PART 2

3 Consumer Learning
Starts Here: Perception
LEARNING Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

3-1 Define learning and perception and how the two are connected.

3-2 List and define phases of the consumer perception process.

Tony Shi Photography/Getty Images

3-3 Apply the concept of the just noticeable difference.

3-4 Contrast the concepts of implicit and explicit memory.

3-5 Know ways to help get consumers’ attention in a crowded information environment.

3-6 Understand key differences between intentional and unintentional learning.

Remember to visit PAGE 69 for additional STUDY TOOLS

Introduction what consumers perceive about a brand. For instance, just

changing the logo’s color can shape a brand’s meaning.
These days, green is a positive color due to associations
Marketing strategy describes the way a firm goes about cre-
with cleanliness and ecological friendliness. What happens
ating value—value that comes in two distinct forms: utilitar-
when a brand includes green in their logo? Well, research
ian and hedonic. Among all the symbolic aspects of a brand’s
suggests that the green logo inocu-
strategy, its logo embodies and
lates the brand against consumer
signals brand meaning more
criticism of potentially unethical
than any other. A study by
actions.2 Green carries a meaning
Adweek points to elements
that affects what consumers learn
that are used to help create a
about a brand. Learning begins
successful logo: unique fonts, tanuha2001/Shutterstock.com
with the simple act of perception.
shapes, and colors.1
Take a look at the FedEx logo, for example. Notice
the effective use of all elements. In particular, do you
see the arrow signaling FedEx as a brand that moves
3-1 Defining Learning
forward? The shape of the arrow appears creatively be- and Perception
tween the last e and the x.
Consumers learn from all stimuli that they encounter. Marketers cannot help create value for consumers unless
Every day, consumers are they can effectively communicate the value proposition
learning change in behavior exposed to hundreds, if not to consumers in a way that they perceive and learn about
resulting from some interaction
thousands, of logos. Subtle the potential benefits. Learning refers to a change in
between a person and a stimulus
changes in a logo can change behavior resulting from the interaction between a person

52 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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and a stimulus. Perception refers to a consumer’s aware- key question is, “What’s more important, perception or
ness and interpretation of reality. Accordingly, perception reality?” Consumer researchers expend a great deal of
serves as a foundation upon which consumer learning takes effort trying to understand consumer perception, be-
place. Stated simply, value involves learning, and consumer cause one way or another, consumer perception shapes
perception plays a key role in learning because consumers learning and thus behavior.
change behavior based on what they perceive. Sometimes, Perception and reality are distinct concepts because
consumers set out to intentionally learn marketing-related the perceptions that consumers develop do not always
information. Other times, consumers learn unintentionally match the real world. For example, someone who sings
(or incidentally) by simply being exposed to stimuli and by in the shower does not really perceive the actual quality
forming some kind of response to it. Both types of learning of the music. The singer’s perceptual system protects her
rely, to greater or lesser degrees, on perceptual processes. from that but not somebody else who happens to hear
This chapter focuses on issues relating to the learn- the typical consumer singing to herself. Perception sim-
ing process as it applies to consumers. Specifically, the ply doesn’t always match reality. Perception can also be
chapter details the earliest phases of perception along ambiguous. Exhibit 3.1 illustrates this point.
with a number of issues related to unintentional learn- We treat perception as a consumer’s awareness and
ing. The chapter closes with a discussion of conditioning, interpretation of reality. Perception represents a subjec-
which represents a well-known approach to uninten- tive reality, whereas what actually exists in the environ-
tional learning. Intentional learning and the associated ment determines objective reality. For example, at a
cognitive processes are discussed in a later chapter. restaurant, the objective reality is that a certain amount
of food is served on a plate and a certain amount of bev-
erage is poured into a glass.
3-1a Consumer Perception Restaurants often control
Are perception and reality two different things? With proportions by weighing perception consumer’s
awareness and interpretation of
some thought, this question can stimulate deep, philo- food and measuring drink reality
sophical thinking. Perhaps more importantly for CB, the portions as a means of cost

CHAPTER 3: Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception 53

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 sugary sodas are unhealthy. Consumers show a tendency to
Exhibit 3.1 eat or drink until a package is empty. Small packages influ-
ence how much is consumed, but package size also influ-
What Is the Reality in the ences liking, as consumers tend to perceive the very same
product as being of better quality when it is in a smaller
Image Below? package.5 In addition, consumers expect to pay more per
ounce when the package is small. Thus, size shapes per-
ception in many ways.

3-1b Exposure, Attention,
and Comprehension
During the perceptual process, consumers are exposed to
stimuli, devote attention to stimuli, and attempt to compre-
Rykoff Collection/Fine Art Value/Corbis
hend stimuli. Exposure refers to the process of bringing
some stimulus within the proximity of a consumer so that it
can be sensed by one of the five human senses (sight, smell,
taste, touch, or sound). The term sensation describes a
consumer’s immediate response to this information.
Touch may not be the first sense that comes to mind
as a marketing tool. But that doesn’t diminish its impor-
tance. iPad and many other tablet sales have not lived up
to sales expectations in recent years. One reason may lie
in their feel. A tablet, no matter how powerful it really
control. However, consumers may not always view the is, does not feel as substantial as does even a small lap-
proportions as equally satisfying. How can this be? The top computer. The Microsoft Surface Pro series builds
answer to this question illustrates the concept of subjec- in a number of characteristics that make it feel more
tive reality. In this case, subjective and objective reality comfortable and more substantial than a traditional tab-
may differ because things like the size of the plate, glass, or let computer. Increasingly, marketers practice sensory
container affect the amount of food and drink perceived. marketing by actively seeking to engage consumers’
Research demonstrates several ways in which the senses as the primary aspect of the value proposition.6
type of food container influences consumer perceptions
in a way that distorts reality. For example, consumers
will perceive a taller, thinner wine glass as containing
Exhibit 3.2
more wine, but will drink more from a rounder glass.3
Similarly, the same amount of food can leave a consumer
Will the Type of Cup Affect
wanting more when it is placed on a large rather than the Coffee’s Warmth?
small plate. Consumers also judge tea that is physically
the same temperature as not
as cold or icy when served
exposure process of bringing in a paper cup versus a
some stimulus within proximity of
glass container.4
a consumer so that the consumer
can sense it with one of the five Brands in numerous
©Robert Neumann/Shutterstock.com

human senses food categories have found

Mega Pixel/Shutterstock.com

success by making servings

sensation consumer’s
immediate response to a stimulus smaller rather than larger.
Sales of 7.5-ounce bottles
sensory marketing actively Coke and Pepsi have helped
seeking to engage customers’
curb a decline in sales stem-
senses as the primary aspect of the
value proposition ming from consumers’ in-
creasing perceptions that

