of language as there are differences in situations.

Malapropism: the confusion of the meaning of two learned words resulting in peculiar sentences

(extricate, execute).

In discussing the appropriateness of a given utterance for the situation: 1. The context of situation,

2. The relationship among the people involved in a situation and, 3. The medium of expression should

be taken into consideration.

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 Unit Twenty Seven

This unit is a summary of:

Formkin & Rodman (Chapter 12: Language Processing: Human and Machine)

Psycholinguistics: is concerned with linguistic performance; how we use our knowledge of

language in speech production and comprehension and how a child acquires that knowledge is called

psycholinguistics. A theory of linguistic performance describes the relationship between the mental

grammar and the psychological processes by means of which this grammar is accessed to permit

speech and comprehension. The first stage in the comprehension process is the perception of the

speech signal, an acoustic signal produced by the speaker.

Pitch: fundamental frequency of the sounds, how fast the variations of the air pressure occur.

Intensity: or magnitude of the variations which determines the loudness of the sound. Quality of

the sound is determined by the shape of the vibrations or wave form, which is determined by the

shape of the vocal tract when the air is flowing through it.

Sound Spectrograph: makes a picture of the speech signal. This patterns are called spectrograms

or voiceprints (visible speech). Dark bands in voice prints which represent the overtones produced by

the shape of the vocal tract are called the formants of the vowels.

Speech perception: is a process by which we segment the continuous signal and in so doing,

mischunk or misperceive the speaker's intended utterance. The relations between the formants of the

vowels of one speaker are similar to those of another speaker of the same language, even though the

absolute frequencies may differ. Analyzing the speech signal in speech perception is a necessary but

not sufficient step in understanding a sentence or utterance.

Response or reaction time measurements: complex tasks require more processing, hence more

time, than simpler ones. (ambiguous sentences take longer to process than nonambiguous sentences).

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 Priming technique: if one hears a word like nurse (the prime), his response to "doctor" will be

faster than to a semantically unrelated word such as "flower". Semantically related words are located

in the same part of the lexicon; once the path to that section has been taken, it is easier to travel that

way a second time. Lexical decision: the subject is presented with a prime and then another stimulus,

which may be a word or a nonsense string, and must respond by pressing the button if the second

stimulus is an actual word.

Stages in the production of an utterance: 1. Thought is generated. 2. Syntactic structure is planed

(grammatical morphemes inserted). 3. Sentence stress and intonation are assigned. 4. Lexical

selection based. 5. Disordering of phonemes. 6. Application of morphophonemic rules. 7.

Nasalization of vowel before nasal. 8. Neuromuscular commands.

Computer comprehension: consists of speech recognition; the perception of sounds and words

and speech understanding; the interpretation of the words recognized. Computer production consists

of language generation (deciding what to say) and speech synthesis (the actual creation of speech

sounds). Machine understanding of spoken language is programmed as a two-stage process; speech

recognition, or the recognition of sounds or words, and speech understanding, the comprehension of

those words as they occur in phrases.

Parsing: parsers are computer programs that assign phrase structure to strings of words.

Translation networks: another type of parser uses T-N which represent the grammar as a complex of

nodes and arcs. This network is the equivalent of the phrase structure rule. Augmented Transition

Networks (ATN): are transition networks in which each arrow not only indicates a syntactic

category, but may carry other information essential to accurate parsing as well. Anticipation errors (in

which a sound is produced earlier than in the intended utterance) and spoonerisms show that we

construct and store larger units.

Psycholinguistic experimental studies show that comprehension involves top down processing (the

use of grammatical and contextual information) as well as bottom up processing (the use of the

sensory) information of the signal.

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 Artificial intelligence: the use of language by machines to communicate with humans.

Speech synthesis; spoken language produced electronically (early models of talking machines were

devices which mechanically simulated the operation of the human vocal tract. Articulation of speech

sounds were to be modeled. Machines stored the pronouncing information at the word level not at the

sound level). Why would a successful model of speech articulation not be a model of speaking?

Because speaking involves having something to say (a mental process and requires a modeling of

intelligence) whereas articulation in simply the activity of saying (a physical process).

Artificial intelligence (AI): modeling of human intelligence or the science of making machines do

things that would require intelligence if done by men. This field ranges over a large number of topics

(problem-solving, game-playing, visual perception), but has always taken language production and

understanding as a major area of investigation. Parser: parsing is basically a process of working from

left to right along an incoming English sentence, creating an analysis of the syntactic structure and

predicting what elements will come next. Primarily a parser does syntactic analysis but it can also

produce a semantic analysis. The problem with parsers is that they do not have enough if any world

knowledge.

Understander System: machines which really do behave as if they make sense of the linguistic

input they receive. That is, machines which have the greater amounts of world-knowledge that man

has. Eliza: a program intended to simulate or even to parody the psychotherapist's role in a particular

type of non-directive psychoanalysis. (Pattern recognition process: occurrence of a key word in

patient's turn); Eliza does not interpret the linguistic material it receives or produces. Shrdlu:

deductive reasoning on the machine‘s part; has the power of working out what the human's linguistic

contributions mean in terms of its world.

Why do machine understander-systems operate within limited worlds? It is computationally

impossible to give the machine all world- knowledge, but it can be very knowledgeable within a small

limited world.

