PEE 314 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING I 3 CREDIT

Well Completion: Tubing; types, tubing equipment, uses of tubing, calculations;

use of wire lines, packers-types and uses; multiple zone completion; well heads
– casing and tubing hangers; Christmas tree. Subsea well completion.

WELL COMPLETION
After a well has been drilled, multiple options are available to complete the well. Well
completion is the process of making a well ready for production or injection. It is an
exercise aimed at establishing communication between the reservoir and the surface
production facilities by installing equipment’s in the well that allow safe and controlled
flow of reservoir fluid from the well. This principally involves preparing the bottom of
the hole to the required specifications, running in the production tubing and its
associated down-hole tools as well as perforation and stimulation as required. The
design and completion of both production and injection wells must:
• Provide optimum production/injection performance.
• Ensure safety (both pressure and fluid containments).
• Maximise the integrity and reliability of the completion over the envisaged life
of the completed well
• Minimise the total costs per unit volume of fluid produced or injected, i.e.
minimise the total costs of initial completion, maintaining production and
remedial measures
• Other criteria e.g. control sand production depending upon the particular
reservoir characteristics or development constraints.

The objective of well completion is to provide unobstructed communication between

the reservoir and the wellbore. Since an unobstructed wellbore-reservoir
communication is virtually impossible achieve in most cases, the aim of the completion
is to minimize the obstruction. Ideally the completion should be as permanent as
possible with little or no need for future work. However, most wells will require some
type of remedial work in the future. Therefore, the completion should make allowance
for such remedial work.
The factors that influence well completion design can be grouped into two heading
a. Reservoir consideration
b. Mechanical consideration
Reservoir Considerations
Factors to consider here are as follows:
1. Production rate: determines the optimum size of the tubing. This includes the
relative amounts of produced fluids: gas-oil ratio and water-oil ratio.
2. Pressure, temperature and depth.
3. Multiple reservoirs: lead to multiple completion in one drilled hole. This may be
complicated.
4. Reservoir-drive mechanisms: determine whether or not the completion interval
will have to be adjusted as GOC or WOC move.
5. Secondary recovery (enhanced oil recovery method): determines the need for
special downhole completion tools.
6. Stimulation treatments: may require special perforating patterns.
7. Sand control problems: this may dictate the type of completion method and
maximum rate of production.
8. Workover frequency and artificial lifting are other factors.
9. Expected life of the reservoir (reservoir size).

Mechanical Considerations
Mechanically, well completion design is a complex engineering problem. The
individual well completion must be designed to yield maximum overall profitability on
a field basis.
The basic decisions to be reached in designing the well completion are
(a) Method of completion,
(b) The number of completion intervals within the wellbore,
(c) The diameter of the tubing,
(d) The particular completion interval, and
(e) Anticipated well problems such sand control, corrosion etc.

Factors Affecting Selection of Interval and Completion Type

1. Number of zones encountered
2. Reservoir-drive mechanism: depletion drive; bottom water drive; edge water
drive; gas cap drive; combination drive.
3. Reservoir size
4. Reservoir heterogeneity
5. Types of fluid expected
 6. Expected well potential
7. Tight reservoir requiring stimulation: acidizing; fracturing
8. Future recovery plans: water flooding; thermal recovery, enhanced oil recovery
9. Sand problems: sand consolidation and gravel pack
10. Types of Wells: vertical well, directional well, or horizontal well
11. Future workovers

Completions include;
Lower completion/Bottom hole completion (also named reservoir completion):
Lower completion refers to the connection between reservoir and well.
Upper completion: The upper completion refers to the conduit for produced fluids to
reach surface.
LOWER COMPLETION
Several options are available for reservoir/lower completion. The three alternative
approaches for the completion of the reservoir zones are:
• Open hole completion: the deepest casing is set on top of the producing
interval, and the producing zone is fully open.
• Pre-drilled / pre-slotted liner or screen completion (uncemented)
• Casing or liner with annular cementation and subsequent perforation: casing is
cemented through the producing interval. Communication with the reservoir is
established by perforating the casing.