54 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Marketers expose consumers to many messages, but interpret information in the intended way, but this is not
that does not guarantee that consumers will pay attention. always the case. As a simple example, a receptionist tells
Attention is the purposeful allocation of information- patients there will be a short wait. Will all patients think
processing capacity toward developing an understanding the wait is short? For example, two consumers who wait
of some stimulus. Many times, consumers simply cannot 20 minutes may perceive the wait differently. What is
pay attention to all the stimuli to which they are exposed. short to one may not be so short to another. A profes-
This is probably now more true than ever given all the sional taking an hour away from her busy day may react
communication channels available, including countless differently than a retired person without a hectic daily
social media outlets. Consumers report consulting more schedule. Furthermore, can something be done to change
sources now than in the past, but they also feel “impris- perceptions of the wait time? A receptionist might update
oned” by the overwhelming amount of information pre- a patient every few minutes, explaining what is going on
sented.7 As such, consumers are increasingly selective in and why the wait is continuing. Alternatively, pleasant
the information to which they pay attention. Quite sim- music can be played in the waiting room. In either case,
ply, there is just too much stimulation in the environment the patient may either perceive a shorter wait or react
for consumers to pay attention to everything. more negatively to the wait than if left quietly alone. Even
Comprehension occurs when consumers attempt subtle perceptions like the color of a web page can alter
to derive meaning from information they receive. Of the comprehension of waiting time.8
course, marketers hope that consumers comprehend and

3-2 Consumer Perception

Process
If a friend were to ask, “Do I look good in this outfit?”
you would immediately draw upon your perceptions to
determine how to respond to the question. (Whether
or not you voice your true opinion is an entirely differ-
ent subject!) As we have stated, in its most basic form,
perception describes how consumers become aware of
and interpret the environment. Accordingly, we can view
consumer perception as including three phases. These
phases, sensing, organizing, and reacting, are shown in
Exhibit 3.3.
Notice that the phases of perception overlap with
the concepts of exposure, attention, and comprehen-
sion. That is, we sense the many stimuli to which we
are exposed, we organize the stimuli as we attend and
comprehend them, then we react to various stimuli by
developing responses.

3-2a Sensing
Consumers sense stimuli to which they are exposed. Sens-
George Rose/Getty Images

ing is an immediate response to stimuli that have come into

contact with one of the consumer’s five senses (sight, smell,
touch, taste, or sound). Thus, when a consumer touches
his phone, enters a store,
browses on Amazon, reads attention purposeful
When consumers go by a billboard, they a Tweet, tastes food, looks allocation of information-
are provided with an opportunity to pay at an advertisement, or tries processing capacity toward
developing an understanding of
attention to the message. on clothes, the perceptual
some stimulus
process goes into action.

CHAPTER 3: Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception 55

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 Consumers and Technology

Tell-a-Taste attachment! Scientists

also warn, though, that
Want to know what steak tartare, the classic French dish the virtual taste is not a
of raw chopped steak and eggs, tastes like, but can’t replacement for either
find the courage to try it? Well, technology may make the utilitarian or hedonic
that possible! Scientists now can use electronic stimula- value of eating. Eating
tion of the tongue to allow consumers to experience involves more than taste,
taste sensations like tartness, bitterness, saltiness, and including both the smell
even sweetness. The technology may potentially benefit and texture sensations
diabetic consumers by allowing them the sensation of as well as the nutrition.

Dario Lo Presti/Shutterstock.com
tasting something sweet without the detrimental side
effects. Online game designers also may use the tech- Sources: https://www.sciencedaily.com
nology to help train gamers by associating successful /releases/2014/01/140102114807.htm,
accessed March 11, 2016; http://www
actions with a sensation of mint or other good taste. In .fastcompany.com/3024198/reverse
-engineered/this-new-tech-brings
the future, if you want to tell your friends what some- -virtual-reality-to-taste-buds, accessed
thing tastes like, maybe you’ll be able to send it as an March 11, 2016.

bodily sensations influence thoughts and

Exhibit 3.3 meaning independent of effortful think-
ing. If someone senses a warm cup of
Sensing, Organizing, and Reacting tea, then the person who serves it may be
thought of as warm. A consumer standing
may also take a more global evaluation of
a product than a consumer in a sitting po-
sition.9 Thus, our senses provide the basis
for the meanings we construe.

3-2b Organizing
Sometimes, things just don’t make sense.
© iStockphoto.com/Lise Gagne

Our smartphones are supposed to help us

communicate but sometimes even the best
technology lets us down. The auto-correct
feature tries to organize what we’ve typed
into a coherent message, but sometimes it
lets us down, leading to miscomprehen-
sion or even nonsense. Here a few exam-
However, sensing alone does not allow a consumer to make ples of texts that are at least near nonsense:
sense out of something. This leads to the second stage of
the perceptual process.
Sensing also influ- ▸▸ put cursed oreos in bowl
Grounded cognition
theory that suggests that bodily ences comprehension ▸▸ pick up some human beef
sensations influence thoughts and in less direct ways. The
meaning independent of effortful ▸▸ happy birthday to my dead husband (see the endnote
thinking
notion of grounded for intended messages)10
cognition suggests that

56 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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 When we speak of
cognitive organization, Exhibit 3.4
we refer to the process by
which the human brain “Organizing” Morning Beverages
assembles the sensory
evidence into something
recognizable. The orga-
nization that takes place