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 Part Three

Testing

Unit One

This unit is a summary of:

Farhady, Jafarpoor, Birjandi (Chapter 1: Preliminaries)

Various Test Types (different testing stages)

1. Traditional (intuitive) stage: tests are subjective (i.e. the result of which would differ depending

on scores, test, time and …) are closely related to G.T.M. (Translation, dictation, composition,

reading comprehension)

2. Multiple-choice items: the most popular types of objective tests. At this stage testing becomes

scientific because behaviorists and structuralists believe that it's possible to study components of

language separately and systematically. Thus by multiple-choice items one can make discrete point

tests to measure small components of language. Audio-lingual method is the best example of this

scientific stage.

3. Global tests (holistic or integrative): in order to answer them, knowledge about more than one

element of language is needed. Their purpose is to measure general proficiency. There are two types

of this kind: A) dictation B) cloze (taken from Gestalt psychology; a passage is given will some

deleted words. Answering the items requires perceptive and productive skills and a sound knowledge

of grammar and words).

4. Communicative stage: tests should be constructed to evaluate learners' ability to manipulate

language for there is more to language than strings of words. But, as a matter of facts testing lags

teaching.

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 Importance of testing: teachers want to know how much their students have learned. Testing will

encourage and motivate students and will help them prepare themselves and thus learn the materials.

They help us improve the quality of instruction.

Test: presentation of a set of questions to be answered.

Measurement: is much broader. We can measure by means (observations, rating scales) other that

giving tests (to obtain information by obtaining a numerical value)

Evaluation: is the broadest; determination of the congruence between performance and objectives;

the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging decision

alternatives.

Teacher- made tests versus Standardized tests:

Teacher- made tests are valuable because they measure students' progress based on the class

activities, motivate them, provide an opportunity for the teacher to diagnose students' weakness

concerning a given subject matter, help him make plans for remedial instruction if needed. The

disadvantages are that no uniform directions are specified, content and sampling are determined by

the teacher and maybe hurried and haphazard, no test blueprints, item tryouts, item analysis or

revision; local class norms are available, are best suited for measuring particular objectives set by

specific instructions. In standardized tests, we have standardized administration and scoring

procedures; content is determined by experts; sampling is done systematically; use of meticulous

construction, test blueprints, national norms are considered; suited for measuring broad curriculum

objectives and national comparisons.

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 Unit Two

This unit is a summary of:

Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 2: Function of Language Tests)

Function of Language Tests: Purposes for which a test is designed.

1. Prognostic Tests: are not directly related to a particular course of instruction. Are used to predict

the future course of action about the examinees, are not related to students' educational backgrounds,

their focus is to make sound decisions about the future success of the examinees on the basis of their

present capabilities. Of this kind we hare three types:

A. Selection Tests: help one decide whether a learner fails or passes, is qualified or not, is accepted

or not. When the number of applicants passing a test exceeds the capacity of the educational

programs, selection tests become competition ones. There are two ways: To increase the difficulty

level of the test or increase facilities.

B. Placement Tests: there is no pass or fail. Their purpose is to determine students' level in order to

help those who need more instruction. The difference between the knowledge of students should be

diminished as much as possible (Increase the intensity of instruction or length of it).

C. Aptitude Tests: help to make decisions on the language the learner learns best, the career he can

do best. The examinee does not need to have prior knowledge of the subject being tested.

2. Attainment Tests: deal with the extent to which examinees have learned the materials they have

been taught; are more directly related to educational settings. They are of three types:

A. Achievement Tests: are designed to measure the degree of students' learning from a particular

set of instructional materials (midterm examinations). There are two types of this kind: a) General

Achievement Test and b) Diagnostic Achievement Test: the former deals with a general body of

knowledge that the examinee is supposed to achieve through a course of study. The latter deals with

determining strengths and weaknesses of testees in a particular course, deals with measuring the

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detailed elements of an instructional topic achieved. By diagnostic achievement tests teachers

evaluate the extent to which their instructional program has helped students achieve the objectives of

program. They help them determine potential problems of students, and they have usability before an

instructional program starts.

B. Proficiency Tests: measure the overall language ability of the learners with no regard to the way

through which the learner has learned a body of knowledge and also measure the degree of his

capacity in language components and the degree he is able to practically demonstrate his knowledge

of language use.

C. Knowledge Test: are used in situations where the medium of instruction is a language other

than the learners' mother tongue. Second language is used as the language of the tests to measure the

testees‘ knowledge in areas other than the language itself.

Unit Three

This unit is a summary of:

Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 3: Forms of Language Tests)

Suppletion VS. Recognition Items: Suppletion or completion items require the examinee to supply

the missing parts of the stem or complete an incomplete stem. Recognition items only require the

correct response from among the alternatives provided for each stem.

Psycholinguistic classification: the process through which the item is answered is taken into

account. Because responding to an item requires certain psychological processes. It involves linguistic

theories because responding to an item which is presented and responded in a certain form of

language involves linguistic elements. The psycholinguistic classification, then, would be two-

dimensional.

A) Psychological processes (recognition, comprehension, comprehension-production, production).

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 B) Modality of language (dealing with the ways through which language is manifested, including

verbal and non-verbal manifestation. The former involves oral, written, and the latter involves

pictorial)

Recognition is a pre-requisite to comprehension and comprehension is a pre-requisite to production;

language processing starts from recognition and moves towards production. Also components of an

item should be taken into account. The stem and the response may or may not have the same modes of

language. The form of a test refers to its physical appearance. To decide on the form of a test, the

nature of the attribute and the function of the test should be taken into account. The form of a test is

determined by the form of the items comprising it. An item is the smallest unit of a test and consists of

two parts: the stem and the response. The purpose of the stem is to elicit information from the

examinee; responses in multiple-choice tests are called alternatives, options or choices, one of which

is the correct response, and the others are called distracters. An alternative may or may not be the

correct response whereas distracters consist of only wrong alternatives.

