The Reason of State

CAMBRIDGE TEXTS IN THE
HISTORY OF POLITICAL THOUGHT
BOTERO
The Reason of State
Niccolò Machiavelli’s seminal work, The Prince, argued that a ruler could
not govern morally and be successful. Giovanni Botero disputed this argu-
ment and proposed a system for the maintenance and expansion of a state
that remained moral in character. Founding an Antimachiavellian tradition
that aimed to refute Machiavelli in practice, Botero is an important figure in
early modern political thought, though he remains relatively unknown. His
most notable work, Della ragion di Stato, first popularized the term “reason
of state” and made a significant contribution to a major political debate of the
time – the perennial issue of the relationship between politics and morality –
and the book became a political “bestseller” in the late sixteenth and the sev-
enteenth centuries. This translation of the 1589 volume introduces Botero to
a wider Anglophone readership and extends this influential text to a modern
audience of students and scholars of political thought.
Robert Bireley, SJ, has frequently lectured on Machiavelli and the reac-
tion to him, and his The Counter-Reformation Prince: Anti-Machiavellianism
or Catholic Statecraft in Early Modern Europe (1990) identified a particu-
lar school of Antimachiavellian writers. Other books have dealt with early
modern Catholicism and the relationship between religion and politics in
the Thirty Years’ War. His biography, Ferdinand II, Counter-Reformation
Emperor, 1578–1637, appeared in 2014. He has been a fellow at the Insti-
tute for Advanced Study in Princeton and the National Humanities Cen-
ter in North Carolina, and has served as president of the American Catholic
Historical Association. He taught history at Loyola University Chicago for
forty-three years and is now retired.
General Editor
Quentin Skinner
Barber Beaumont Professor of the Humanities, School of History,
Queen Mary University of London
Editorial Board
M ichael Cook
Professor of Near Eastern Studies, Princeton University
Gabriel Paquette
Professor of History, The Johns Hopkins University
Andrew Sartori
Professor of History, New York University
Hilde De Weerdt
Professor of Chinese History, Leiden University
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BOTERO
The Reason of State

ROBERT BIRELEY
Loyola University Chicago
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doi: 10.1017/9781316493953

C Robert Bireley 2017
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Botero, Giovanni, 1540–1617. | Bireley, Robert, editor.
Title: The reason of state / Botero ; edited by Robert Bireley.
Other titles: Della ragion di stato. English. 2017
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge University
Press, 2017. | Series: Cambridge texts in the history of political thought | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: lccn 2017020177| isbn 9781107141827 (hardback) |
isbn 9781316506721 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Political science – Italy – Early works to 1800. | State, The –
Early works to 1800. | Reason of state – Early works to 1800.
Classification: lcc jc158 .b812 2017 | ddc 320.1 – dc23
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BOTERO
The Reason of State
General Editor
Quentin Skinner
Editorial Board
M ichael Cook
Gabriel Paquette
Andrew Sartori
Hilde De Weerdt

BOTERO
The Reason of State

ROBERT BIRELEY

www.cambridge.org
doi: 10.1017/9781316493953


isbn 978-1-107-14182-7 Hardback
BOTERO
The Reason of State
General Editor
Quentin Skinner
Editorial Board
M ichael Cook
Gabriel Paquette
Andrew Sartori
Hilde De Weerdt

BOTERO
The Reason of State

ROBERT BIRELEY

www.cambridge.org
doi: 10.1017/9781316493953


isbn 978-1-107-14182-7 Hardback
BOTERO
The Reason of State
General Editor
Quentin Skinner
Editorial Board
M ichael Cook
Gabriel Paquette
Andrew Sartori
Hilde De Weerdt