Fig 1 (a)Open-hole (b) cased-hole (c)liner completion

Open Hole Completion

Open-hole completion refers to a range of completion methods where no casing or

liner is cemented in place across the production zone. It involves leaving the entire
drilled reservoir section open after drilling. Such completions are sometimes referred
to as “barefoot” completions and the technique is widely applied. However, this type
of completion does mean that the entire interval is open to production and hence does
not provide selective control over fluid production or injection.

Open hole completions are used in:

• Low cost developments
• Deep, consolidated reservoirs being produced by depletion drive ensures good
contact between fracture and well
• Naturally fractured reservoirs
• Some horizontal and multi-lateral wells with high depletion costs

Advantages of open-hole completion

1. Higher productivity;
2. No perforating costs and related damage
3. Larger hole diameter and maximum wellbore diameter is open to flow
4. It saves both cost and time
5. It can be easily deepened if necessary and can easily be converted to other
type of completion

Disadvantages are:
1. Selective fluid production is difficult
2. Difficult to control excessive gas or water production
3. Selective fracturing or acidizing is difficult
4. May require frequent cleanout if the formation is not sufficiently competent.
Pre-Drilled / Pre-Slotted Liner or Screen Completion (Uncemented)

A wire-wrapped screen, slotted steel pipe or alternative sand control screen is installed
once the drilling through completed reservoir section has been completed (usually in
competent formation). The screen (sand) or liner (predrilled liner, slotted liner) is
installed to prevent sand production into the wellbore and tubing.

This type of completion is similar to open hole completion. The difference is that an
uncemented screen or liner and a gravel pack are installed across the pay zone.
Advantages are
1. Can control mud properties to avoid formation damage
2. No perforation cost
3. Sand control is provided
4. Clean out problem is avoided

Disadvantages are:
1. Selective fluid production is difficult
2. Difficult to control excessive gas or water production
3. Selective fracturing or acidizing is difficult
4. Requires additional and complication of liner and gravel pack placement
5. Wellbore diameter across the pay zone is reduced
Cased-Hole Completion or Cemented and Perforated Casing/Liner
cased-hole completion involves running casing or liner down through the production
zone, and cementing it in place. Connection between the well-bore and the formation
is made by perforating. Sand control devices can be installed in cased wells.

Advantages of cased hole completion

1. It leads to good control of fluid flow, because perforation intervals can be
precisely positioned, although it relies on the quality of the cement to prevent
fluid flow behind the liner or casing.
2. Gas or water production can be more readily controlled.
3. Selective stimulation can be carried out.

Disadvantages of cased hole completion

1. It is expensive: The cost of a full length of casing from the surface to the base
of the well can be considerable, to which must be added the cost of perforating,
cementing and the additional rig time
2. Perforating is expensive and involves great time
3. It may result in formation damage.
4. Logging is crucial to recognize producing intervals.
UPPER COMPLETION
Production engineers routinely carry out the following tasks related to upper
completion:
• Design of well structure
• Selection of packer
• Tubing movement calculations
• Selection of tubing size
• Selection and design of artificial lift methods.
There are a number of options for fluid flow to surface in a production well, or to the
formation in an injection well. Considerations which may influence the choice include
cost, flow stability, ability to control flow and ensuring well safety and integrity of the
well by minimising corrosion or erosion.
The following alternatives exist for a single zone completion:
• Tubingless casing flow
• Casing and tubing flow
• Tubing flow without annular isolation
• Tubing flow with annular isolation