Subjective vs. objective Item (does not refer to the form of a test): scoring procedure in subjective

tests is not systematic. It differs depending on who is the scorer and when the testee is given the test.

Multiple-choice and true-false types of tests are popular kinds of the so-called objective measures.

Misunderstanding: originates from assuming that multiple-choice type tests are always objective;

but objectivity and subjectivity do not refer to the form of a test.

Essay Type vs. Multiple-choice Items: essay-type items refer to all kinds of items in which the

examinee is required to produce elements. Multiple-choice items refer to all items in which the

examinee is required to select the correct response from among given alternatives. The disadvantage

of multiple-choice items is that they are limited to recognition.

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 Unit Four

This unit is a summary of:

Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 4: Basic Statistics in Testing)

Median

The median is the middle value of a set of data containing an odd number of values, or the average of

the two middle values of a set of data with an even number of values. The median is especially helpful

when separating data into two equal sized bins. The excel syntax to find the median is MEDIAN.

Mode

The mode of a set of data is the value which occurs most frequently. The excel syntax for the mode is

MODE

Mean and Weighted Average

The mean, or average, is obtained by dividing the sum of observed values by the number of

observations, n. Although data points fall above, below, or on the mean, it can be considered a good

estimate for predicting subsequent data points. The formula for the mean is given below.

Properties of the mean:

If we subtract X form the score X1, the resulting difference is a deviation score (D). The sum of all

"N" deviation scores would be zero. The sum of the squared deviations of scores from their arithmetic

mean is less than the sum of the squared deviations around any point other than X .

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 Mode, median and mean only locate the centre of the distribution.

Range (dispersion): is the difference between the largest number in the distribution and the

smallest number. It dose not tell us anything about how the other terms very.

Variance and Standard Deviation:

Steps: 1. Add up all scores and divide them by N to get the mean ( X ).

2. Compute the deviation of each score from the mean (X=X- X ).

3. Square each individual deviation.

4. Add up the squared deviation from the mean ∑ (X- X ) 2= ∑X2.

5. Divide the sum of the squared deviations by N-1 (V=

X 2

).
N 1
6. Take the square root of variance and have the standard deviation

(S=
X 2

=
(X  X ) 2

).
N 1 N 1
Variance and standard deviation can also be computed by raw score formula. The advantage of

using the raw score formula is that we don't have to subtract the mean from each score in the

X 2
 ( X ) 2
distribution. V= N
( N  1)

Importance of standard deviation: tells us about the degree of dispersion of scores in a

distribution. By comparing the standard deviations of different groups we would know to what extent

they are homogeneous. It is the most reliable statistic in giving us sufficient and reliable information.

Correlation coefficient: is estimated when we have many variables and we are interested in

determining relationships between those sets of score. Correlation coefficient is a number which

indicates the relationship between two sets of score. There would be four cases:

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 business

business

business
1) Linear relationship; 2) Linear relationship; 3) Curvilinear 4) No relationship

positive negative

Scatter diagram number 1 suggests that the higher the math score the higher the business score.

Scatter diagram 2 suggests that the higher the math score, the lower the business score.

Scatter diagram 3 shows that there is a curvilinear relationship.

Scatter diagram 4 shows that there is no relationship between math score and business score.

Coefficient of Correlation: Demonstrates the strength of a relationship between two variables and

will always have a value between -1 and +1. A value of +1 means perfect positive correlation and

corresponds to the situation where all the dots lie exactly on a straight line. A value of -1 means

perfect negative correlation. A correlation is considered high when it is close to +1 or -1 and low

when it is close to 0. If it is zero, there is no linear correlation.

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 Unit Five

This unit is a summary of:

Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 5: Test Construction)

Steps in developing a test: 1. Determining the function and the form. 2. Planning (determining the

content of the test). 3. Preparing the items. 4. Reviewing the items. 5. Pretesting the items. 6.

Validating the test.

1. Since the function of a test influences its form and content, it should be determined in advance.

To do so, three factors should be taken into account:

A: characteristics of the examinees (age, language background, the educational system, since

educational policy influences the mastery level of examinees. For instance, for a group of youngsters,

a test with items in pictorial mode would be more appropriate than a test with items in written mode.)

B: the specific purpose of the test (tests can serve two major functions, prognostic and evaluation

of attainment and there are some minor ones, a proficiency test requires a different content from that

of an aptitude test so specific functions influence the content and form of a test.)

C: the score of the test (whether it is to be used within the score of a classroom school, a district,

or a country influences the structure of the test. [Degree of care, amount of time and energy].)

2. Planning: since the purpose of tests is to measure examinees' ability regarding a certain skill or

component of language (a particular area of knowledge), it is important to decide on the area of

knowledge to be measured. So the content should be specified; also the relative importance of the

elements to be included in the test must be specified. The steps involved in content specification are:

A: the course content should be outlined to include a list of major points covered daring the

obstruction.

B: these major topics should be divided into their specific components.

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 C: a table of specifications should be prepared. The main purpose of such a table is to assure the

test developer that the test includes a representative sample of the materials covered in a particular

course. It specifics the content or what is to be tested; it shows the aspects of achievement to be tested.

