CONSUMER’S INSTALLATION

This refers to the electrical circuits which supply electrical power the consumer’s appliances.

1. Service Mains
It is the incoming cable that supplies power to the installation from the local substation or local
substation or distributor.
2. Cut-out
This is where the service mains end. It contains a service fuse or a circuit breaker. Its purpose is to
protect the service cable from damage in the event of a fault within the consumer’s installation. It also
allows the supply authority to disconnect supply to the premises.
3. Meter
It is used to measure and record the energy used by the consumer.
4. Consumer’s Main Switch
It is used to isolate the whole installation. It is located in consumer’s unit together with the DB.

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5. Distribution Board (DB)
It is located as close to the service mains and meter as possible so that the main cable to the
consumer’s unit is kept short. Its purpose is to divide the whole installation into smaller loads with
each final circuit being controlled by a suitably rated protective device.
6. Final Circuit(s)
These are circuits that are directly connected to the current using equipment or socket outlets or any
other or other points of connection of such equipment.

The rising main distribution system

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 TARIFFS
A tariff is a scale of charges for the electrical energy consumed.
It ensures that all the costs of producing and delivering electrical energy are covered by the consumer.
A good tariff is made up of two charges i.e. A fixed charge and a running charge.

Fixed/Standing Charge.
This charge covers the cost of supplying electrical energy which is independent of the actual energy
produced.
It covers expenses that are incurred by the supply authority independent of the actual energy
produced.
It covers costs such as rates, rents, and insurance, radio and car licenses, salaries and wages for supply
authority personnel, payment of other services e.g. telephone and water bills and interest on money
borrowed by the supply authority.
The fixed charge is based on the maximum demand of the installation.

Running charge
It caters for the cost of actually generating and supplying electrical energy.
It depends on the actual amount of energy produced.
It covers costs such as:
a) Repair of or maintenance of equipment and machines.
b) Cost of the fuel e.g. coal
c) The cost of importing electrical energy
d) For profit
The running charge depends on the actual energy consumed.

Types of tariff

1. The Load Limiter

It involves a flat rate tariff i.e. a fixed charge is paid.
This charge depends on the load limit.
The supply authority limits the number of appliances which can be connected to the supply at any
given time.
If this limit is exceeded, a circuit breaker interrupts supply to the installation.
The consumer is then charged based on the limit.

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This tariff is independent of the energy consumed.
Advantages of the load limiter:
- Predictable electricity bill is available
- Lower capital cost since the supply authority does not have to supply metering equipment
- Lower running cost since there is no need of a meter reader.

Disadvantages of the load limiter

- The cost of electricity is independent of the energy used hence it does not encourage energy
conservation.
- The system is prone to abuse and some consumers may bypass the limiter

2. Two-Part Tariff.
- It is made up of a fixed charge which depends on the maximum demand and a running charge
which depends on the energy consumed.
- Industrial consumers and other large commercial premises have a maximum demand meter
connected.
- For small installations i.e. domestic and commercial, a maximum demand meter is not
connected. The fixed charge is estimated based on things such as the size of the building, the
floor area, the number of rooms, the location of the installation or is estimated based on things
such as the electrical equipment likely to be connected.
- The running charge is based on the actual energy consumed, measured and recorded using an
energy meter. Maximum Demand Meter
- This measures the energy consumed over a short period, usually 30 minutes, then divides the
energy by the time hence the maximum demand meter actually measures the average demand
over a short period. A pointer moves along an average demand scale during the recording
period. The pointer will push an indicator along the scale and at the end of the recording
period the pointer will return to zero leaving the indicator at the highest level.
- If, during the second recording period, the average demand increases, the pointer will move
the indicator further up the scale hence the reading of the indicator is always the highest
average power demand.

3. Block Tariff
- The units of energy consumed are divided into groups called blocks.
The first block of units is charged at a different rate from the second and third block of units.
- For example, the supply authority may charge 25c per unit for the first 1000 units, 17c per
unit for the second 1000 units and 10c per unit for all the additional units.
Such a tariff encourages the use of electrical energy.

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- The tariff may also be designed in reverse to discourage the use of electricity.

4. Off Peak Tariff

- This involves different charges for different times of the day. The charge per unit of energy is
lower during the off peak period and higher during the peak period.
- The off-peak tariff can be effected in two ways;
i) Single energy meter method.
One energy meter with two sets of dials is used and is called a white meter.
One set of dials reads consumption during the peak period and is charged at a higher rate
while the other records during the off-peak and is charged at a lower rate.

ii) Two Energy Meter Method

The installation is divided into two sections and these are two consumer units (DBs).
- One DB is connected to the Off-peak energy meter and is connected to loads that are
supplied with energy during the off-peak period only and is charged at a lower rate.
- The other DB is connected to the normal load and is supplied throughout the off-peak
and peak periods. This DB is supplied via a second energy meter whose units are
charged at a higher rate.

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Diversity Factor
- It is a factor which is applied on the assumption that the whole connected load will not be ON
at the same time.
- This factor is used to determine the size of the power plant.
- It takes into consideration the fact that maximum demand of a load is not likely to occur at the
same time i.e. it is unlikely that all types of loads i.e. domestic, industrial and commercial are
connected at the same time.
Diversity factor (DF) is the ratio of the total connecting load to the load in use at any instant i.e.

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠

DF = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Load Factor
It is the ratio of the units of energy consumed over a period of time to the units of energy that would
be consumed if maximum demand was maintained throughout the period.

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑂𝑓 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑

Load Factor = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

A load factor which is high i.e. close to unity (1), reduces the maximum demand on the consumer
since it will reduce the fixed charge by reducing the size of the generating plant.
Maximum Demand Maximum amount of power taken from the generating power station.

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Power Factor
An ac system has three types of power;
i) Apparent Power(S) – This is the total power drawn from the supply. It is given by the
product of the supply voltage and supply current.
Thus:

S = VI volt-ampere (VA)

ii) True Power/Active Power (P)

– This is the power used by the load. It is converted to other forms of energy like heat
light and torque. It is measured in watts by a wattmeter.

P = I2 R watts (W)

iii) Reactive Power (Q)

– This is the power drawn by inductors and capacitors. It is stored briefly in the magnetic field
of an inductor or the electric field of a capacitor. It is later returned to the supply when the
supply enters the negative half cycle. The units of measurement are voltamperes reactive
(VARs).

QL = I2XL for inductors

QL =I2XC for capacitors

Power factor is the ratio of the true power to the apparent power.

Inductive reactive power is said to lag the true power by 90o .

The phasor sum of true power and reactive power is the apparent power hence the three forms
of power in an a.c. system are related by the following power triangle.

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 Considering the power triangle

𝑷
PF = 𝑺 = Cos Ɵ

P = S Cos Ɵ
P = VI Cos Ɵ
Also Q = S Sin Ɵ
Q = VI Sin Ɵ

Power factor ranges from zero to 1. An ideal circuit has a power factor of 1.
A low power factor has several disadvantages;
i) A large generating plant is required to supply large apparent power to supply a
smaller amount of true power.
ii) Switchgear and cable size is larger to carry the larger currents.
iii) Larger power losses along the cables.
iv) Larger current causes larger voltage drop along the feeder cable.

To improve the power factor of an inductive load, a capacitive load is connected in parallel so as
cancel out the effect of the inductive load.
Power factor correcting devices include;
i) Static capacitors
ii) Synchronous motors
iii) Phase advancers

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Power factor correction for;

 a single phase load.

 a three phase load (Balanced).

 a three phase load (Unbalanced).