BOTERO
The Reason of State

ROBERT BIRELEY

www.cambridge.org
doi: 10.1017/9781316493953


isbn 978-1-107-14182-7 Hardback
Contents
Acknowledgements page xi
Further Reading xii
Abbreviations xiii
Introduction xiv
Dedication 1
Book One 4
1. What is Reason of State 4
2. Division of Dominions 5
3. Of Subjects 5
4. Of the Causes of the Ruin of States 6
5. Which is the Greater Work, to Expand or to Conserve
a State 7
6. Which States are More Lasting, the Large, the Small, or
the Middle-Sized 8
7. Whether United States or Dispersed Ones are More
Lasting 10
8. On the Ways to Conserve [a State] 13
9. How Great Must the Excellence of the Virtù of a
Prince Be 15
10. Of the Two Types of Excellence in the Virtù of a Prince 16
11. What are the Virtues that are Suited to Produce Love and
Reputation 17
v
Contents
12. Of Justice 18
13. Two Types of Royal Justice 19
14. Of the Justice of a King toward his Subjects 19
15. Of Justice between Subject and Subject 21
16. Of the Ministers of Justice 23
17. On the Retention of Magistrates in Office 26
18. Words of Caution regarding the Administration of Justice 28
19. On Liberality 30
20. On Freeing the Needy from Misery 30
21. The Promotion of Virtù 31
22. Words of Caution about Liberality 32
Book Two 34
1. Of Prudence 34
2. Of the Knowledge Suitable to Sharpen Prudence 34
3. Of History 36
4. Of the Knowledge of the Nature and Inclinations
of Subjects 38
5. Of the Location of a Country 38
6. Points about Prudence 41
7. Of Secrecy 47
8. Of Counsels 48
9. Of Not Introducing Novelties 50
10. Of Valor 51
11. Of the Ways to Preserve Reputation 52
12. Of those Princes who because of their Greatness or
Reputation have been Said to be Great or Wise 57
13. Of the Wise 60
14. Of the Virtues which Preserve the Aforementioned
Qualities 61
15. Of Religion 61
16. Of the Means to Propagate Religion 64
17. Of Temperance 67
Book Three 71
1. Of the Ways to Divert the People 71
2. Of Honorable and Great Enterprises 74
3. Of Enterprises of War 75
4. Whether it is Expedient for a Prince to Go to War
in Person 76
vi
Contents
Book Four 80
1. Of the Way to Avoid Rumblings and Rebellions 80
2. Of the Three Types of Persons who Make Up the City 80
3. Of the Great Ones 81
4. Of the Princes of the Blood 81
5. Of Feudal Barons 85
6. Of Those who are Great because of their Courage 86
7. Of the Poor 88
Book Five 92
1. Of Acquired Subjects, How they Ought to be Treated 92
2. Of Infidels and Heretics 96
3. Of the Refractory 97
4. How they Have to be Discouraged 98
5. Whether Letters Are or Are Not an Aid to Render Men
Brave under Arms 100
6. How to Weaken their Power 102
7. How to Weaken their Union 104
8. How to Take Away the Means of Uniting with Other
Peoples 107
Book Six 108
1. Of Security from Foreign Enemies 108
2. Of Fortresses 108
3. Of the Conditions of the Fortresses 109
4. Of Colonies 111
5. Of Garrisons 112
6. Of Keeping the Frontiers Deserted 113
7. Of Prevention 113
8. Of Maintaining Factions and Plots 115
9. Of Leagues with Neighbors 115
10. Of Eloquence 116
11. Of those Things that Have to be Done after the Enemy
has Entered the Country 117
12. Of Depriving the Enemy of Food Supply 117
13. Of Diversion 118
14. Of Agreement with Enemies 118
15. Of Seeking Protection and Submitting to Others 119
16. Of Standing Above the Fray while Neighbors are
at War 119
vii
Contents
Book Seven 121

1. Of Forces [Resources] 121
2. Is it Fitting for a Prince to Accumulate Treasure 122
3. That it is Necessary that the Prince have Treasure 124
4. Of Revenues 125
5. Of Loans 127
6. Of Aid from the Church 127
7. Of Extraordinary Income 128
8. Of Abstention from Inappropriate Expenses and from
Giving out of Vanity 129
9. How it is Necessary to Conserve the Surplus 129
10. Of People 130
11. Of a Numerous Population 130
Book Eight 134
1. Two Ways to Increase People and Resources 134
2. Of Agriculture 134
3. Of Industry 137
4. Of Matrimony and the Education of Children 140
5. Of Colonies 142
6. Of Ways to Grow Rich at the Expense of Others 143
7. Of the Means Taken by the Romans 143
8. Of the Purchase of States 145
9. Of Enlistment 146
10. Of States Taken as Pledges 147
11. Of Alliances of Kinship 147
12. Of Adoption 148
13. Of the Method Used by the Poles 148
14. Of Alliances 148
15. Of Commerce, and Whether it is Suitable for a King to
Engage in it 151
16. Of the Method Employed by the Sultans of Egypt and by
the Portuguese 151
17. Of the Method Used by the Chinese 152
18. Of the Method Used by the Turks 152
Book Nine 154
1. Of the Ways to Increase Resources 154
2. Whether a Prince Ought to Train his Own Subjects for
War or Not 154
viii
Contents
3. Of the Selection of Soldiers 159