3. Preparing the items:

A: True-false items: measure the ability of examinees; identify the accuracy of the information

provided through a statement. Comprehension is the major psychology process in answering them.

Demerits of such items are: 1. they depend on chance. 2. They are limited to measuring simple

learning activities in language. Merits: 1. they are easy to construct and easy to score. 2. Allow testers

to use a large number of items in a given test. Some precautions regarding T/F items: 1. Avoid using

broad general statements (because most bread generalizations are true). 2. Avoid using statements

which measure trivial points (because the testee would be led to memorize rather than comprehend

certain points). 3. Avoid using negative statements (they are often overlooked). 4. Avoid using long

and complex sentences (tend to include information beyond the point to be tested). 5. Make true and

false statements approximately of similar length, difficulty, and distribution.

B: matching items: require more complex mental activities; are used for measuring facts based on

simple associations, recognizing and comprehending synonyms and antonyms. Some helpful

suggestions: 1. use homogeneous materials in a single matching item (one intended to measure

vocabulary should not include grammatical structures). 2. Include an unequal number of items in each

column (if you do not do this, the last one is predictable). 3. Clarify the way the items are to be

matched from the two columns (whether to draw lines, number them or use other forms). 4. Keep the

list brief and place the shorter column to the right.

C: multiple-choice items: are the most widely used types of items, are applicable to a wide variety

of skills, and are more effective. Some helpful suggestions: 1. the stem should be quite clear and state

the point to be tested unambiguously. If it dose not specify the problem, the alternatives would serve

as true-false items. 2. The stem should include as much of the item as possible. 3. Negative statements

should be avoided. 4. All of the alternatives must be correct grammatically by themselves and

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consistent with the stem (Distracters should prove wrong when placed in the stem). 5. Every item

should have one correct or clearly best answer. 6. All distracters should be plausible. 7. All distracters

should be of similar length and level of difficulty. 8. Using "all of the above" or "none of the above"

as an alternative is not recommended. 9. Correct responses should be distributed approximately

equally but randomly among the alternatives (there should be no discernable pattern in such

distribution) 10. The stem should not provide any grammatical clue which might help the testee find

the correct response without understanding the item. 11. The stem should not start with a blank (for

according to the cognitive-code learning theory, language processes start with known information and

move towards unknown)

4. Reviewing: problems unnoticed by the test developer will be observed by the reviewers (often an

outsider).

5. Pretesting: is defined as administering the newly developed test to a group of examinees with

characteristics similar to those of the target group. The first purpose is to determine, objectively, the

characteristics of the individual items (item facility: IF, item discrimination: ID, and choice

distribution: CD). The second purpose is to determine the characteristics of the items altogether

(validation: reliability, validity and practicality)

A: Item facility: refers to the easiness of an item:

Sum of correct responses

IF =
C
N Total number of responses

Content number of responses

When item facility is 1, it shows that all testees answered this particular item correctly. When it is

zero, it shows that nobody answered it correctly. Items with facility indexes beyond 0.63 are too easy

and those with facility indexes below 0.37 are too difficult (ideal is 0.50).

Item difficulty: refers to the proportion of wrong responses and item facility refers to the proportion

of correct ones.

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 B: Item Discrimination: refers to the extent to which a particular item discriminates more

knowledgeable examines from less knowledgeable. If all students answered a question correctly, it

means that it is not only too easy but also non-discriminating. An item with a too high or low facility

index is not likely to have a good discrimination power.

CH  CL
ID =
1
N
2

The ideal ID is unity. An ID index of 1 means that all the subjects in the high group answered the item

correctly and all the subjects in the low group answered it wrongly. That is, the item has the highest

discrimination power. The closer the value of item discrimination to unity, the more discriminating

the item. Items which show ID value beyond 0.40 can be considered acceptable.

C: Choice Distribution: refers to the frequency with which alternatives are selected by examinees.

That is, the tester examines the efficiency of the distracters. If a distracter is selected by none of the

testees, it shows that such a distracter dose not function satisfactorily. Thus, through choice

distribution, the tester can observe deficiencies existing in the nature of choices. These observations

will lead the test constructor to improve the quality of the choices.

Unit Six

This unit is a summary of:

Farhady, Jafarpour, Birjandi (Chapter 6: Characteristics of a Good Test)

Reliability: Refers to constancy or stability of scores obtained from two administrations of a single

test to the same or similar students. But all measurements are always subject to error. So the score you

get is not the true manifestation of your ability. That is, the score you get is not your true score and it

includes the measurement error or the error score. We can say that the score you get is your observed

score and the score which you deserved to get truly or the score which is without error is called your

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true score. Observed score is shown by X, true score by T and the error score by E. X can be equal to,

greater than, or smaller than T. In the case of variance, error variance is included in the observed

variance. So the variance of the observed scores is always greater than the variance of the true scores.

That is, the magnitude of the observed variance equals the magnitude of the true variance plus the

magnitude of the error variance (VX =VT+VE). From this formula, it is clear that the greater the

measurement error, the smaller the estimation of the true score. Now it should be stated that

technically speaking, reliability is defined as the ratio of true score variance to observed score

variance.