©George Dolgikh/Shutterstock.com

© weedezign/Shutterstock.com
in your brain is analogous

©Wollertz/Shutterstock.com
to someone performing
a sorting task—such as
sorting mail. When an
object is first handled, the
sorter hasn’t a clue what
slot the object belongs
in. However, informa- Assimilation — Product Accommodation — An Contrast — The
tion allows the sorter to Characteristics Adjustment Product
place the object into pro- Fit Category Easily Allows Product to Fit Characteristics Are
gressively more specific Category — Coffee Can Too Different to Fit
categories. Be Served on the Rocks Category
When someone tries
to decide if an outfit
looks right, the percep-
tual process goes to work. Consider the clothing pictured Which would make a better name for a new ice cream
in Exhibit 3.3. Is this outfit appropriate for Emilia, a brand? Actually, when consumers sampled the same new
professional consultant? At first, we perceive that the ice cream described with one of these two names, Sep-
outfit is obviously a woman’s dress. However, does sop was preferred. The researchers theorized that con-
the outfit represent proper business attire? If Emilia’s sumers evaluate sounds with a repetitive pattern (like
brain organizes the outfit into this category, then she sep-sop) more favorably.11
becomes likely to buy it and wear it to work as a con- Consumers cannot organize everything they sense
sultant. Her clients may perceive the outfit differently, so easily. When a consumer encounters a stimulus that
and this may interfere with their ability to see her as a is difficult to categorize, the brain instinctively continues
professional consultant. Again, we see the subjectivity processing as a way of reconciling inconsistencies. When
of perception. even this extra effort leaves
As consumers’ brains organize perceptions, some a consumer uncertain, he cognitive organization
comprehension takes place in the form of an interpre- or she will generally avoid process by which the human brain
tation. This interpretation provides an initial cognitive the stimulus. assembles sensory evidence into
and affective meaning. The term cognitive refers to a something recognizable
In general, depending
mental or thinking process. A reader of this book al- on the extent to which a assimilation state that results
most instantly converts a word into meaning as long stimulus can be categorized, when a stimulus has characteristics
as the word on the page matches a known English- such that consumers readily
the following reactions may
recognize it as belonging to some
language word. Sometimes marketers need to know occur (see Exhibit 3.4 for specific category
how consumers will react to unknown words when illustration).
creating the name for a new product or new company.
In fact, the actual sound of a name (that is otherwise 1. Assimilation. Assimilation occurs when a
nonsense) can evoke different meanings and feelings. stimulus has characteristics such that indi-
Consider the following two sounds (say them each viduals readily recognize it as an example of a
aloud): specific category. A hot, brown coffee served
in a ceramic mug fits the “morning beverage”
Sepfut
category easily.
Sepsop

CHAPTER 3: Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception 57

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 2. Accommodation. Accommodation occurs
when a stimulus shares some, but not all, of the
characteristics that allow it to fit neatly in an
existing category. At this point, the consumer
will begin processing, which allows exceptions
to rules about the category. An iced coffee may
require some adjustment for a consumer used to
hot coffee as a morning beverage. In this case, the
consumer may relax the category rule that the
coffee must be hot to accommodate iced coffee

Africa Studio/Shutterstock.com
in the category. Mild incongruence is not a bad
thing when selling products. New products that
are mildly incongruent with expectations can
sometimes be preferred to perfect matches.12
3. Contrast. Contrast occurs when a stimulus
does not share enough in common with existing
categories to allow categorization. An icy, bright
red, alcoholic, sweet beverage served in a salt-
rimmed glass shares very little in common with the
“morning beverage” category. The differences are If all stimuli were consciously
so great that the consumer cannot even force a fit processed, our minds would
through accommodation. As a result, the product
contrasts with the relevant category. truly be overloaded.

3-2c Reacting help change perceptions of cleanliness. For instances,

consumers associate bright blue colors and citrus scents
The perceptual process ends with a reaction. If an object
with cleanliness. When signs of cleanliness are absent,
is successfully recognized, chances are some nearly au-
consumers tend to be dissatisfied with a service envi-
tomatic reaction takes place. For example, when a driver
ronment.13
notices that the car in front of him has its brake lights
Even subtle cues influence perception. Take a
on, the learned response is to apply brakes as well. Here,
look at an advertisement for a watch. Chances are,
the reaction occurs as a response or behavior. Note that
time stands still in watch advertisements. The watch
reactions can include both
almost certainly had a time of about 10 past 10. Why?
physical and mental re-
A watch with that time appears to be smiling at the
accommodation state sponses to the stimuli en-
that results when a stimulus consumer, and this subtle difference can cause a watch
countered.
shares some but not all of the to be preferred over a frowning watch that says 20 past
characteristics that would lead it to 8.14 The term anthropomorphism refers to a design
fit neatly in an existing category, Applications to
that gives humanlike characteristics to inanimate ob-
and consumers must process Consumer Behavior jects. Consumers who attribute humanlike characteris-
exceptions to rules about the
category The perceptual process tics to their automobiles also have been shown to trust
has many implications for them more and even be less likely to blame them for
contrast state that results consumer behavior. For an accident!15
when a stimulus does not share
enough in common with existing example, just what is it
categories to allow categorization that leads consumers to
think some service envi-
3-2d Selective Perception
anthropomorphism giving
ronment, like a restaurant, Consumers encounter thousands of stimuli each day. If
humanlike characteristics to
inanimate objects hospital, or hotel is clean? all stimuli were consciously processed, our minds would
Colors and lighting can truly be overloaded. Rather than processing all stimuli,

58 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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consumers practice selective perception. Selective per-
ception includes selective exposure, selective attention,
This type of “learning” is
and selective distortion. That is, consumers are selec-
tive in what they expose themselves to, what they attend unintentional, because
to, and what (and how) they comprehend. Selective
exposure involves screening out most stimuli and
the stimuli fall below the
exposing oneself to only a small portion of stimuli. absolute threshold.
Selective attention involves paying attention to only
certain stimuli.
Consider a tourist walking through downtown To- of fans observe the same thing but comprehend and
kyo, Japan. How can she possibly pay attention to all react differently.
of this information? Marketers use the term clutter to
describe the idea that the environment often bombards Exposure
consumers with too much information in their daily Exposure occurs when some stimulus is brought
lives. Consumers can’t possibly pay attention to all of within the proximity of a consumer so that it can be
this. Instead, they will choose something that stands sensed. Obviously, marketers who want to inform con-
out, or is personally relevant, and devote attention to sumers about their products must first expose them to
that object. information. As such, exposure represents a first and
Selective distortion is a process by which con- necessary step to learning. In fact, exposure is a vi-
sumers interpret information in ways that are biased tal component of both intentional and unintentional
by their previously held beliefs. This process can be learning.
the result of either a conscious or unconscious effort.
For example, consumers with strong beliefs about a
3-2e Subliminal Processing
brand tend to comprehend messages about the brand
either positively or negatively, depending on their pre- Subliminal processing refers to the way in which the
existing attitudes. Sports fans provide good examples human brain senses low-strength stimuli, that is, stimuli
of selective distortion. Fans from one team may be that occur below the level of conscious awareness. Such
enraged when a “bad call” goes against their team. stimuli have a strength that is lower than the absolute
Fans for the other team are unlikely to comprehend threshold of perception, the minimum strength needed
the controversial play in the same way. Both groups for a consumer to perceive a stimulus. This type of
“learning” is unintentional, because the stimuli fall be-
low the absolute threshold.
To illustrate effects be-
selective exposure process
low the absolute thresh- of screening out certain stimuli
old, consider what often and purposely exposing oneself to
happens when a mos- other stimuli
quito lands on one’s arm.
selective attention process
Chances are the mos- of paying attention to only certain
quito is so small that you stimuli
Sean Locke Photography/Shutterstock.com

will not be consciously

selective distortion process
aware of the sensation by which consumers interpret
without seeing it. Like- information in ways that are biased
wise, sounds often occur by their previously held beliefs
that are below the thresh- subliminal processing
old. Images also can be way that the human brain deals
displayed for such a short with very low-strength stimuli,
period of time, or at such so low that the person has no
conscious awareness
With selective distortion, different a low level of intensity,
consumers can see the same thing but that the brain cannot or- absolute threshold
ganize the image and de- minimum strength of a stimulus
react very differently. that can be perceived
velop a meaning.