1. For the tubingless completion, no tubing is installed in the well. Fluid flow
through casing to reach surface. This technique is very simple and minimises
costs. However, it does have its disadvantages. Firstly, the production casing
may be so large a diameter that the fluid superficial velocities are low enough
for phase separation and slip to occur, resulting in unstable flow and increased
flowing pressure loss in the casing. The produced fluid is also in direct contact
 with the casing, potentially resulting in casing corrosion, if H2S or CO2 are
present in produced fluids or casing erosion, if sand is being produced
reductions in the casing integrity due to either of the above can result in
potential burst of the casing at the wellhead if the well changes from oil to gas
production.
2. For the tubing completion without packer, tubing is run into the well but no
packer is installed. Fluid can flow through tubing and tubing/casing annulus to
surface. It is used in highly productive wells where a large cross sectional area
for flow is desirable. This type of completion has the very important advantage
of providing a circulation capability deep in the well where reservoir fluids can
be displaced to surface by an injected kill fluid of the required density to provide
hydraulic overbalance on the reservoir. This capability to circulate (or U-tube)
kill fluid between the annulus and the tubing removes the necessity for
reinjection into the reservoir. It also does not require the high pressures
associated with squeeze operations. This completion is very useful for high flow
rate wells provided no erosive or corrosive compounds are present in the flow
stream.
3. For the tubing completion with packer, both tubing and packer are run into the
well. The packer is a sealing device that isolates and contains produced fluids
and pressures within the wellbore to protect the casing and other formations
above or below the producing zone. This is essential to the basic functioning of
most wells.
4. For the dual tubing completion, two tubing strings are run into the well. This
design is necessary for producing incompatible fluids from two reservoirs.
However, the small tubing size may restrict flow rates.

MULTIPLE ZONE COMPLETIONS

Multiple zone completions are employed for reservoirs where more than one distinct
reservoir layer is intersected by a single well and there is the intention, or legal
requirement, to produce from or inject into these layers separately. Each reservoir has,
by definition, its own pressure regime and, if present, their own Gas-Oil-Contact and
Water-Oil-Contact.
The concept of a homogeneous reservoir rarely exists in reality. However, producing
formations can often be considered stratified, and their producability depends upon
the extent to which vertical flow occurs. Stratified reservoirs are created by changes
in depositional conditions resulting in layers having a variable degree of vertical
permeability. Each of the producing layers has to be treated as a separate reservoir if
a very low vertical permeability exists between the separate the layers.
The completion can be achieved by one of the following:
A. Comingling the Flow from various zones in which fluid from more than one
reservoir simultaneously flows into a single tubing string e.g. two zones
producing up a single tubing string.
Advantages
 The total number of wells and the capital investment, is minimised since each
well provides a drainage point in every reservoir
 The production plateaux for each the reservoir should be reached quickly since
the amount of drilling is minimised the number of wells and the time required to
execute the drilling programme. i.e. production should be accelerated
compared to the other optional strategies
Disadvantages
 The mixing of produced fluids in the wellbore can be disadvantageous if fluids
from one or more of the reservoirs have any of the following characteristics:
i. Corrosive or potentially corrosive materials e.g. acids, H2S, CO2.
ii. Produced sand has an erosive effect. The implementation of sand
control procedures may be more complicated.
iii. Hydrocarbon fluids with different compositions and hence differing
economic value.
iv. Different water - oil - ratio (WOR and GOR). This will influence the
vertical lift performance of the total well system.
 Variation in individual zone pressures and permeability can lead to a back
pressure effect on the less productive or lower pressure reservoirs.
 Surface (choke) control of the production from an individual zone is not
possible. Only the total well production rate can be effected by choke control.
 Ineffective placement of injection fluids e.g. stimulation fluids cannot easily be
diverted into individual layers without temporary isolation using sealants
(diverters) or bridge plugs.
  A change in the production characteristics of one zone e.g. water coning and
the consequent increase in WOR will influence the total production from the
well. It may be difficult to remedy without closing in the well.