4. Of Arms 161
5. Of the Ornaments of Arms 163
6. Of Order 164
7. Of the Justice of the Cause 166
8. Of Recourse to God 166
9. Of Keeping Soldiers Far from their Home 168
10. Of Discipline 169
11. Of Reward 172
12. Of Punishment 178
13. Of Emulation 180
14. Of the License Given to the Janissaries 180
15. Of Labor 181
16. Of Determination 182
17. Of Placing the Soldiers before the Necessity of Fighting 182
18. Of Binding Soldiers by Oath or Execration 184
19. Of Familiarity with the Enemy 186
20. Of Exploiting your Advantage 187
21. Of Forestalling the Enemy 187
22. Of Stratagems 188
23. Of the Particular Way that Caesar Increased the Spirit of
his Soldiers 188
Book Ten 190
1. Of the Captain 190
2. Of the Ways that the Captain can Make his Soldiers
Spirited 191
3. Of Good Fortune 191
4. Of Courage and Example 193
5. Of Cheerfulness 194
6. Of the Ways to Indicate Certainty of Victory 194
7. Of Caution 195
8. Of Alertness 195
9. Of Eloquence and Another Matter 197
10. Which is Greater, Sea Power or Land Power 197
11. Which is of Greater Importance, the Cavalry or the
Infantry 199
Appendix A Of the Means to Calm Troubles Once they
have Arisen 202
ix
Contents
Appendix B In the Accumulation of Wealth One Ought Not to

Continue ad Infinitum 208
Appendix C Against Whom the Prince Ought to Deploy his
Military Forces 212
Appendix D Of Reputation 216
Book One 216
1. What is Reputation 216
2. What is the Origin of Reputation 218
3. Of the Importance of Reputation 220
4. Grades and Types of Reputation 223
Index 225
x
Acknowledgements
I want to thank Professor Quentin Skinner and the other editors for
accepting my translation in the series Cambridge Texts in the His-
tory of Political Thought. I am also grateful to Professor Skinner,
Elizabeth Friend-Smith, Katherine Law, and Damian Love for seeing
this manuscript through the press.
Robert Bireley, SJ
xi
Further Reading
Baldini, A. Enzo, “L’Antimachiavélisme en Italie au début de la littérature de la
raison d’État,” in Alain Dierkens (ed.), L’Antimachiavélisme de la Renaissance
aux Lumières (Brussels, 1997).
“Aristotelismo e Platonismo nelle dispute romane,” in Baldini (ed.), Aris-
totelismo politico e ragion di stato: Atti del convegno internazionale di Torino
11–13 febbraio 1993 (Florence, 1995).
“Botero e la Francia,” in Baldini (ed.), Botero e la “ragion di stato”, 335–59.
(ed.), Botero e la “ragion di stato”: Atti del convegno in memoria di Luigi Firpo,
Torino 8–10 marzo 1990 (Florence, 1992).
Bireley, Robert, The Counter-Reformation Prince: Anti-Machiavellianism or
Catholic Statecraft in Early Modern Europe (Chapel Hill, NC, 1990).
“Scholasticism and Reason of State,” in A. Enzo Baldini (ed.), Aristotelismo
politico e ragion di stato: Atti del convegno internazionale di Torino 11–13 feb-
braio 1993 (Florence, 1995), 83–102.
Chabod, Federico, Giovanni Botero (Rome, 1934).
De Mattei, Rodolfo, Il problema della ragion di stato nell’età della Controriforma
(Milan and Naples, 1997).
Descendre, Romain, L’état du monde: Giovanni Botero entre raison d’État et
géopolitique (Geneva, 2009).
Firpo, Luigi, “Botero, Giovanni,” in Dizionario biografico degli Italiani, vol. xiii
(Rome, 1971), 352–62.
“Introduzione,” in Giovanni Botero, Della ragion di stato, ed. Firpo (Turin,
1948).
Meinecke, Friedrich, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of “raison d’État” and its Place
in Modern History, trans. Douglas Scott, introd. W. Stark (New York, 1965;
orig. 1924).
Senellart, Michel, Machiavélisme et raison d’État (Paris, 1989).
Skinner, Quentin, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 2 vols.
(Cambridge, 1978).
Viroli, Maurizio, From Politics to Reason of State: The Acquisition and Transforma-
tion of the Language of Politics (Cambridge, 1992).
xii
Abbreviations
BD De la raison d’État (1589–1598) par Giovanni Botero, trans.