CHAPTER 3: Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception 59

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 Subliminal persuasion
is behavior change induced or Exhibit 3.5
brought about based on sub-
liminally processing a message. The Vicary Subliminal Persuasion “Study”
Popular conceptions about sub-
liminal persuasion have fueled
interest in it for many years.
For instance, many people be-
lieve that:
▸▸ Marketers can somehow in-
duce consumers to purchase
brands by using subliminal
advertising.
▸▸ Marketers can subliminally
alter products or packages to
make them more appealing to consumers. tool.18 This is not to dismiss subliminal processing as hav-
▸▸ Sexual imagery can be hidden in a product itself, the ing no impact whatsoever on what consumers might learn
product packaging, or in product advertising. or how they might behave. But any effects are small in
power and far from straightforward.19
▸▸ People’s sense of well-being can be enhanced by listen-
ing to subliminally embedded tapes of nature sounds Despite evidence to the contrary, many consumers
and/or music.16 are willing to believe that subliminal persuasion is a pow-
erful and influential tool.20 Estimates suggest that over
The belief is that communication can influence con- 60% of Americans believe that advertisers can exert sub-
sumers through mere exposure to subliminal stimuli. The liminal influences strong enough to cause unwanted pur-
most famous example of subliminal persuasion involves a chase behavior.21 Over the years, books have fueled the
researcher for an ad firm who claimed that he had em- controversy by promoting the idea that advertisers know
bedded subliminal frames within the movie Picnic in a about, and use, certain “hidden persuaders” to create an
New Jersey movie theater in 1957. Exhibit 3.5 illustrates irresistible urge to buy.22 Consumers are often willing to
the way this process reportedly took place. Very brief attribute their own behavior to some kind of “uncontrolla-
embeds of the phrases “Drink Coke” and “Eat Popcorn” ble influence,” especially when the consumption involves
were supposedly placed in the movie. The researcher products like cigarettes or alcoholic beverages.23 Con-
claimed that popcorn sales rose nearly 60% as a result sumers’ willingness to believe that subliminal persuasion
and that Coke sales rose nearly 20%. This experiment is tricks them into buying these products may simply be an
often called the “Vicary experiment.” attempt to downplay their own role in decision making.
This story grew in such popularity that research- The truth is that the Vicary experiment was a hoax.
ers attempted to replicate the study. Interestingly, these Vicary himself never conducted the experiment. Rather,
scientific replications failed to produce any increase in he fabricated the story in an effort to create positive pub-
desire for Coke or popcorn. Consumer researchers also licity for the advertising firm.24 Marketers sometimes
conducted experiments testing the effectiveness of sex- make light of subliminal persuasion by presenting images
ual embeds involving airbrushed genitalia, the word sex, in advertisements that they know consumers will see.
or provocative nudity in advertisements. Results of these
experiments generally indicate that these practices do
little to nothing that would 3-3 Applying the JND Concept
subliminal persuasion directly make a consumer
behavior change induced by more likely to buy the ad- We discussed the concept of the absolute threshold as
subliminal processing vertised product.17 representing a level of strength a stimulus must have or
JND just noticeable difference; As a general statement, surpass to activate the perceptual process. A closely re-
condition in which one stimulus is the research examining sub- lated concept deals with changes in the strength of stim-
sufficiently stronger than another liminal processing suggests uli. The JND (just noticeable difference) represents how
so that someone can actually notice that subliminal persuasion much stronger one stimulus has to be relative to another
that the two are not the same
is ineffective as a marketing so that someone can notice that the two are not the same.

60 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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SHOULD I STAY OR
SHOULD I GO NOW?

E ver leave a hotel or restaurant because you thought it

was unclean? Well, you could well be right. Research
measuring bacteria on surfaces suggests that hotel rooms
of chemicals send bad signals—even in the bathroom;
(2) What’s the parking lot like? An establishment that can’t
keep its outside clean probably can’t keep the inside clean
are typically dirtier than the average either; (3) Unkempt employees, meaning
home or even an airplane! In 2015, news those with messy clothes or hair, inap-
of numerous bacteria-related illnesses propriate clothing, too many piercings or

AuntSpray/Shutterstock.com
among Chipotle restaurant customers tattoos, signal uncleanliness; (4) How do
in the United States raised questions the employees clean? Do they wipe all the
about the chain’s cleanliness. Well, how surfaces with the same cloth? If so, maybe
does a consumer come to comprehend you should go now.
a service establishment as unclean and
Sources: Meetingstoday (2016), “New Study Says Hotels Dirtier than Airplanes” (January 27),
react by leaving before being served? Several cues signal http://www.meetingstoday.com/NewsEvents/IndustryNews/IndustryNewsDetails/tabid/138

cleanliness or the lack thereof: (1) What does the place /RegionID/0/ArticleID/27583/Default.aspx, accessed February 24, 2016. Hochwald, L. (2015),
“5 Ways to Tell if a Restaurant Isn’t Clean,” SafeBee, http://www.safebee.com/food/5-ways-tell
smell like? Either offensive odors or too strong an odor -if-restaurant-isnt-clean, accessed February 24, 2016.

