Contents

2 Complex Functions 2
2.1 Function, Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.1 Multiple Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.2 Graphing of complex functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Elementary complex functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.2 Rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.3 Exponential function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.4 Logarithmic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.5 Complex exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.6 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.7 Inverse Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.8 Hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.9 Inverse hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1
Chapter 2

Complex Functions

Note: These lecture notes aim to present a clear and crisp presentation of some topics in Complex
Analysis. Comments/suggestions are welcome on the e-mail: [email protected] to Dr. Suresh Kumar.
The main purpose of this chapter is to describe the class of elementary functions in complex system.

2.1 Function, Domain and Range

Let B be a subset of the set C of complex numbers. Then a function f from B to C, also written as
f : B → C, is a rule that assigns to each member z of S a complex number w in C. The complex number
w is called the value of f at z (or image of z under f ) and is denoted by f (z). So w = f (z). The set B
is called the domain of definition of f , and the set {f (z) : z ∈ S} is called the range of f .
The domain, here, should not be confused with the domain (open connected set) defined in the
previous chapter. Here, domain appears in analogy with the real functions, and simply stands for discrete
or continuous collection of points in the complex plane permissible for the given function. For a given
function, the set of all permissible points in the complex plane is called its natural domain. Any proper
subset of the natural domain is the restricted domain. We may define functions on restricted domains.
Of course, the domain of a function can be an open connected set. For example, f : {z : |z| < 1} → C
given by f (z) = z 2 + 5 is a function defined on the unit circular disc |z| < 1. Here |z| < 1 is the restricted
domain of f as its natural domain is C. Also, |z| < 1 is an open connected set.
Since z = x + iy, we can express the function f (z) = z 2 + 5 in terms of x and y as follows:
f (x + iy) = (x + iy)2 + 5 = x2 − y 2 + 5 + i(2xy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),
where u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 + 5 and v(x, y) = 2xy are respectively the real and imaginary parts of f (z). If we
choose the polar form z = reiθ , then u and v can be determined as functions of r and θ.
Also, note that a function of complex variable need not be complex valued. For example, f (z) =
|z| = x2 + y 2 with u(x, y) = x2 + y 2 and v(x, y) = 0, is a pure real valued function.
2

2.1.1 Multiple Valued Functions

Multiple valued functions, which assign more than one value to the domain points, do arise in complex
system as these appear in the real system1 . Such functions are studied by constructing single valued
functions in a systematic manner. For instance, the function w = z 1/2 assigns two values namely w =
√
± reiΘ/2 corresponding to each non-zero complex number z = reiΘ (−π < Θ ≤ π). The functions given
√ √
by f1 (z) = reiΘ/2 , f1 (0) = 0 and f2 (z) = − reiΘ/2 , f2 (0) = 0 are both single valued functions defined
in the entire complex plane.
1
√
The real function
√ given by x2 + 2
√y = 1 assigns two values namely y = ± 1 − x to each value of x ∈ [−1, 1]. The
2

functions y1 = 1 − x and y2 = − 1 − x are single valued functions. The graphs of these functions are respectively the
2 2

upper half and lower half arcs of the circle x2 + y 2 = 1

2
2.1.2 Graphing of complex functions
A real valued function y = f (x) of single real variable x involves two real variables x (domain points) and
y (range points). So the function y = f (x) can be visualised graphically by plotting its graph points (x, y)
in the two dimensional xy-plane. A complex valued function w = f (z) = f (x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), on
the other hand, involves four real variables namely x, y, u and v. Here, the two real variables x and y are
associated with the domain points z = (x, y) while the other two real variables u and v are associated with
the range points w = (u, v). So, plotting of the graph points (z, w) together requires four dimensional
space, which is practically not feasible. This issue is resolved by plotting the domain points and range
points of the function w = f (z) in two distinct planes, viz., the domain points z = (x, y) are plotted in
xy-plane or z-plane while the range points w = (u, v) are plotted in the uv-plane or w-plane. Thus, a
complex function is visualized by displaying its domain and range in two distinct planes. The complex
function maps or transforms the domain points in the z-plane to the range points in the w-plane. That
is why, we also call a complex function as mapping or transformation. Hereafter, we shall use function,
mapping or transformation interchangeably.

2.2 Elementary complex functions

In this section, we describe various elementary complex functions and their properties.

2.2.1 Polynomials
A function of the form

w = f (z) = c0 + c1 z + c2 z 2 + ........ + cn z n ,

where c0 , c1 , c2 , ......, cn (̸= 0) are complex constants, is called a polynomial of degree n. Domain of any
polynomial is C, graphically the entire z-plane. The constant polynomial w = c0 maps the the entire
z-plane to a single point c0 in the w-plane while the identity function w = z maps the entire z-plane to
the entire w-plane. In the following, we discuss some particular polynomial mappings in detail.