and ed. Pierre Benedittini and Romain Descendre, with an
introduction by Romain Descendre (Paris, 2014)
RS The Reason of State, this edition
RS 1590 Della ragion di stato (Rome, 1590)
RS 1596 Della ragion di stato (Milan and Turin, 1596)
RS 1598 Della ragion di stato (Venice, 1598)
xiii
Introduction
“If a ruler who wants always to act honorably is surrounded by many

unscrupulous men his downfall is inevitable. Therefore, a ruler who
wishes to maintain his power must be prepared to act immorally when
this becomes necessary.” So Niccolò Machiavelli wrote in the fifteenth
chapter of The Prince in 1513. Writing in 1924, Friedrich Meinecke, a
historian of Machiavellianism, contended that “Machiavelli’s theory was
a sword which was plunged into the flank of the body politic of West-
ern humanity, causing it to shriek and rear up. This was bound to hap-
pen; for not only had genuine moral feeling been seriously wounded, but
death had also been threatened to the Christian views of all churches
and sects.”1 If by success was meant the creation and maintenance of a
powerful state, it was not possible for a prince or man of politics to be
successful who adhered to Christian or moral principles. This position
was not completely new; it had been asserted in the ancient world and
often enough reduced to practice. But Machiavelli’s The Prince and its
companion volume, Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy, now gradu-
ally circulated first in manuscript and then after the early 1530s in print.
His blatant assertion of the incompatibility of political success with tra-
ditional Christian morality raised the issue of the relationship of religion
and morality to politics to a new prominence in the sixteenth century, and
it has retained its relevance up to the present day. One need only think
of the negative connotation often attached, unfortunately, to the designa-
tion “politician” and to the widespread conception of politics as “dirty.”
1
Friedrich Meinecke, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of “raison d’État” and its Place in Modern
History, trans. Douglas Scott, introd. W. Stark (New York, 1965; orig. 1924), 49.
xiv
Introduction
Several writers criticized Machiavelli vigorously, including the Por-

tuguese bishop Jeronymo Osorio in his On Christian Nobility first pub-
lished at Lisbon in 1542, and both The Prince and the Discourses were
placed on the Index of Pope Paul IV in 1559. But the Italian priest Gio-
vanni Botero took a new approach in his Reason of State, first published in
1589. In his dedication of the volume to Wolfgang Theodore, the prince-
bishop of Salzburg, he first noted that in the course of travels in Italy and
France he had often heard people talking of “reason of state,” a term that
they associated with Machiavelli and with the Roman historian Tacitus.
Both authors showed little respect for conscience, and Botero wondered
at and disdained this “barbarous style of government that is so shame-
lessly opposed to the law of God to the point of saying that some things
are licit by reason of state and others by conscience.” Nothing could be
“more impious or irrational.” At first he was inclined to write another
critique of Machiavelli. But then he was persuaded that much more effec-
tive would be a book that laid out a program counter to Machiavelli, that
is, that showed how a prince could become great and successfully gov-
ern his people by using moral methods, indeed that he could do so more
efficiently. Members of the Roman curia, including the powerful Car-
dinal Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti, who reigned briefly as Pope Inno-
cent IX in 1591, may have encouraged him, as too may have Minuccio
Minucci, former papal emissary in Bavaria and now a papal advisor on
German affairs, who later recommended The Reason of State to Duke
Maximilian of Bavaria. So Botero published his Reason of State in 1589.
He co-opted the term “reason of state,” and used it in a positive sense.
The very first sentence in the original edition read “Reason of state is the
knowledge of the means suitable to found, preserve, and expand a domin-
ion.” His was a Catholic reason of state that pointed the way to a moral
politics.
The book became an immediate bestseller, the “book of the day” as
one historian has written.2 A contemporary writer explained its success:
“Botero is marvelous. He has so accommodated morality, justice, and
obligation with the advantage of the prince as to merit in this respect
immortal praise.”3 Fifteen Italian editions appeared before 1700, six
2
Rodolfo De Mattei, Il problema della “ragion di stato” nell’età della Contrariforma (Milan
and Naples, 1979), 65; see also among many others, André Stegman, L’héroisme cornélien:
Genèse et signification (Paris: 1968), vol. ii, 173–74.
3
Apollinare de’ Calderini, Discorsi sopra la ragion di stato del Signor Giovanni Botero (Milan,
1597), 64.
xv
Introduction
Spanish editions by 1606, a French edition in 1599, three Latin editions