The JND concept may be best explained in terms of

a physical example. How do people pick out one sound from consumers. Conversely, a price reduction needs
over another? For example, for consumers to be able to be large enough so that consumers truly perceive
to physically discern two sounds that originate from the the new price as representing significant savings. 28
same source, the two sounds must be separated by at ▸▸ Quantity. Small differences in quantity are often not
least 0.3 second. Separating the sounds by only 0.1 sec- perceived as being different. For instance, if a pack of
ond is likely to produce the perception of one sound. computer paper changes from 485 sheets to 495 sheets,
Separating them by 0.3 second or more likely produces most consumers won’t notice.
the perception of two different sounds.25 ▸▸ Quality. Small improvements in quality may not have
In general, the ability to detect differences be- any impact on consumers. Thus, if Internet speed changes
tween two levels of a stimulus is affected by the origi- by a fraction of a second, most consumers will not notice.
nal intensity of the stimulus. This is known as Weber’s
▸▸ Add-on Purchases. A small additional purchase
Law. The law states that as the intensity of the initial tacked onto a large purchase may not create the percep-
stimulus increases, a consumer’s ability to detect differ- tion of increased spending. For instance, a consumer
ences between two levels of the stimulus decreases.26 buying a $365 overcoat may be receptive to the sugges-
For example, if the decibel level at a rock concert de- tion of adding a plaid scarf priced at $45 to the order.
creases from 120 to 115 dB, the change likely won’t be The total for the coat is not perceived as being really
noticeable. Marketers need to understand that change different than the total for the coat and scarf together.
made a little at a time may be unnoticed by a consumer; ▸▸ Change in Product Design. Small changes in product
change a lot at once and it will be noticed. The JND design also are not likely to be noticed. For instances,
has numerous implications for marketers who attempt small changes in the flavoring or viscosity of beverages
to provide value for consumers, including: are not likely to produce differences in liking.29

▸▸ Pricing. Consumers do not perceive very small differ- In general, these ex- Weber’s law law that states
ences in price as truly different.27 A price of $29.49 is amples highlight an impor- that a consumer’s ability to detect
generally not perceived as being different from a price differences between two levels of a
tant idea: When marketers
of $29.99. Thus, marketers may consider increasing stimulus decreases as the intensity
make a “positive” change, of the initial stimulus increases
prices in small increments to avoid a negative backlash
they should make sure the

CHAPTER 3: Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception 61

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 difference is large enough to be perceived by con- developed in the absence
sumers. Conversely, when they make a “negative” of attention. The following
change, they should think about implement- example illustrates the con-
ing the change in small increments so that trast between implicit and
each difference is not dis- explicit memory.
tinguished from what ex- Consider the case of
isted previously. However, online banner ads. Do you
marketers should make sure pay any attention to most
that changes are not perceived of those ads? Since 2010,
as being deceptive. Deliberately the average click-through

m
co
deceptive actions are unethical. rate (CTR) is 0.1%. That

ck .
sto
means that only 1 exposure

er
ut t h
3-3a Just Meaningful
i/ S
in 1,000 produces a page

ziz A
Difference view for the advertised of-
n_ a
Tu
fer. The rate can be a little higher
A topic closely related to the JND is the JMD (just (1.5%) if the advertising is marked
meaningful difference). The JMD represents the clearly as paid advertising showing in
smallest amount of change in a stimulus that would the results from an intentional online
influence consumer consumption and choice. For in- search or as a promoted post on Facebook
stance, how much of a change in price is really needed to (0.8%). Interestingly, an animated ad actually produces
influence consumer behavior and learning? A consumer an even lower CTR on initial exposures.31 Obviously, only
can surely “notice” an advertisement stating a price drop explicit memory is at play and produces intentional learn-
of a Rolex from $19,999 to $19,499. Clearly, this is a $500 ing in a very small portion of exposures. What about the
difference. However, is this price drop really meaning- vast majority of exposures that go unnoticed by consum-
ful? Retailers generally follow a rule that states that an ers? This is where the role of implicit memory may come
effective price drop needs to be at least 20%.30 into play. A brand image processed in implicit memory,
meaning no attention was given to the image, can lead
to greater liking. And interestingly, learning through im-
3-4 Implicit and Explicit Memory plicit memory actually gets stronger as the consumer is
more distracted from paying attention.
Normally, we associate learning with educational experi-
ences. When we think about learning, we think of people
studying and paying close 3-4a Mere Exposure Effect
JMD just meaningful difference; attention, like when you The mere exposure effect represents another way
smallest amount of change in a read this book. The knowl- that consumers can learn unintentionally.32 The mere
stimulus that would influence edge one obtains from this exposure effect is the idea that consumers will prefer
consumer consumption and choice
type of experience is stored stimuli they have been previously exposed to over stimuli
explicit memory memory in explicit memory, that they have not seen before. This effect occurs even when
that develops when a person is is, memory for information there is no recall of the previous stimulus.
exposed to, attends, and tries to
one is exposed to, attends Exhibit 3.6 illustrates a classical approach to study-
remember information
to, and applies effort to re- ing the mere exposure effect. Experiments in mere ex-
implicit memory memory member. However, this is posure effect expose subjects to something they do not
for things that a person did not try
not the only kind of mem- know. In this case, a group of consumers were shown a
to remember
ory we develop. Implicit list of words that were potential names for a new dining
preattentive effects memory represents establishment. Some of the words even contained let-
learning that occurs without
stored information con- ters that did not exist in the English alphabet.
attention
cerning stimuli one is ex- On August 30, the beginning of the semester, stu-
mere exposure effect posed to but does not pay dent subjects were exposed to the list of words on the
effect that leads consumers to
attention to. Implicit mem- left. Then, on December 1, at the end of the semester,
prefer a stimulus to which they’ve
previously been exposed ory creates preattentive the researcher exposed the same subjects to the list on
effects, learning that is the right. If you look closely, you’ll notice that one word is