VT VX  VE
r= , VX=VT+VE, VT =VX-VE, r=
VX VX

If error variance is zero, reliability equals unity. If error variance is the greatest, reliability equals

zero. The reliability of zero means that all observed variation is due to error. That is, the test is

completely unreliable. The reliability of 1 means that there is no error in measurement and the test is

perfectly reliable. In order to estimate the error measurement or the standard error of measurement,

we can use SEM= S X 1  r (Sx: standard deviation of observed scores). It is clear that there is a

negative relationship between reliability and SEM. The higher the reliability, the smaller the SEM. If

reliability is equal to 1, then SEM will be zero. If you want to know a more accurate score, you can

use this formula: observed score ±1 SEM. Before going into details of methods of estimating

reliability it should be said that to estimate the reliability of a test you need to calculate the amount of

variance produced by the test. To do this, one way is through correlational procedures. The square of

correlation is the amount of common variance between two sets of scores. When the same test is

administered to the same group twice, the amount of common variance is the correlation itself and not

the square of correlation. So, to estimate the reliability of test scores, the correlation coefficient

between two sets of scores obtained from two administrations of the same test to the same group

should be calculated.

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 Test-Retest method: as the name suggests, reliability is obtained through administrating a given

test to a particular group twice and calculating the correlation between the two sets of scores obtained

from the two administrations. Since there is a reasonable amount of time between the two

administrations, this kind of reliability is referred to as the reliability of scores over time. But the

assumption is that during the interval between the two administrations, the examinees' knowledge

dose not change. This method has some disadvantages: 1. it requires two administrations and it is

obviously difficult to arrange two similar testing sessions for the same group of testees. 2. since

human beings are dynamic, their abilities charge from one administration to another. 3. The testees

may learn something from the first administration and do differently on the second one.

Parallel-Forms method: in this method two similar or parallel forms of the same test are

administered to a group just once. Then the correlation coefficient between the scores obtained from

the two forms will be an estimate of test score reliability. But the problem is that constructing two

parallel forms of a test is not an easy task. In this regard two important points should be taken into

account first, the table of specifications for the two forms of the test must be the same and also, the

components of the two tests or the subsets should be the same.

Split half Method: this method assumes that there is an internal homogeneity among the items.

Thus, the relationship among the items will be a sort of reliability of scores regarding their internal

relationship. That is the reason why this method is sometimes called the internal consistory of the test

scores. A test is divided into two equal parts by selecting odd items for one half and even items for the

other half. In this way, easy and difficult items are equally distributed in the two halves. To estimate

2(rhalf )
the reliability, the following formula is used, r (told) = .
lt (rhalf )

In spite of its advantages, this method is subject to an important shortcoming. That is, assuming

equality between the two halves is not always a safe assumption.

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 KR-21 method (rational equivalence): the assumption is that all items in a test are designed to

 K   X (K  X ) 
measure a single trait, (KR-21) r=   1  .
 K  1  KV 

K=the number of the items in a test

X = the mean score

V=the variance

Question: What is Validity?

Answer: Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test

to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted. Validity isn‘t determined

by a single statistic, but by a body of research that demonstrates the relationship between the test and

the behavior it is intended to measure. There are four types of validity:

Content validity: When a test has content validity, the items on the test represent the entire range of

possible items the test should cover. Individual test questions may be drawn from a large pool of

items that cover a broad range of topics. In some instances where a test measures a trait that is

difficult to define, an expert judge may rate each item‘s relevance. Because each judge is basing their

rating on opinion, two independent judges rate the test separately. Items that are rated as strongly

relevant by both judges will be included in the final test.

Criterion-related Validity: A test is said to have criterion-related validity when the test is

demonstrated to be effective in predicting criterion or indicators of a construct. There are two

different types of criterion validity:

 Concurrent Validity occurs when the criterion measures are obtained at the same time as the

test scores. This indicates the extent to which the test scores accurately estimate an individual‘s

current state with regards to the criterion. For example, on a test that measures levels of

depression, the test would be said to have concurrent validity if it measured the current levels of

depression experienced by the test taker.

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  Predictive Validity occurs when the criterion measures are obtained at a time after the test.

Examples of test with predictive validity are career or aptitude tests, which are helpful in

determining who is likely to succeed or fail in certain subjects or occupations.

Construct Validity: A test has construct validity if it demonstrates an association between the test

scores and the prediction of a theoretical trait. Intelligence tests are one example of measurement

instruments that should have construct validity. Face Validity: This criterion is an assessment of

whether a measure appears, on the face of it, to measure the concept it is intended to measure. This is

a very minimum assessment - if a measure cannot satisfy this criterion, then the other criteria are

inconsequential. We can think about observational measures of behavior that would have face

validity. For example, striking out at another person would have face validity for an indicator of

aggression. Similarly, offering assistance to a stranger would meet the criterion of face validity for

helping. However, asking people about their favorite movie to measure racial prejudice has little face

validity.

Validity and Reliability Compared: So what is the relationship between validity and reliability? The

two do not necessarily go hand-in-hand.

At best, we have a measure that has both high validity and high reliability. It yields consistent results

in repeated application and it accurately reflects what we hope to represent. It is possible to have a

measure that has high reliability but low validity - one that is consistent in getting bad information or

consistent in missing the mark. *It is also possible to have one that has low reliability and low validity

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- inconsistent and not on target. Finally, it is not possible to have a measure that has low reliability

and high validity - you can't really get at what you want or what you're interested in if your measure

fluctuates wildly.