between 1602 and 1666. The book was known at the court of the Wit-
telsbach Duke Maximilian of Bavaria probably by 1591, and at the Habs-
burg courts of Madrid and Graz in the early 1590s. Emperor Ferdinand
II later had two copies in his private library. The book was also read in
Protestant lands. The well-known German professor Hermann Conring
praised Botero’s christianization of Machiavelli in his introduction to his
Latin translation in 1666. Meanwhile, also in 1589, the Dutch humanist
Justus Lipsius published a similar treatise, Six Books on Politics, that also
aimed to lay out a program for a Christian reason of state. So the two of
them inaugurated an Antimachiavellian tradition that endured well into
the seventeenth century.
Botero was a child of the Italian Counter-Reformation. The Euro-
pean world had undergone convulsive changes between the appearance
of Machiavelli’s Prince in 1513 and the publication of The Reason of State
in 1589. The great European monarchies France, Spain, and England
had consolidated to a degree, and most of the smaller Italian and Ger-
man states had moved in the same direction. But France had erupted in
a religious, civil war in 1562 that would last until the end of the century,
and the Dutch rebellion against Spanish rule broke out in 1566. Spain
and Portugal had established their colonial empires in America and in
Asia, and this development was accompanied by commercial expansion
both in Europe and beyond. Urban populations grew rapidly. Rome’s
population numbered 55,000 in mid-century; by the end of the cen-
tury it had reached 100,000. The cultural ideals of the Renaissance,
with its fascination with the ancient world of Greece and Rome, per-
sisted and the arts flourished. Michelangelo died only in 1564. Above
all, there was the Reformation which, starting with Martin Luther’s
Ninety-Five Theses of 1517, divided Europe into Catholic and Protestant
areas, the latter divided further into various churches. The Calvinists had
now become the more militant branch of Protestantism. The Counter-
Reformation and Catholic Reform can best be understood as the attempt
of the Catholic church to adapt to this changing world. The Council of
Trent, which met on and off from 1545 to 1563, represented a milestone
in this process. The Antimachiavellians belonged to this effort at adap-
tation inasmuch as they sought to outline a Catholic, moral politics that
would result in the effective government of the evolving state.
Giovanni Botero was born at Bene Vagienna in Piedmont in 1544.
When he reached fifteen his parents sent him to study at the Jesuit college
xvi
Introduction
in Palermo in Sicily, where his Jesuit uncle taught. The following year he
transferred to the Roman College and soon entered the Jesuit novitiate in
Rome. He continued his studies at the Roman College, where the future
theologian and cardinal Robert Bellarmine was a classmate. He was then
sent to teach rhetoric and philosophy at several small Jesuit colleges in
Italy and France. For much of 1568 and 1569 he was assigned to Paris,
and this opened his eyes to what he later considered the greatest city in
Christendom. But the young Jesuit suffered from moodiness and poor
health, and he had trouble settling down in the Society even after he was
ordained to the priesthood in 1572. In 1580, quietly and honorably, he
left the Society.
At this low point in his life, Carlo Borromeo, the saintly archbishop
of Milan, picked him up. Borromeo assigned him to a parish and then
brought him to Milan in 1582 as his secretary. The two years that he
served in this capacity before Borromeo’s death in 1584 left a strong
impression on him, and he published an account of the saint’s death
and burial that circulated widely. Botero now became closely associated
with the ruling dynasty of Savoy. In 1583 he had dedicated a small vol-
ume, On Kingly Wisdom, to Duke Charles Emmanuel. The duke now
sent him on a mission to Paris, probably to make contact with the recon-
stituted Catholic League or possibly with Henry III. There he remained
from February to December of 1585, during the height of the Religious
Wars which he experienced at first hand. The duke of Anjou died shortly
before his arrival, and so the Huguenot Henry of Navarre now stood next
in line for the throne. The Huguenots, the Catholic League, and the party
of Henry III faced off against one another. While in Paris Botero estab-
lished a close bond with the Savoyard ambassador to the court of France,
René de Lucinge, lord of Allymes, who had made a brilliant career in
the service of the duke of Savoy. Lucinge exercised considerable influ-
ence on him, especially in the direction of political realism. Botero was
to draw many examples from a volume that Lucinge was then writing, Of
the Birth, Extent, and Fall of States,4 that would be published in 1588. It
was also at this time that Botero first read Jean Bodin’s Six Books of the
Republic, from which he would subsequently draw material, especially
on the economy. When he returned to Italy, Botero had learned about
the difficulties of politics in the real world.
4
René de Lucinge, De la naissance, durée et chute des estats, ed. Michael J. Heath (Geneva,
1984).
xvii
Introduction
Botero now accepted a position as tutor and councillor to the twenty-