62 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 can’t “remember” seeing the stimuli, some
Exhibit 3.6 degree of familiarity is created by the mere
exposure.
The Mere Exposure Effect Illustrated Familiarity
August 30 December 1 All things equal, consumers prefer the familiar
to the unfamiliar. Once exposed to an object, a
Billécourt Bernardus
consumer exhibits a preference for the familiar
Satturi Orvôl object over something unfamiliar. An interest-
Yonsusan Billécourt ing application involves marketing of music.
People generally like to hear songs that they
Reinsstressa Keilenspat have heard before, but what happens when we
Mer soleil Monopole hear a song for the first time? Research sug-
gests that songs with greater repetitiveness end
Les Crayers Jimané
up being liked better. While the effect can oc-
Jeroboams Apostager cur due to music and lyrics, more repetitive
songs are popular.33
The research on mere exposure and music
suggests that many, but not all, effects of familiarity work
on both the August 30 and December 1 lists. That word through implicit memory. Several relevant points can be
was rated more favorably than the other potential names. made about the mere exposure effect.
The results of this type of experiment generally ▸▸ The mere exposure effect is created in the absence of
show that the “familiar” words will be preferred even attention. For this reason, the effect is considered
though subjects cannot recall ever having seen them preattentive.
before. Consumers not only develop preferences for
▸▸ P
 references associated with the mere exposure effect
words, but they learn them as well. In fact, the learn- are easy to elicit. Thus, marketers can use this effect to
ing process facilitates positive feelings that become improve attitudes marginally.
associated with the stimuli. The mere exposure effect
▸▸ The mere exposure effect has the greatest effect on
therefore has applications in both consumer learning
novel (previously unfamiliar) objects.
and attitude formation.
Theoretically, an explanation for the increased pref- ▸▸ The size of the effect (increased liking) is not very
strong relative to an effect created by a strong cohe-
erence involves familiarity. Even though consumers
sive argument. For example, a Notre Dame football fan
might develop a preference for
a face to which he’s repeatedly
been exposed, but if he finds
that the face belongs to an
Alabama fan, the preference
will likely go away based on
the strong information.
▸▸ T
 he mere exposure effect
works best when the consumer
has a low involvement in pro-
cessing the object, and indeed
when a consumer is distracted
from processing the focal
stimulus. For example, if a small
Source: CNN

brand logo is displayed on a

magazine page across from an
involving story, a greater in-
Nearly every commercial web page presents an opportunity for crease in liking would be found
consumers to learn through explicit and implicit memory. than if the consumer were less
distracted from the stimulus.

CHAPTER 3: Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception 63

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 Inchworm, Inchworm . . .
“Two and two are four, four and four are eight . . .”
Maybe you remember this little rhyme from childhood
easily—even if you do not wish to ever hear it again.
Psychologists refer to spontaneous musical “sounds”
that pop into our heads as earworms. “Just a small-
town girl . . .” We don’t fully understand earworms.
Research suggests that “stickiness” plays a big role.

CLS Design/Shutterstock.com
Stickiness refers to repetition that creates familiar-
ity even if a consumer is not actively processing the
information. Think of Taylor Swift’s “Shake it Off!”
Earworms are more likely to occur during downtimes
like when you’re in the shower, are less welcome by
consumers with higher IQs, and can be driven out, at
least temporarily, by listening to the actual song all Sources: Beck, M. (2015), “The Science of Why a Song Sticks in Your Head,” Wall Street Journal
(October 27), D1–D2. Jakubowski, K., Farrugia, N., Halpern, A. R., Sankarpandi, S. K., & Stewart,
the way through or by chewing gum (another repeti- L. (2015), “The Speed of Our mental Soundtracks: Tracking the Tempo of Involuntary Musical
tive activity). Imagery in Everyday Life,” Memory & Cognition, 43, 1229–1242.

Note on Subliminal and Mere demonstrated how a consumer simultaneously exposed to

Exposure Effects the concept “Mayo Clinic,” a famous healthcare institu-
Before moving on, we should distinguish the mere ex- tion, and mayonnaise ends up transferring meaning.34 The
posure effect from subliminal effects. A subliminal mes- exposure to the name “Mayo” activates concepts about
sage is one presented below the threshold of perception. hospitals and because the phonics are the same, the same
In other words, if you are aware of the stimulus or mes- concepts become more active for mayo. In this case, con-
sage, then the process is not subliminal. With the mere sumers’ attitudes toward mayonnaise became less positive
exposure effect, the stimulus is evident and people could when exposed to the Mayo Clinic. For brand managers, the
pay attention to it if they wanted to. No attempt is made mere exposure effect means care should be taken to avoid
to keep people from seeing the stimuli, as they are pre- any potentially negative but unintended associations. For
sented with a strength above the threshold of perception. instance, if Ford announces a safety recall on Ford Fusion
models, the mere association by name with Gillette Fusion
Mere Association razors may inadvertently cause consumers to reduce their
Sometimes, consumers’ judgments are influenced by beliefs about the razor providing a safe shave.
mechanisms that have little to do with reasoning. One
effect closely related to mere exposure is the mere
Product Placements
association effect. This effect occurs when meaning An interesting application of implicit memory and mere ex-
transfers between two unrelated stimuli that a consumer posure involves brand placements in movies, videos, online
gets exposed to simultane- games and social networks. Gaming can be very captivating.
mere association ously. The mere exposure The person playing a game is unlikely to pay attention to
effect the transfer of meaning effect deals specifically things like embedded brand logos. In a manner similar to
between objects that are similar with transfers between the way banner ads are processed, implicit memory is cre-
only by accidental association ated when the logos appear within a game, and an attitude
objects that are dissimi-
product placements lar other than an acciden- towards the brand develops.35 As with other preattentive
intentional insertions of branded tal proximity. An example effects, the effect is stronger as the game is more involving.
products within media content not Product placements are intentional insertions of
makes this clearer. A study
otherwise seen as advertising
dealing with the topic branded products within media content not otherwise

64 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
seen as advertising. Originally, product placements drew
attention for having brands play roles in motion pictures. ▸▸ Intensity of Stimuli. All things equal, a consumer is
Even if consumers pay no attention to a placement, it more likely to pay attention to stronger stimuli than to
still can affect consumer learning. Research generally weaker stimuli. For example, vivid colors can be used
to capture a consumer’s attention. Loud sounds, like a
supports product placements as an effective means of
loud advertisement, capture more attention than quieter
enhancing consumer attitudes. In fact, product place-
sounds and can create an orientation reflex.
ments also may enhance how much consumers like mov-
ies they are placed in, unless placements become too ▸▸ Contrast. Contrasting stimuli are extremely effective in
frequent and too noticeable. One website even gives an getting attention. Contrast occurs in several ways. In days
“Oscar” of sorts in the form of the Annual Brand Cameo past, a color photo in a newspaper was extremely effec-
tive in getting attention. However, today’s newspapers
Award. Apple was the winner recently based on how fre-
are often filled with color, so a color advertisement is less
quently their products appeared on screen.36 Advertisers
prominent. A black-and-white image in a magazine filled
use all sorts of media for product placements these days, with color, however, can stand out. Nonconformity can
from books to apps. also create attention because of the contrast with social
norms.37 Marketers often show people standing out from
the crowd as a means of capturing attention for an ad.
3-4b Attention ▸▸ Movement. With electronic billboards, electronic
From the discussion above, it’s clear that atten- retail shelf tags and animated web ads, marketers
tion plays a key role in distinguishing implicit and attempt to capture consumer attention by the principle
explicit memory. Attention is the purposeful allo- of movement. Items in movement simply gain attention.
cation of cognitive capacity toward understanding Flashing lights and “pointing” signage are particularly
effective tools for gaining consumer attention.
some stimulus. Intentional learning depends on at-
tentive consumers. However, we don’t pay attention ▸▸ Surprising Stimuli. Unexpected stimuli gain
only to things we wish to. Involuntary attention is consumers’ attention. Occasionally, retailers replace
autonomic, meaning that it is beyond the conscious mannequins with human models. This surprise usually
control of the consumer and occurs as the result of attracts attention.
exposure to surprising or novel stimuli. For example, ▸▸ Size of Stimuli. All else equal, larger items garner
if you were to cut your finger, you would automati- more attention than smaller ones. Marketers there-
cally direct attention to the injury due to its pain. fore often attempt to have brands appear large in
When attention is devoted to a stimulus in this way, advertisements. This is a reason advertising copy
an orientation reflex occurs. An orientation reflex usually features large headlines.
is a natural response to a threat from the environ- ▸▸ Involvement. Involvement refers to the personal
ment. In this way, the orientation reflex represents a relevance a consumer feels towards a particular product.
protective behavior. In general, the more personally relevant (and thus more
involving) an object, the greater the chance that the
object will be attended to. We discuss involvement and
comprehension in more detail in the cognitive learning
3-5 Enhancing Consumers’ chapter.