Translation
It is a polynomial mapping of the form

w =z+c

where c = a + ib is a complex constant. Under this mapping the translation takes place from z = (x, y)
to z + c = (x + a, y + b). For example, consider the mapping

w = z + (1 + 2i).

and a rectangular region given by Rz = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1} in the z-plane. Using w = u + iv

and z = x + iy into w = z + (1 + 2i), we get the transformation equations u = x + 1 and v = y + 2. In
view of these equations, we find that the lines x = 0 and x = 2 transform to u = 1 and u = 3 respectively.
Similarly, y = 0 and y = 1 transform to v = 2 and v = respectively. The given region Rz , therefore,
transforms to the region Rw = {(u, v) : 1 ≤ u ≤ 3, 2 ≤ v ≤ 3} in the w-plane as shown in Fig 1.1.

Rotation and magnification (contraction)

Consider a polynomial mapping of the form

w = cz

3
 y v

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 x 0 u
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

(a) (b)

Figure 2.1: The shaded region in the left panel (a) is the rectangular region given by Rz = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1},
which is transformed to the shaded rectangular region shown in the right panel (b) given by Rw = {(u, v) : 1 ≤ u ≤ 3, 2 ≤
v ≤ 3}. We see that under the mapping w = z + 1 + 2i, the image region Rw is translated by 1 unit along the horizontal
axis and 2 units along vertical axis with respect to the domain region Rz .

where c = r0 eiθ0 ̸= 0 is a constant. Also c = 1 corresponds to identity mapping. So we let c ̸= 1. Let

z = reiθ . So w = rr0 eθ+θ0 . If r0 > 1, then we see that modulus rr0 of the image point w is r0 times larger
(magnification) than the modulus r of the domain point z. In case r0 < 1, the modulus of w is smaller
(contraction) than the modulus of z. Further, the argument θ + θ0 of w differs by an angle θ0 from the
argument θ of z. Geometrically, θ0 is angle between the radii vectors of z and w. So, under the mapping
w = cz, the radius vector of the domain point z rotates by the angle θ0 .
For example, consider the mapping

w = (1 + i)z.

and a rectangular region given by Rz = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 3} in the z-plane. Using w = u + iv

and z = x + iy into w = (1 + i)z, the transformation equations are obtained as u = x − y and v = x + y,
or x = (u + v)/2 and y = (v − u)/2. So the lines x = 0, x = 2, y = 0 and y = 3 transform to the lines
u + v = 0, u + v = 4, v − u = 0 and v − u = 6 respectively. Therefore the given region Rz transforms
to the region
√ Rw = {(u, v) : 0 ≤ u + v ≤ 4, 0 ≤ v − u ≤ 6} in the w-plane√as shown in Fig 1.2. Since
1 + i = 2eiπ/4 , the image rectangular region Rw is magnified by a factor 2 and rotated by an angle
π/4 with respect the domain rectangular region Rz .
Note: A linear polynomial mapping w = cz + d, where c and d are complex constants, is a combination
of translation, rotation and magnification (contraction).

2.2.2 Rational functions

A mapping of the form
f (z)
w= ,
g(z)
where f (z) and g(z) ̸= 0 are polynomials, is known as rational function. Polynomials are indeed rational
functions with denominator g(z) = 1, a constant polynomial. Next, we discuss some particular rational
functions.

4
 y v

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

x u
-4 -2 0 2 -4 -2 0 2

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2: The shaded region in the left panel (a) is the rectangular region given by Rz = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 3},
√ (b) given by Rw = {(u, v) : 0 ≤ u + v ≤
which is transformed to the shaded rectangular region shown in the right panel
4, 0 ≤ v − u ≤ 6}. We see that the image region Rw is magnified by a factor 2 and rotated by an angle π/4 with respect
the domain region Rz .

Inversion and Reflection

Consider the rational mapping
1
w= , (z ̸= 0).
z

If z = reiθ , then w = 1r ei(−θ) . So |z||w| = 1. This shows that z and w are inverse points2 with respect to
the unit circle |z| = 1. Also, the argw = −θ = −argz. It tells us that the range point w is the reflection
of the domain point z in the real axis. Thus, under the mapping w = z1 , the domain point z exhibits
inversion and reflection. Indeed, z undergoes only reflection by the mapping w = z.