two-year-old Federico Borromeo, cousin of Charles, and accompanied
him to Rome in 1586. Federico was made a cardinal in the following
year, and this facilitated Botero’s contact with high ecclesiastical circles.
It was a flourishing period in the history of papal Rome. Sixtus V was
about to initiate “a program of urban development without parallel in
any other European city.”5 Intellectual life was lively and characterized
by a “new humanism.”6 There Botero associated with the humanist Piero
Maffei, the philosopher Francesco Patrizi, and the Florentine political
writer Scipione Ammirato. On July 14, 1587 he was named a consultor
to the Congregation of the Index, of which Robert Bellarmine was a lead-
ing member. As a councillor to Borromeo, Botero took part in four papal
conclaves, three in the year of the three popes, 1590–91, and the fourth
that elected Clement VIII in 1592.
Botero’s years in Rome from 1586 to 1595 turned out to be the most
productive of his life. He returned from France prepared to write his
three main works: On the Causes of the Greatness and Magnificence of Cities
which appeared in 1588, The Reason of State in 1589, and The Universal
Relations, which appeared in four parts between 1591 and 1596. Subse-
quently, On the Causes of the Greatness and Magnificence of Cities was usu-
ally published with and was to a degree overshadowed by The Reason of
State.7 It is a small book of only sixty-six pages in the Firpo edition com-
pared to the 289 pages of The Reason of State. The volume represented
a pioneering look at the phenomenon of the European cities which had
been expanding since the late fifteenth century. Botero’s reputation as
the founder of demographic studies derives largely from this book. For
him the strength of a city or state was measured largely by the size of
its population, a theme on which he elaborated in The Reason of State.
He also speculated about the way that disease, famine, and war limit
the growth of population and the manner in which productive capac-
ity sets restrictions on the number of people in a region and forces them
5
Torgil Magnuson, Rome in the Age of Bernini, vol. i: From the Election of Sixtus V to the
Death of Urban VIII (Stockholm and Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1982), 16.
6
Alphonse Dupront, “D’un humanisme chrétien en Italie à la fin du XVIe siècle,” (1935) in
Dupront, Genèses des temps modernes: Rome, les réformes et le nouveau monde: Textes réunis et
présentés par Dominique Julia et Philippe Boutry (Paris, 2001), cited in Romain Descendre,
L’état du monde: Giovanni Botero entre raison d’État et géopolitique (Geneva, 2009), 35.
7
A new translation of Delle cause della grandezza e magnificenza delle città has recently
appeared: On the Causes of the Greatness and Magnificence of Cities, trans. and ed. Geof-
frey Symcox (Toronto, 2014).
xviii
Introduction
to relocate elsewhere. On the Causes of the Greatness and Magnificence of