B. Segregated, Multi Zone Depletion: multiple production conduits are installed

within the same wellbore. Each tubing controls the production of one reservoir.
Advantages
 The production rate and duration of flow on each zone can be independently
controlled.
 Changes in the production characteristics of one zone will not influence the
others.
 Some types of remedial work on individual zones can be accomplished without
always affecting the production from other zones, e.g. cement squeeze, re-
perforating, etc.
 Selective Stimulation of each zone is possible.
 Continuous depletion monitoring of each zone is possible. This assists in
material balance or reservoir simulation studies for reservoir management.
Disadvantages
 Each zone requires its own tubing string; increasing the length of production
tubing and other completion equipment required. This requires an increase in
the capital expenditure, the individual well installation time and an increase in
the total time required to complete the drilling programme.
 The mechanical complexity of the completion is increased. More frequent
equipment malfunction can be expected during installation and in the future.
 The reduced tubing sizes characteristic of multi-zone completions may reduce
the total flow capacity of the well.

C. Alternate Zone Well Completion Strategy each well is completed on more than
one reservoir. However, only one reservoir is produced up one tubing string at
any particular time.
Advantages
 Effective control of all aspects of reservoir depletion and well control is
provided.
  Well configuration is easily changed if the depletion strategy is altered, e.g.
changing a well from production to injection.
 Problems encountered on one well do not necessarily influence the continuity
of the production of fluid from other zones and wells.
 Each well is mechanically relatively simple minimising the risk of failure due to
complexity.
Disadvantages
 A greater number of wells have to be drilled and completed to achieve the same
degree of depletion control and reservoir management. The same reservoir
drainage efficiency will only be achieved by a substantially increased field
development cost.
 The field's lifetime and thus the unit production costs, will be increased unless
the number of wells is increased.

MULTIPLE ZONE COMPLETION CONFIGURATIONS

Wells can in principle, be completed on any number of zones within the same wellbore
by simply increasing the amount of completion equipment installed to provide isolation
and flow control capability. The benefits of using the same wellbore for multizone
production are significant.
The inherent advantage of the single wellbore completion is lost as the number of
zones their complexity, and hence the potential for malfunction, increases. The
optimum number of zones to be produced into any wellbore will depend on the
reservoir (e.g. the production rate), the well design (e.g. the deviation angle) and the
expected problems (e.g. completion component failure and expected operational
problems throughout the well's life).

1. Dual Zone Completion

There are a number of ways in which completions can be designed to produce two
zones. Besides co-mingled flow and individual well/zone completion there are:
a. Casing/Tubing Flow
In this case a single tubing string is run with a single packer installed to provide
isolation between zones. The lower zone will produce up the tubing whilst the upper
zone will produce up the casing-tubing annulus. The difficulty with this type of
completion is that under natural flow conditions it will have a live annulus perhaps
necessitating an annular safety valve. Also the produced fluid is in contact with the
casing and it may thus cause damage by corrosion or abrasion. In addition, pressure
limitations on the annulus with respect to casing burst may preclude stimulation of the
zone which produces via the annulus.

b. Dual Tubing
This completion has a separate tubing string for each zone. It requires two packers,
one to isolate between zones and the other to isolate the upper zone from the upper
casing annulus. The depletion of each zone can be accurately monitored and
controlled. In addition, the injection of fluids into each zone is limited only by the tubing
design criteria. The completion is also more suited to the efficient production of
problem well fluids. The tubing may be concentric rather than the parallel configuration
shown in Figure. A concentric tubing allows a greater area for flow of the produced
fluids (for a given casing size); but requires a more complex running procedure.

c. Single String Selective

The well is completed on two zones, with one tubing string that has been designed to
selectively allow the production of either zone or to commingle or both zones. The
completion requires two packers, one to isolate between zone and the other to isolate
the annulus. In addition, an entry point is required for fluid from the upper zone to enter
the string. This can be opened and closed as desired, e.g. a sliding side door (SSD).
Finally producing the upper zone into the tubing closure of the lower zone may be
accomplished by setting a plug in a nipple at the base of the tailpipe.