Practicality: There is absolutely no point in designing a test which it is beyond the means of an

institution to administer, or the candidates to sit. It may seem like a 'bean-counting' consideration, but

time constraints, financial limitations and the ease with which a test can be administered and scored

are all important factors. Certain parameters of this kind must therefore be decided in advance. It goes

without saying, though, that not everything should be sacrificed on the altar of practicality.

Unit Seven

Cloze Test

The central notion of Gestalt psychology is that properties of the whole influence the way in which

the parts are perceived, and that the whole is different from the sum of the parts. Advocates of this

theory rejected the idea that language components are additive, that language can be broken down into

its component parts, that total language abilities is the sum of the discrete abilities. According to this

theory if someone develops a perception of an object, the object will be perceived completely oven if

it has got some incomplete points. With regard to language processing it has been claimed that people

are able to complete their perception of a piece of language even if the piece of language contains

some blanks or gaps. So, the students‘ ability to fill in the gaps which result in an incomplete whole is

indicative of their comprehension capability. Cloze testing methods have been developed on the basis

of this assumption. Cloze procedure is defined as any passage of appropriate length and difficulty

with every nth word deleted. As the value of n increases, the comprehension of the text becomes

easier because the reader has more content. There are two different ways of scoring the cloze texts. In

exact word method, only originally deleted words are considered correct responses and given credit.

This method is the easiest and the most objective of all scoring methods though the testees have

greater difficulty in filling in the gaps. The second method, acceptable word method, is easier for

174
students to answer. Any response which is acceptable in the content to a native speaker is given credit.

Scoring in this way becomes more difficult.

1 43 85 127 169
2 44 86 128 170
3 45 87 129 171
4 46 88 130 172
5 47 89 131 173
6 48 90 132 174
7 49 91 133 175
8 50 92 134 176
9 51 93 135 177
10 52 94 136 178
11 53 95 137 179
12 54 96 138 180
13 55 97 139 181
14 56 98 140 182
15 57 99 141 183
16 58 100 142 184
17 59 101 143 185
18 60 102 144 186
19 61 103 145 187
20 62 104 146 188
21 63 105 147 189
22 64 106 148 190
23 65 107 149 191
24 66 108 150 192
25 67 109 151 193
26 68 110 152 194
27 69 111 153 195
28 70 112 154 196
29 71 113 155 197
30 72 114 156 198
31 73 115 157 199
32 74 116 158 200
33 75 117 159 201
34 76 118 160 202
35 77 119 161 203
36 78 120 162 204
37 79 121 163 205
38 80 122 164 206
39 81 123 165 207
40 82 124 166 208
41 83 125 167 209
42 84 126 168 210

175
211 258 305 352 399
212 259 306 353 400
213 260 307 354 401
214 261 308 355 402
215 262 309 356 403
216 263 310 357 404
217 264 311 358 405
218 265 312 359 406
219 266 313 360 407
220 267 314 361 408
221 268 315 362 409
222 269 316 363 410
223 270 317 364 411
224 271 318 365 412
225 272 319 366 413
226 273 320 367 414
227 274 321 368 415
228 275 322 369 416
229 276 323 370 417
230 277 324 371 418
231 278 325 372 419
232 279 326 373 420
233 280 327 374 421
234 281 328 375 422
235 282 329 376 423
236 283 330 377 424
237 284 331 378 425
238 285 332 379 426
239 286 333 380 427
240 287 334 381 428
241 288 335 382 429
242 289 336 383 430
243 290 337 384 431
244 291 338 385 432
245 292 339 386 433
246 293 340 387 434
247 294 341 388 435
248 295 342 389 436
249 296 343 390 437
250 297 344 391 438
251 298 345 392 439
252 299 346 393 440
253 300 347 394 441
254 301 348 395 442
255 302 349 396 443
256 303 350 397 444
257 304 351 398 445

176
446 493 540 587 634
447 494 541 588 635
448 495 542 589 636
449 496 543 590 637
450 497 544 591 638
451 498 545 592 639
452 499 546 593 640
453 500 547 594 641
454 501 548 595 642
455 502 549 596 643
456 503 550 597 644
457 504 551 598 645
458 505 552 599 646
459 506 553 600 647
460 507 554 601 648
461 508 555 602 649
462 509 556 603 650
463 510 557 604 651
464 511 558 605 652
465 512 559 606 653
466 513 560 607 654
467 514 561 608 655
468 515 562 609 656
469 516 563 610 657
470 517 564 611 658
471 518 565 612 659
472 519 566 613 660
473 520 567 614 661
474 521 568 615 662
475 522 569 616 663
476 523 570 617 664
477 524 571 618 665
478 525 572 619 666
479 526 573 620 667
480 527 574 621 668
481 528 575 622 669
482 529 576 623 670
483 530 577 624 671
484 531 578 625 672
485 532 579 626 673
486 533 580 627 674
487 534 581 628 675
488 535 582 629 676
489 536 583 630 677
490 537 584 631 678
491 538 585 632 679
492 539 586 633 680