Cities also revealed Botero’s interest in areas beyond Europe, especially
China. He shared with many of his contemporaries the utopian view of
the Chinese Empire, which provided order and prosperity for its popu-
lation of 60 million which far outstripped the most populous European
state, France with its roughly 15 million people.
The Universal Relations was a compendium of contemporary knowl-
edge about the known world rather than a creative effort like The Reason
of State.8 It may have originated as a response to a request from Bor-
romeo for a description of the state of Christianity worldwide. The vol-
umes represented a vast mine of information about the known world,
physical, geographical, anthropological, economic, political, and reli-
gious. Of particular importance was the attempt to accumulate positive
data, and the interest in numbers contributed to the development of an
early science of statistics. Botero surpassed Jean Bodin in his emphasis on
the influence of climate and geography on history. Many travel accounts
as well as reports from missionaries in the field available in Rome served
as his sources. The first edition of all the parts of The Universal Relations
was published at Bergamo in 1596, and the whole and various parts went
through over sixty editions and translations into Latin (1596), German
(1596), English (1601), Spanish (1603), and Polish (1609).
The Relations included many digressions on topics treated in The Rea-
son of State and modifications of Botero’s thought, generally in the direc-
tion of a greater unity of Christendom. He came explicitly to embrace
positions close to Robert Bellarmine’s on the Respublica Christiana, char-
acterized by indirect papal authority in temporal affairs. He acknowl-
edged a new preference for a great empire like the Spanish over the
medium-sized state he had favored in The Reason of State largely because
it better facilitated the conditions for the effective preaching of the
Gospel. Now he praised the Spanish expulsion of the Jews and Moors
in 1492, for which he saw God rewarding the Spaniards with the con-
quest of the New World. He had shown little enthusiasm for these mea-
sures in The Reason of State, where he considered them from an economic
perspective.
The Reason of State derived from three related traditions: the medieval
“mirror of princes” tradition, the Scholastic, and the Florentine. It
8
The first modern edition of The Universal Relations has just appeared: Le relazioni univer-
sali, ed. Blythe Alice Raviola, 2 vols. (Turin, 2015).
xix
Introduction
represented a modernized, updated version of the “mirror of princes”

inasmuch as it laid out a program of successful rule based loosely
on Christian moral virtues. Botero focused on the means to effective
princely rule. Only with the edition of 1596 was a definition of the state as
“a firm rule over people” inserted at the start of the first chapter, this in
response to criticism that he had not defined the state. He wrote primarily
from the perspective of the contemporary, medium-sized Italian states,
especially those that had initially grown out of an urban base like Tus-
cany, Venice, or the Papal States rather than those like his native Savoy
which had been princely territorial states from the start. This was nei-
ther a juridical work à la Bodin nor was it a work of political philosophy.
There was little attempt to define the state further, to discuss the origins
of the state, or to evaluate the circumstances that might justify rebellion.
Nor did Botero discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different
forms of government or the constitutional structure of the state.
Botero and other Antimachiavellian writers usually treated in a cur-
sory fashion these issues of political philosophy and the theological and
metaphysical arguments to the effect that Machiavelli was unchristian
and immoral. One exception was the usual support of princely abso-
lutism, which was a response to the civil conflicts of the time just as it
was for Bodin; Botero had experienced them personally in France. The
restraints he placed upon the ruler were moral not constitutional, though
he warned the prince of his need for popular support and so introduced
a democratic element. Yet Botero esteemed republics. Venice was fre-
quently noted in The Reason of State for its love of liberty. For his political
philosophy he generally assumed the position of contemporary Scholas-
tic authors who on a more theoretical level were involved in adapting the
church to the growth of the modern state. Among these, three of the most
prominent were the Dominican Francisco de Vitoria who taught at Sala-
manca from 1526 until his death in 1546, the Spaniard Francisco Suarez
who taught in Rome from 1580 until 1585 though he did not begin to
publish until later, and Robert Bellarmine who taught in Rome from 1576
until 1588 when he became consultant to the Roman curia and then a
cardinal. All three of them accepted the modern sovereign state along
with the indirect power of the papacy in temporal affairs which could be
invoked when a government took measures harmful to the salvation of
souls. They discussed the origin of the state, the role of consent within
the state, and the requirements for a just war. All in all, they attempted
xx
Introduction
to adapt the church to the changing times but on a level different from
Botero and the Antimachiavellians.
The Florentine political tradition served as another major source for
Botero. First of all in this regard comes Machiavelli himself. Though
writing against “the Florentine chancellor,” he took over many of his
ideas and much of his vocabulary. Botero argued from historical exam-
ples much as did Machiavelli and Bodin, and he frequently called to the
bar the ancient writers, especially the Romans but also the Greeks, as
Renaissance writers were wont to do. Despite his assignment of Taci-
tus to a place alongside Machiavelli – Botero was in fact the first writer
to link the two – he cited Tacitus seventy-three times, while Livy,
the next in line, has fifty-six citations.9 No Scholastics were cited, nor
were any other Renaissance historians except Polydore Vergil, who was
cited once. But these figures are deceptive. Botero used many exam-
ples, historical and contemporary, as we have seen, drawing upon the
many sources available to him in Rome, including Muslim and Byzantine
ones, without naming them, and these were balanced more or less evenly
between the ancient world and more recent history, that is, the Renais-
sance and the sixteenth century. He also frequently alluded to medieval
events.
Botero’s use of the term “reason of state” was much more positive and
more general than the usage of most of his contemporaries. For many
of them it meant, as he himself noted with a certain vagueness, “those
things which cannot be reduced to an ordinary or common reason.”10
This was the case with Scipione Ammirato, for example, where reason
of state indicated the necessity to bypass, for the sake of the common
good, common practice or positive law but not natural or divine law.11
Others, like the satirical republican Traiano Boccalini in his Reports from
Parnassus (1612), considered it “a law useful to states but in everything
contrary to the laws of God and of men.”12
Botero was interested in the conservation, then the expansion of the
state; he had scarcely anything to say about its foundation. Certainly in
the Discourses, Machiavelli’s chief concern had been the preservation of
the state in a hostile environment and against the ravages of time. Botero
9
This figure applies to RS 1598.
10
RS, 1.1 (p. 4), see note 2. Botero added this in RS 1596 in response to criticism.
11
Discorso sopra C. Tacito (Florence, 1594), book 12, chap. 1 (pp. 228–42).
12
Ragguagli di Parnaso, book 2, ragguaglio (report) 87, p. 290.
xxi
Introduction
nourished few illusions about the environment. In discussing prudence