2. Completions for Three or More Zones

The options discussed for dual completions can be extended for wells to be completed
with or without some degree of zonal co-mingling on three or more zones. Thus for
Triple Zone Completions this can be accomplished with either:
i. Three tubing string completion utilising separate zonal flow and having three
packers for isolation.
ii. Two string completion, whereby flow from two zones is co-mingled into one of the
tubing strings.
iii. Single zone annular flow and two tubing strings producing separately from two
zones.
iv. Two string completion where either or both of the strings are completed to allow
selectively production from two of the zones. This requires two tubing strings and
three packers.
v. Single string, triple zone selective completion.
COMPLETING STRING COMPONENTS
An example of wellhead structure is presented in the figure below.

Starting from the top of the well, a Christmas tree sits on top of the wellhead. A typical
Christmas tree, composed of a master gate valve, a pressure gauge, a wing valve, a
swab valve and a choke. The Christmas tree may also have a number of check valves.
The tree is designed to control flow (production or injection). It is the primary means
of shutting in the well. The Xmas tree is normally installed on the wellhead after
installation of the production tubing has been completed. The wellhead provides the
facility for all the casing strings and the production
tubing are suspended from the well head which is
itself supported by the conductor, the foundation
of the well. There are a number of basic Xmas tree
designs (i.e some Xmas tree have two wing valve
outlets, one for production and the other for
injection, e.g. well killing. Additionally, the third
outlet (swab valve) provides vertical access into
the tubing for insertion of wireline or coiled tubing
tools into the well. The lower valve is the master
Christmas tree
valve. It controls all hydraulic and mechanical
access to the well. Vertical access through the tree is possible for logging or other
interventions. These operations can be performed on a flowing well through temporary
pressure control equipment installed above the swab valve.
SUBSEA WELLS.
Wellheads are used for dry completion or subsea completion. Dry completion means
that the well is onshore or on the topside structure on an offshore installation. Subsea
wellheads are located underwater on a special sea bed template. The wellhead has
equipment mounted at the opening of the well to regulate and monitor the extraction
of petroleum from the underground formation. This also prevents crude oil or natural
gas leaking out of the well, and prevents blow-outs from high pressure formations.
Formations that are under high pressure typically require wellheads that can withstand
a great deal of upward pressure from the escaping gases and liquids. These must be
able to withstand pressures of up to 140 MPa (1,400 Bar).

subsea completion showing wellheads in template Casing Head

CASING HEAD AND CASING HANGERS

At the bottom we find the casing head and casing hangers. The casing is screwed,
bolted or welded to the hanger. Several valves and plugs are normally fitted to give
access to the casing. This permits the casing to be opened, closed, bled down, and in
some cases, allow the flowing well to be produced through the casing as well as the
tubing. The valve can be used to determine leaks in casing, tubing or the packer, and
is also used for lift gas injection into the casing.

THE TUBING
The tubing hanger (also called donut) is a metal tool that supports the tubing. It is
either installed inside the wellhead, or it sits inside the tree for certain types of tree.
The tubing hanger connects to the tree via seals, and to the tubing below via a screwed
thread. The tubing hanger usually has penetrations for control lines, down-hole gauge
lines and chemical injection lines. Below the hanger comes the tubing.
The tubing has to be designed to withstand high
pressure, and sometimes high temperature. The
production fluids are often corrosive and the
tubing is usually made out of corrosion-resistant
alloys such as stainless steel, especially for
critical and high-rate wells. The tubing, like
casing, comes in joints typically 30-40 ft. long and
is screwed together on the rig. Tubing Head

The tubing must be specified to provide the following capabilities:

(1) The inside diameter of the tubing must provide a produced fluid velocity to
minimise the total pressure loss (the tubing performance relationship).
(2) The tensile strength of the string (both tubing and coupling) must be high
enough to allow suspension of the complete string without tensile failure.
(3) The completion string must be able to withstand the maximum conceivable
internal (or burst) pressure.
(4) The completion string must be able to withstand the maximum conceivable
external differential pressures between the annulus and the tubing (the collapse
pressure).
(5) The tubing must be resistant to chemical corrosion which may arise because of
fluid contact in the wellbore, and might ultimately accelerate string failure by
one of the loads and stresses mentioned above (2)-(4).