177
681 728 775 822 869
682 729 776 823 870
683 730 777 824 871
684 731 778 825 872
685 732 779 826 873
686 733 780 827 874
687 734 781 828 875
688 735 782 829 876
689 736 783 830 877
690 737 784 831 878
691 738 785 832 879
692 739 786 833 880
693 740 787 834 881
694 741 788 835 882
695 742 789 836 883
696 743 790 837 884
697 744 791 838 885
698 745 792 839 886
699 746 793 840 887
700 747 794 841 888
701 748 795 842 889
702 749 796 843 890
703 750 797 844 891
704 751 798 845 892
705 752 799 846 893
706 753 800 847 894
707 754 801 848 895
708 755 802 849 896
709 756 803 850 897
710 757 804 851 898
711 758 805 852 899
712 759 806 853 900
713 760 807 854 901
714 761 808 855 902
715 762 809 856 903
716 763 810 857 904
717 764 811 858 905
718 765 812 859 906
719 766 813 860 907
720 767 814 861 908
721 768 815 862 909
722 769 816 863 910
723 770 817 864 911
724 771 818 865 912
725 772 819 866 913
726 773 820 867 914
727 774 821 868 915

178
916 963 1010 1057 1104
917 964 1011 1058 1105
918 965 1012 1059 1106
919 966 1013 1060 1107
920 967 1014 1061 1108
921 968 1015 1062 1109
922 969 1016 1063 1110
923 970 1017 1064 1111
924 971 1018 1065 1112
925 972 1019 1066 1113
926 973 1020 1067 1114
927 974 1021 1068 1115
928 975 1022 1069 1116
929 976 1023 1070 1117
930 977 1024 1071 1118
931 978 1025 1072 1119
932 979 1026 1073 1120
933 980 1027 1074 1121
934 981 1028 1075 1122
935 982 1029 1076 1123
936 983 1030 1077 1124
937 984 1031 1078 1125
938 985 1032 1079 1126
939 986 1033 1080 1127
940 987 1034 1081 1128
941 988 1035 1082 1129
942 989 1036 1083 1130
943 990 1037 1084 1131
944 991 1038 1085 1132
945 992 1039 1086 1133
946 993 1040 1087 1134
947 994 1041 1088 1135
948 995 1042 1089 1136
949 996 1043 1090 1137
950 997 1044 1091 1138
951 998 1045 1092 1139
952 999 1046 1093 1140
953 1000 1047 1094 1141
954 1001 1048 1095 1142
955 1002 1049 1096 1143
956 1003 1050 1097 1144
957 1004 1051 1098 1145
958 1005 1052 1099 1146
959 1006 1053 1100 1147
960 1007 1054 1101 1148
961 1008 1055 1102 1149
962 1009 1056 1103 1150

179
1151 1198 1245 1292 1339
1152 1199 1246 1293 1340
1153 1200 1247 1294 1341
1154 1201 1248 1295 1342
1155 1202 1249 1296 1343
1156 1203 1250 1297 1344
1157 1204 1251 1298 1345
1158 1205 1252 1299 1346
1159 1206 1253 1300 1347
1160 1207 1254 1301 1348
1161 1208 1255 1302 1349
1162 1209 1256 1303 1350
1163 1210 1257 1304 1351
1164 1211 1258 1305 1352
1165 1212 1259 1306 1353
1166 1213 1260 1307 1354
1167 1214 1261 1308 1355
1168 1215 1262 1309 1356
1169 1216 1263 1310 1357
1170 1217 1264 1311 1358
1171 1218 1265 1312 1359
1172 1219 1266 1313 1360
1173 1220 1267 1314 1361
1174 1221 1268 1315 1362
1175 1222 1269 1316 1363
1176 1223 1270 1317 1364
1177 1224 1271 1318 1365
1178 1225 1272 1319 1366
1179 1226 1273 1320 1367
1180 1227 1274 1321 1368
1181 1228 1275 1322 1369
1182 1229 1276 1323 1370
1183 1230 1277 1324 1371
1184 1231 1278 1325 1372
1185 1232 1279 1326 1373
1186 1233 1280 1327 1374
1187 1234 1281 1328 1375
1188 1235 1282 1329 1376
1189 1236 1283 1330 1377
1190 1237 1284 1331 1378
1191 1238 1285 1332 1379
1192 1239 1286 1333 1380
1193 1240 1287 1334 1381
1194 1241 1288 1335 1382
1195 1242 1289 1336 1383
1196 1243 1290 1337 1384
1197 1244 1291 1338 1385

180
1386 1433 1480 1527 1574
1387 1434 1481 1528 1575
1388 1435 1482 1529 1576
1389 1436 1483 1530 1577
1390 1437 1484 1531 1578
1391 1438 1485 1532 1579
1392 1439 1486 1533 1580
1393 1440 1487 1534 1581
1394 1441 1488 1535 1582
1395 1442 1489 1536 1583
1396 1443 1490 1537 1584
1397 1444 1491 1538 1585
1398 1445 1492 1539 1586
1399 1446 1493 1540 1587
1400 1447 1494 1541 1588
1401 1448 1495 1542 1589
1402 1449 1496 1543 1590
1403 1450 1497 1544 1591
1404 1451 1498 1545 1592
1405 1452 1499 1546 1593
1406 1453 1500 1547 1594
1407 1454 1501 1548 1595
1408 1455 1502 1549 1596
1409 1456 1503 1550 1597
1410 1457 1504 1551 1598
1411 1458 1505 1552 1599
1412 1459 1506 1553 1600
1413 1460 1507 1554 1601
1414 1461 1508 1555 1602
1415 1462 1509 1556 1603
1416 1463 1510 1557 1604
1417 1464 1511 1558 1605
1418 1465 1512 1559 1606
1419 1466 1513 1560 1607
1420 1467 1514 1561 1608
1421 1468 1515 1562 1609
1422 1469 1516 1563 1610
1423 1470 1517 1564 1611
1424 1471 1518 1565 1612
1425 1472 1519 1566 1613
1426 1473 1520 1567 1614
1427 1474 1521 1568 1615
1428 1475 1522 1569 1616
1429 1476 1523 1570 1617
1430 1477 1524 1571 1618
1431 1478 1525 1572 1619
1432 1479 1526 1573 1620