Attention
Gaining consumer at- involuntary
Consumers face a difficult challenge in penetrating tention is an important attention attention that is
the clutter to pay attention to an intended message. As task for any marketer. Of autonomic, meaning beyond the
conscious control of a consumer
mentioned earlier, the enormous array of information course, paying attention
available electronically creates clutter that can frustrate can be beneficial for con- orientation reflex natural
consumers. Getting a consumer’s attention directed to- sumers as well. Attention reflex that occurs as a response to
something threatening
ward specific information, voluntarily or involuntarily, is is particularly beneficial
increasingly difficult, but that’s a goal of effective mar- when consumers actively involvement the personal
keting communication. try to learn about a value relevance toward, or interest in, a
particular product
These factors can help create attention: proposition.

CHAPTER 3: Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception 65

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 3-6a Behaviorism
and Cognitive
Learning Theories
Recall that perception and
learning are closely related
topics. As the preeminent
behavioral psychologist B. F.

New York Daily News Archive/Getty Images

Skinner once wrote: “In order
to respond effectively to the
world around us, we must see,
hear, smell, taste and feel it.”38
Psychologists generally
follow one of two basic theories
of learning. One theory focuses
on changes in behavior occur-
Surprising stimuli can get attention. ring as conditioned responses
to stimuli, without concern
for the cognitive mechanics of
the process. The other theory focuses on how changes
in thought and knowledge precipitate behavior modi-
fication. Those in the first camp follow a behaviorist
3-6 The Difference between approach to learning (also referred to as the behav-
Intentional and ioral learning perspective). This approach suggests that
because the brain is a “black box,” the focus of inquiry
Unintentional Learning should be on the behavior itself. In fact, Skinner argued
that no description of what happens inside the human
Before moving on to cognitive learning and information body can adequately explain human behavior.39 With the
processing, let’s detail the distinction between the two behaviorist approach, the brain is a black box, and we
types of consumer learning—intentional and uninten- needn’t look inside.
tional learning. Both types of learning concern what
cognitive psychologists refer to as perceptual processes;
however, with unintentional learning, consumers
Advertisers use all sorts
simply sense and react (or
unintentional respond) to the environ- of media for product
learning learning that occurs ment. Here, consumers
when behavior is modified “learn” without trying to
placements these days, from
through a consumer-stimulus
interaction without any effortful
learn. They do not attempt books to apps.
allocation of cognitive processing to comprehend the infor-
capacity toward that stimulus mation presented. They
are exposed to stimuli and From the behaviorist perspective, consumers are
intentional learning
process by which consumers set respond in some way. With exposed to stimuli and directly respond in some way.
out to specifically learn information intentional learning, Thus, the argument is that the marketing focus should
devoted to a certain subject consumers set out to spe- be on stimulus and response. Behaviorists do not deny
behaviorist approach to cifically learn informa- the existence of mental processes; rather, they consider
learning theory of learning tion devoted to a certain these processes to be behaviors themselves. For exam-
that focuses on changes in subject. To better explain ple, thinking is an activity in the same way as walking;
behavior due to association intentional and uninten- psychological processes are viewed as actions.39 Note
without great concern for the
cognitive mechanics of the tional learning, we exam- that the term conditioning is used in behavioral learn-
learning process ine two major theories in ing, as behavior becomes conditioned in some way by
the psychology of learning. the external environment.