Bilinear transformation
It is a rational mapping of the form
az + b
w= ,
cz + d
where a, b, c and d are complex constants such that ad − bc ̸= 0. It is also known as linear fractional
transformation or Möbius transformation. This mapping can be rewritten as
a bc − ad 1
w= + ,
c c cz + d
provided c ̸= 0. Further, the condition ad − bc ̸= 0 ensures that it is not a constant mapping. Note
that the bilinear transformation possesses the features of rotation, magnification (contraction), inversion,
reflection and translation mappings. For, z undergoes rotation and magnification (contraction) by cz;
1 1
cz undergoes translation by cz + d; cz + d undergoes inversion and reflection by cz+d ; cz+d undergoes
bc−ad 1 bc−ad 1
rotation and magnification (contraction) by c cz+d and finally c cz+d undergoes translation by
a bc−ad 1
c + c cz+d .
2
Two points A and B are inverse points with respect to a circle x2 + y 2 = a2 of radius a and centre O at the origin (0, 0)
if both the points A and B lie on a ray starting from the origin O(0, 0) and OA.OB= a2 .

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2.2.3 Exponential function
Complex exponential function, denoted by ez or exp z, is defined as
ez = ex eiy ,
where z = x + iy. Obviously, |ez | = ex and arg(ez ) = y + 2kπ, where k is any integer. Also, the complex
exponential function ez reduces to the real exponential function ex for y = 0. Some properties of ez
different from ex are given below.
• ex is positive for all real values of x. However, ez can attain negative values. For instance, eiπ =
cos π + i sin π = −1.
• Since e2πi = 1, so ez+2πi = ez e2πi = ez . This shows that ez is a periodic function with imaginary
period 2πi. On the other hand, ex is not a periodic function.

2.2.4 Logarithmic function

The logarithm of a non-zero complex number z, denoted by log z is defined as the complex number w
such that ew = z. To determine w explicitly, let w = u + iv and z = reiΘ . Then we have
eu eiv = reiΘ .
It follows that
eu = r and v = Θ + 2kπ, where k is any integer.
Thus, the logarithm of z is given by
w = log z = ln r + i(Θ + 2kπ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, .......
Obviously, log z is a multiple valued function. The value of log z corresponding to k = 0 is called its
principal value, and is denoted by Logz, that is,
Log z = ln r + iΘ.
It is, of course, a well defined single valued function of z provided z ̸= 0. It reduces to the usual logarithm
of real numbers when z is a positive real number. Now, the multiple valued function log z can be rewritten
as
log z = Log z + 2kπi, k = 0, ±1, ±2, .......
Next, we have
elog z = eLog z e2kπi = eln r+iΘ .1 = eln r eiΘ = reiΘ = z.
On the other hand
log ez = log(ex eiy ) = ln ex + i(y + 2kπ) = x + iy + 2kπi = z + 2kπi.

2.2.5 Complex exponents

Let c be any complex number. Then the function z c , where z ̸= 0, is defined as
z c = ec log z .
Since log z is a multiple valued function, so is z c . For instance,
ii = ei log i = ei[ln 1+i(2kπ+π/2)] = e−(4k+1)π/2 , k = 0, ±1, ±2, .....
Following the definition of z c , we have
cz = ez log c ,
the exponential function with base c(̸= 0). It is indeed a multiple valued function. The usual interpretation
of ez occurs when the principal value of logarithm is taken into account. For the principal value, log e = 1.

6
2.2.6 Trigonometric functions
By Euler’s formula, we know that eix = cos x + i sin x and e−ix = cos x − i sin x. So the sine and cosine
functions of the real variable x can be written as
eix − e−ix eix + e−ix
sin x = , cos x = .
2i 2
In analogy, the sine and cosine functions of a complex variable z are defined as

eiz − e−iz eiz + e−iz

sin z = , cos z = .
2i 2
Clearly, these functions reduce to sin x and cos x in case z is restricted to the real number x. This fact
serves as a motivation for the above definitions of sin z and cos z. Next, we define the other elementary
trigonometric functions given by tan z = sin z/ cos z, cot z = cos z/ sin z, sec z = 1/ cos z and csc z =
1/ sin z, allowing the values of z for which the denominator of the function under consideration is non-
zero.
Let z, z1 and z2 be any complex numbers. Then the following identities can easily be established:

(1) sin(−z) = − sin z, cos(−z) = cos z

(2) sin(z1 + z2 ) + sin(z1 − z2 ) = 2 sin z1 cos z2

(3) sin(z1 + z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 + cos z1 sin z2

(4) cos(z1 + z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 − sin z1 sin z2

(5) sin2 z + cos2 z = 1, 1 + tan2 z = sec2 z, 1 + cot2 z = csc2 z

(6) sin 2z = 2 sin z cos z, cos 2z = cos2 z − sin2 z

(7) sin(z + π/2) = cos z, cos(z + π/2) = − sin z

(8) sin(iy) = i sinh y, cos(iy) = cosh y, where sinh y = (ey − e−y )/2 and cosh y = (ey + e−y )/2