181
1621 1668 1715 1762 1809
1622 1669 1716 1763 1810
1623 1670 1717 1764 1811
1624 1671 1718 1765 1812
1625 1672 1719 1766 1813
1626 1673 1720 1767 1814
1627 1674 1721 1768 1815
1628 1675 1722 1769 1816
1629 1676 1723 1770 1817
1630 1677 1724 1771 1818
1631 1678 1725 1772 1819
1632 1679 1726 1773 1820
1633 1680 1727 1774 1821
1634 1681 1728 1775 1822
1635 1682 1729 1776 1823
1636 1683 1730 1777 1824
1637 1684 1731 1778 1825
1638 1685 1732 1779 1826
1639 1686 1733 1780 1827
1640 1687 1734 1781 1828
1641 1688 1735 1782 1829
1642 1689 1736 1783 1830
1643 1690 1737 1784 1831
1644 1691 1738 1785 1832
1645 1692 1739 1786 1833
1646 1693 1740 1787 1834
1647 1694 1741 1788 1835
1648 1695 1742 1789 1836
1649 1696 1743 1790 1837
1650 1697 1744 1791 1838
1651 1698 1745 1792 1839
1652 1699 1746 1793 1840
1653 1700 1747 1794 1841
1654 1701 1748 1795 1842
1655 1702 1749 1796 1843
1656 1703 1750 1797 1844
1657 1704 1751 1798 1845
1658 1705 1752 1799 1846
1659 1706 1753 1800 1847
1660 1707 1754 1801 1848
1661 1708 1755 1802 1849
1662 1709 1756 1803 1850
1663 1710 1757 1804 1851
1664 1711 1758 1805 1852
1665 1712 1759 1806 1853
1666 1713 1760 1807 1854
1667 1714 1761 1808 1855

182
1856 1903 1950 1997 2044
1857 1904 1951 1998 2045
1858 1905 1952 1999 2046
1859 1906 1953 2000 2047
1860 1907 1954 2001 2048
1861 1908 1955 2002 2049
1862 1909 1956 2003 2050
1863 1910 1957 2004 2051
1864 1911 1958 2005 2052
1865 1912 1959 2006 2053
1866 1913 1960 2007 2054
1867 1914 1961 2008 2055
1868 1915 1962 2009 2056
1869 1916 1963 2010 2057
1870 1917 1964 2011 2058
1871 1918 1965 2012 2059
1872 1919 1966 2013 2060
1873 1920 1967 2014 2061
1874 1921 1968 2015 2062
1875 1922 1969 2016 2063
1876 1923 1970 2017 2064
1877 1924 1971 2018 2065
1878 1925 1972 2019 2066
1879 1926 1973 2020 2067
1880 1927 1974 2021 2068
1881 1928 1975 2022 2069
1882 1929 1976 2023 2070
1883 1930 1977 2024 2071
1884 1931 1978 2025 2072
1885 1932 1979 2026 2073
1886 1933 1980 2027 2074
1887 1934 1981 2028 2075
1888 1935 1982 2029 2076
1889 1936 1983 2030 2077
1890 1937 1984 2031 2078
1891 1938 1985 2032 2079
1892 1939 1986 2033 2080
1893 1940 1987 2034 2081
1894 1941 1988 2035 2082
1895 1942 1989 2036 2083
1896 1943 1990 2037 2084
1897 1944 1991 2038 2085
1898 1945 1992 2039 2086
1899 1946 1993 2040 2087
1900 1947 1994 2041 2088
1901 1948 1995 2042 2089
1902 1949 1996 2043 2090

183
2091 2138 2185 2232 2279
2092 2139 2186 2233 2280
2093 2140 2187 2234 2281
2094 2141 2188 2235 2282
2095 2142 2189 2236 2283
2096 2143 2190 2237 2284
2097 2144 2191 2238 2285
2098 2145 2192 2239 2286
2099 2146 2193 2240 2287
2100 2147 2194 2241 2288
2101 2148 2195 2242 2289
2102 2149 2196 2243 2290
2103 2150 2197 2244 2291
2104 2151 2198 2245 2292
2105 2152 2199 2246 2293
2106 2153 2200 2247 2294
2107 2154 2201 2248 2295
2108 2155 2202 2249 2296
2109 2156 2203 2250 2297
2110 2157 2204 2251 2298
2111 2158 2205 2252 2299
2112 2159 2206 2253 2300
2113 2160 2207 2254
2114 2161 2208 2255
2115 2162 2209 2256
2116 2163 2210 2257
2117 2164 2211 2258
2118 2165 2212 2259
2119 2166 2213 2260
2120 2167 2214 2261
2121 2168 2215 2262
2122 2169 2216 2263
2123 2170 2217 2264
2124 2171 2218 2265
2125 2172 2219 2266
2126 2173 2220 2267
2127 2174 2221 2268
2128 2175 2222 2269
2129 2176 2223 2270
2130 2177 2224 2271
2131 2178 2225 2272
2132 2179 2226 2273
2133 2180 2227 2274
2134 2181 2228 2275
2135 2182 2229 2276
2136 2183 2230 2277
2137 2184 2231 2278

184