66 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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 The second theory of learning involves an informa- meat powder. As predicted, the bell proved enough to
tion processing (or cognitive) perspective. With increase the amount of saliva the dogs produced. Origi-
this approach, the focus is on the cognitive processes as- nally, the dogs would salivate from being exposed to the
sociated with comprehension, including those leading to unconditioned stimulus. The salivation was called an
consumer learning. The information processing perspec- unconditioned response, which occurred naturally
tive considers the mind as acting much like a computer. as a result of exposure to the unconditioned stimulus
Bits of knowledge are processed electronically to form (the meat powder). The dogs eventually would respond
meaning. With this approach, we must look to see what in the same way to the exposure to the bell. This re-
goes on inside the human brain. sponse became known as a conditioned response.
Traditionally, the behavioral learning and cogni- The response became conditioned by the consistent
tive perspectives have competed against one another pairing of the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli.
for theoretical dominance. However, we avoid such de- Dogs do not cognitively process in the way we usually
bate, because on closer inspection the two theories really think that humans do. So
share much in common. At the very least, both perspec- the dogs learned this re-
sponse without trying to information processing
tives focus on changes in behavior as people interact
(or cognitive) perspective
with their environment. We adopt an orientation more do so. learning perspective that focuses
directly applicable to consumer learning by separating To be effective, the on the cognitive processes
learning mechanisms into the intentional and uninten- conditioned stimulus is associated with comprehension
presented to people be- and how these precipitate
tional groups that we have presented. The next section
behavioral changes
discusses unintentional learning and how consumers re- fore the unconditioned
spond to stimuli they are exposed to. stimuli, and the pairing of classical conditioning
the two should be done change in behavior that occurs
simply through associating some
3-6b Unintentional Learning consistently (and with rep- stimulus with another stimulus
etition). Typical uncon- that naturally causes some
Unintentional learning occurs when behavior is modi- ditioned stimuli include reaction; a type of unintentional
fied through a consumer-stimulus interaction without a images of animals that can learning
cognitive effort to understand a stimulus. With this type condition the meaning of unconditioned
of learning, consumers respond to stimuli to which they soft or warmth and sexy stimulus stimulus with which
are exposed without thinking about the information. The images that portray excite- a behavioral response is already
focus is on reacting, not on cognitive processing. Unin- associated
ment and vitality.
tentional learning can be approached from two behav- conditioned stimulus
ioral learning theory perspectives: classical conditioning Instrumental object or event that does not cause
and instrumental conditioning. Conditioning the desired response naturally but
that can be conditioned to do so
Much of what we know by pairing with an unconditioned
Classical Conditioning about instrumental (or op- stimulus
Classical conditioning refers to a change in behav- erant) conditioning comes unconditioned
ior that occurs simply through associating some stimulus from the work of Skin- response response that occurs
with another stimulus that naturally causes a reaction. ner. With instrumental naturally as a result of exposure to
The most famous classical conditioning experiment was conditioning, behavior an unconditioned stimulus
performed by the behavioral psychologist Ivan Pavlov. is conditioned through re- conditioned
Pavlov conducted experiments using dogs, meat powder inforcement. Reinforcers response response that results
(an unconditioned stimulus that naturally led to a are stimuli that strengthen from exposure to a conditioned
stimulus that was originally
salivation response), and a bell (a conditioned stimu- a desired response. The fo- associated with the unconditioned
lus that did not lead to the response before it was paired cus is on behavior and be- stimulus
with the powder).41 The experiment reveals that the bell havioral change—not on
instrumental
eventually evoked the same behavior that the meat pow- mental processes that lead conditioning type of learning
der naturally caused. to learning. With instru- in which a behavioral response
In the experiment, Pavlov began ringing the bell mental conditioning, the can be conditioned through
every time meat powder was provided to the dogs. likelihood that a behav- reinforcement—either punishment
or rewards associated with
Thus, the bell became associated with the meat powder. ior will increase is influ-
undesirable or desirable behavior
Eventually, Pavlov rang the bell without providing the enced by the reinforcers

CHAPTER 3: Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception 67

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 accumulate, various offers are
provided to the consumer,
including free hotel rooms,
meals, and other things that
could otherwise be expen-
sive. In this case, the points
are used to elicit a desired
response—repeat purchase
behavior.
Discriminative Stimuli,
RIA Novosti/Alamy Stock Photo

Rein­forcement, and Shap­

ing. Discriminative stim-
uli differentiate one stimulus
from other stimuli because
they signal the presence of a
reinforcer. These stimuli es-
Pavlov, shown here (center) with one of the dogs used in his sentially signal that a type of re-
experiments, conducted one of the most well known studies of ward will occur if the consum-
classical conditioning. er performs a specific behavior.
Advertisements that feature
special promotions represent
marketing examples of dis-
criminative stimuli. Here the ad informs consumers that
(consequences) of the behavior. The reinforcers are
they will receive some type of reward (for example, 10%
presented after the initial behavior occurs.
off a purchase) if they perform the desirable behavior
As an example of instrumental conditioning, con-
(for example, shop at a store). The stimulus serves as
sider child development. When parents are “potty train-
a signal presented before the behavior occurs, and the
ing” a child, they are more concerned with getting the
behavior must occur in order for the reinforcement to
desired result than with teaching the child the benefits
be delivered. Brand names can be discriminative stimuli
of using a toilet over a diaper. All parents know that it is
because they signal potential customer satisfaction and
very difficult to rationalize with young children. There-
value. For example, consumers realize that by using
fore, attempting to get them to think about the various
FedEx, they can receive overnight delivery with out-
reasons to become trained is almost useless. The focus
standing quality. The reinforcer occurs after the behav-
is on changing the behavior through reinforcement.
ior has been performed. Again we see the importance of
When a child performs the desired behavior, he or she
exposure to the discriminative stimuli, further highlight-
receives rewards in the form of hugs, kisses, toys, and so
ing the relationship between perception and behavioral
on. These rewards reinforce the desired behavior.
learning.
Positive reinforcers come in many forms in
the consumer environment and often take the form
of some type of reward. Shaping Behavior
The effects can be seen Shaping is a process through which the desired
positive reinforcers
reinforcers that take the form of a
in marketing efforts that behavior is altered over time, in small increments.
reward encourage repeat pur- Here, the focus is on rewarding small behaviors that
chase behavior. For ex- lead to the big behavior ultimately desired. For ex-
discriminative stimuli
stimuli that occur solely in the
ample, many casinos ample, universities invite prospective employers to
presence of a reinforcer have players’ cards that participate in “career day” events. The employers
accumulate points the hope that students who come by their booth will pick
shaping process through which
a desired behavior is altered over
more a customer plays. up some free promotional goods and have a good
time, in small increments The casino keeps track of time interacting with company representatives. The
these points. As the points small rewards along the way help shape the desired

68 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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behavior—which is getting the students interested in transferred. Researchers demonstrate that even ca-
a career. sual association between morally repugnant behavior
Not all reinforcement is positive. Punishers rep- and a product can reduce consumption. For instance,
resent stimuli that decrease the likelihood that a behav- subjects exposed to a movie portraying an incestuous
ior will occur again. When children misbehave, they get relationship drank smaller amounts of chocolate milk
punished. The hope is that the behavior will not occur than subjects watching a movie portraying a normal
again. In the same way, when consumers make poor de- relationship.41 The reduction in consumption occurred
cisions and purchase products that deliver less value than without any thought about the product, that is, it oc-
expected, they are punished. Chances are they won’t buy curred unintentionally.
those same products again. Conditioning represents a type of learning because
Behaviors often cease when reinforcers are no lon- it focuses on behavioral change that occurs through a
ger present. This represents the concept of extinction. consumer’s interaction with the environment. For be-
For example, consumers may become accustomed to haviorists, perception itself is an activity, not a mental
receiving free tea and cookies at a local nail salon every process. Through the behavioral approach, consumers
time they get their nails done. If the salon decides to stop are exposed to stimuli and
offering the free food and drink, the consumers may take react in some way. Con- punishers stimuli that
their business elsewhere. sumer learning through decrease the likelihood that a
behavior will persist
behavioral conditioning
Final Thought on Behavioral Conditioning occurs without a con- extinction process through
scious attempt to learn which behaviors cease due to lack
Conditioning effects do modify behavior and thus
of reinforcement
represent learning. These effects can be subtly anything new.

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