CHOKE
The Choke is a device used to control the flow rate. In most
flowing wells, the oil production rate is altered by adjusting
the choke size. In some wells, chokes are installed in the
lower section of tubing strings. This choke arrangement
reduces wellhead pressure and enhances oil production rate
as a result of gas expansion in the tubing string. For gas
wells, use of down-hole chokes minimizes the gas hydrate problem in the well stream.
A major disadvantage of using down-hole chokes is that replacing a choke is costly.
SAFETY VALVES
A vital safety valve named subsurface safety valve (SSSV) is always installed on
tubing often around 100 ft. from surface. It prevents the uncontrolled release of
reservoir fluids in the event of a possible surface disaster. These valves are commonly
flapper valves which open downwards such that the flow of wellbore fluids tries to push
it shut, while pressure from the surface pushes
it open. When closed, it will isolate the reservoir
fluids from the surface. Most down-hole safety
valves are controlled hydraulically from the
surface, meaning they are opened using a
hydraulic connection linked directly to a well
control panel.
When hydraulic pressure is applied down a
control line, the hydraulic pressure forces a
sleeve within the valve to slide downwards. This
movement compresses a large spring and pushes the flapper downwards to open the
valve. When hydraulic pressure is removed, the spring pushes the sleeve back up and
causes the flapper to shut. In this way, it is failsafe and will isolate the wellbore in the
event of loss of the wellhead.

Another optional piece of equipment is a sliding side door (SSD) for the circulation
of fluids into and out of the tubing.