(9) sin z = sin(x + iy) = sin x cos(iy) + cos x sin(iy) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y

(10) cos z = cos(x + iy) = cos x cos(iy) + sin x sin(iy) = cos x cosh y + i sin x sinh y

(11) sin(z + 2π) = sin z, cos(z + 2π) = cos z

(12) | sin z|2 = sin2 x + sinh2 y

For, | sin z|2 = sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x sinh2 y = sin2 x cosh2 y + (1 − sin2 x) sinh2 y = sin2 x(cosh2 y −
sinh2 y) + sinh2 y = sin2 x + sinh2 y

(13) | cos z|2 = cos2 x + sinh2 y

Note that the identities in (11) indicate that sin z and cos z are periodic functions with period 2π each.
The identities (12) and (13) tell us that sin z and cos z are unbounded functions in the complex plane
since sinh2 y → ∞ as y → ∞ and therefore | sin z| → ∞ as well as | cos z| → ∞ in the limit y → ∞. In
contrast, sin x and cos x are bounded functions in their domain of real numbers since −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and
−1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R.

7
2.2.7 Inverse Trigonometric functions
If z = sin w, then w defines inverse sine of z and is denoted by sin−1 z. So w = sin−z is the inverse sine
function. Now, the relation
eiw − e−iw
z = sin w = .
2i
yields the following quadratic equation in eiw .
(eiw )2 − 2iz(eiw ) − 1 = 0.
Solving for eiw , we get
eiw = iz + (1 − z 2 )1/2 or w = −i log[iz + (1 − z 2 )1/2 ].
Thus, we have
sin−1 z = −i log[iz + (1 − z 2 )1/2 ].
Note that (1 + z 2 )1/2 is a double valued function. Also, the logarithmic function is multiple valued
function. Consequently, sin−1 z is a multiple valued function.
In analogy to sin−1 z, we define inverse cosine and tangent functions denoted by cos−1 z and tan−1 z
from the relations w = cos z and w = tan z, respectively. Further, we can prove that the multiple valued
functions cos−1 z and tan−1 z are given by
cos−1 z = −i log[z + i(1 − z 2 )1/2 ].
i i+z
tan−1 z = log .
2 i−z

2.2.8 Hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic sine and cosine functions, denoted by sinh z and cosh z respectively, are defined as
ez − e−z ez + e−z
sinh z = , cosh z = .
2 2
These definitions are motivated by the fact that these functions reduce to their counterparts sinh x =
(ex − e−x )/2 and cosh x = (ex + e−x )/2 in real system when z is restricted to the real variable x. The
other elementary hyperbolic functions are defined as tanh z = sinh z/ cosh z, coth z = cosh z/ sinh z,
sech z = 1/ cosh z and csch z = 1/ sinh z, allowing the values of z for which the denominator of the
function under consideration is non-zero. Some useful identities related to the hyperbolic functions are
given below.
(1) sinh(−z) = − sinh z, cosh(−z) = cosh z
(2) cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1
(3) −i sinh(iz) = sin z, cosh(iz) = cos z, −i sin(iz) = sinh z, cos(iz) = cosh z
(4) sinh(z1 + z2 ) = sinh z1 cosh z2 + cosh z1 sinh z2
(5) cosh(z1 + z2 ) = cosh z1 cosh z2 + sinh z1 sinh z2
(6) sinh z = sinh(x + iy) = sinh x cosh(iy) + cosh x sinh(iy) = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
(7) cosh z = cosh(x + iy) = cosh x cosh(iy) + sinh x sinh(iy) = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
(8) | sinh z|2 = sinh2 x + sin2 y
(9) | cosh z|2 = sinh2 x + cos2 y

8
2.2.9 Inverse hyperbolic functions
If z = sinh w, then w defines inverse hyperbolic sine of z and is denoted by sinh−1 z. So w = sinh−1 z is
the inverse hyperbolic sine function. Now, the relation

ew − e−w
z = sinh w = .
2
yields

w = log[z + (z 2 + 1)1/2 ].

Thus, we have

sinh−1 z = log[z + (z 2 + 1)1/2 ].

Note that (1 + z 2 )1/2 is a double valued function. Also, the logarithmic function is multiple valued
function. Consequently, sinh−1 z is a multiple valued function.
In analogy to sinh−1 z, we define inverse hyperbolic cosine and tangent functions denoted by cosh−1 z
and tanh−1 z from the relations w = cosh z and w = tanh z, respectively. Further, we can prove that the
multiple valued functions cosh−1 z and tanh−1 z are given by

cosh−1 z = log[z + (z 2 − 1)1/2 ].

1 1+z
tanh−1 z = log .
2 1−z