PACKER:
The tubing is anchored and sealed to the casing with a production packer. Sometimes
above the packer, an expansion device such as the polished bore receptacle is used
to allow for thermal expansion or contraction of the tubing. Below the packer, there is
usually a tailpipe with a nipple profile for the setting of plugs, temporary gauges or
down-hole chokes. Nipple profiles are also found inside the tubing hanger,
immediately above a safety valve. The nipple is a permanent part of the completion.
In addition to providing a seal between the tubing and casing, other functions of a
packer are as follows:
 To prevent down-hole movement of the tubing string
 To support some of the weight of the tubing
  To protect the annular casing from corrosion from produced fluids and high
pressures
 To provide a means of separation of multiple producing zones
 To hold well-servicing fluid (kill fluids and packer fluids) in the casing annulus.
Production packers can be set by inflation or swelling.
Inflatable packers are set hydraulically or mechanically with tension or compression.
The key components of an inflatable packer include slip, cone, packing element and
body or mandrel.
Inflatable packers can be further classified into retrievable type and permanent type.
Permanent packers cannot be retrieved from the well once set. A milling tool
is required to remove a permanent packer from a well. The tool destroys the packer’s
slips, then the packer can be retrieved to surface. The permanent packer is fairly
simple and generally offers higher performance in both temperature and pressure
ratings than the retrievable packer. It has very few components, therefore being less
costly than other packers.
The retrievable packer may or may not be reset, but removal from the wellbore
normally does not require milling. Retrieval is usually accomplished by some form of
tubing manipulation. This may require rotation or pulling tension on the tubing string.
Permanent packers can be set quickly and accurately by wire-line at a certain depth
After the packer is set, a production seal assembly and production tubing are run into
the well. Once they are run into the well, the tubing seals engage the packer’s internal
seals, tubing length is then adjusted at surface, and the completion is finished.
Swell packers are recent development in packer technology. They provide very
effective seal in both open and cased wells. They swell based on two types of
mechanisms: Water swelling and oil swelling. In the case of water swelling elastomers,
swelling process is based on the principle of osmosis. Water enters the rubber matrix
and swells the element until the equilibrium is achieved. Oil swelling elastomers swell
by the diffusion process. Rubber molecules absorb the hydrocarbon molecule, thus
causing elastomers to stretch. Unlike the inflatable packer, swelling packers
deployment time can take few hours to several weeks. Swelling packers gained market
share for simple handling and proven efficiency.
WIRELINE SERVICING OF COMPLETION ACCESSORIES
Wireline involves lowering a tool into the tubing to perform a specific function. The
majority of well completions with "dry" wellheads and deviation angles < 65º use
wireline techniques either to operate equipment in the well or eliminate the need to
pull the completion string and replace components which have failed. Typical wireline
applications are the: -
 Installation of completion equipment prior to running the production tubing e.g. a
packer and a tailpipe assembly.
 Installation or retrieval of equipment within the tubing string e.g. valves, pressure
gauges, etc.
 Operation of downhole equipment to either divert or shut off fluid flow. e.g. open a
sliding side door or install a bridge plug
 Removal of materials, which have built up in the tubing string, such as wax or
sand.
 Adjustment of the completion interval e.g. perforating.
Use of wireline will, in many cases, be a quicker, more economical alternative to
mobilising a drilling or workover rig to pull the tubing string to replace faulty equipment.
However, the wireline operator at the surface is physically very remote from the
downhole location where the tool must operate. This remoteness coupled with the
uncertainty of cable stretch (especially important in deviated wells) and the small scale
of the tools makes wireline a technique which requires highly skilled personnel to be
effective. However, incorporation of wireline operated equipment into the completion
string design provides an increased degree of flexibility in terms of well operations and
servicing capability. Electric line allows real time information and measurements to be
conveyed to the surface operator. This means that the equipment is much more
expensive and the operators must be highly trained. However, the resulting "scientific"
approach removes the "art" required by the operator of a conventional, slick, wireline
unit.
Wireline Surface Equipment mounted on Xmas Tree

The Wire
Conventional wireline, or “slick wireline”, utilises a single strand of wire. The wire is
normally made from high tensile steel so that the ratio of breaking strength (lbs) to wire
diameter (inches) is maximised. The minimum cable diameter is normally used to
reduce the weight of wire while still achieving the required breaking strength. The
wireline is normally wound onto a reel on a self-contained skid which has its own power
supply for drum rotation and measurement of cable length and tension.

Wireline Surface Equipment

Surface Monitoring Equipment
The important parameters that the wireline operator must be aware of at all times
during well operations are the tool string location (depth in the well) and the tension
on the cable. The length of cable in the well gives an approximate depth for the tool
string. It is measured by holding the cable without slippage against an odometer (a
wheel with a device that counts the number of rotations) as the tool string is lowered
into the well.
The cable tension is continuously monitored to ensure that the breaking strength of
the cable is not exceeded. The cable tension will:
 Reduce as the tool string is lowered through restriction in the tubing string due
to fluid pressure. Hence cable tension can occasionally give an approximate
indication of tool position.
 Increase as the tool string is lowered into the well due to the increasing weight
of the wire. Hence it will also decrease during recovery of the wire and tool
string.
 Increase (rapidly) if the tool string "hangs-up" or is "caught" by a downhole
restriction during recovery of the wireline.
 Conversely, during insertion of the tool string into the well, the tension will
reduce when it does not fall easily down the well due to increasing friction or a
downhole restriction.
The maximum well deviation angle for conventional wireline operates is 65º due to the
increasing friction of the wire and tool string against the tubing and production casing
or liner. Wireline servicing of such wells requires use of an electrically driven tractor
that pulls the tool string into the well. Tractors allow servicing of wells with deviation
angles greater than 90º; but they require substitution of the slick (solid) wire by a (more
expensive) electrical cable as well as hire of the tractor itself.