he introduced the concept of princely interest (interesse) or advantage,
contrasting it with friendship, blood relationship, obligations to allies, or
any other bond. To the ruler he made it clear that “in the deliberations of
princes interest is that which overcomes every other consideration.”13 To
preserve a state was a greater achievement than to found one, precisely
because of the variability of things human. A ruler often gained power
by accident or force, he wrote, sounding like Machiavelli, “but the reten-
tion of what has been acquired was the fruit of an excellent virtù,” and
called for great wisdom. The Spartan custom of punishing those who
in the fight lost their shields not their swords showed their esteem for
preservation.14 His predilection for medium-sized states showed that for
Botero it was not a question of conquest and glory or mediocrity and
probable extinction, as Machiavelli seemed to argue in the Discourses.
Botero distinguished, formally, between maintenance and expansion; he
devoted the first six books of The Reason of State to maintenance and the
last four to expansion. The purpose behind his distinction was to show
that within a Christian, moral framework it was possible for a prince
to enlarge his medium-sized state and so to gather the resultant glory.
Botero forged a new concept of expansion that had much less to do with
military conquest than Machiavelli’s.
Botero’s understanding of virtue or virtù, reputation, and power, and
the relationship among them characterized his thought and that of other
Antimachiavellians, and it provides a key to the political culture of the
Counter-Reformation and the Baroque. The Spanish council of state
reminded Philip III in 1616 when war threatened in Italy that “religion
and reputation … are the two great matters which sustain states,” and
there could be no compromise on them.15 Reputation played a signifi-
cant role in the policy-making of Olivares and Richelieu, and réputation
and puissance turned up frequently in the cardinal’s Political Testament,
where prudence or raison frequently replaced the more general vertu.
Both Machiavelli and Botero featured the role of the ruler’s virtù; for
both, it constituted a congeries of qualities that enabled him to gain and
retain the support of his people. But Botero reunited Christian moral
virtue with the political skill of Machiavelli’s virtù.16 The ruler of virtù
13 14
RS, 2.6 (p. 41); see also 8.14 (p. 149). RS, 1.5 (p. 7).
15
Cited in Geoffrey Parker, Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648 (Glasgow, 1979), 156.
16
Machivelli also at times included moral virtue in his concept of virtù.
xxii
Introduction
was both virtuous and virtuoso. Virtù produced reputation, understood

as the support of the people, and reputation made up the basic element in
the ruler’s power, which then in turn augmented his reputation. Immoral
conduct as well as political ineptitude – the two nearly overlapped for
Botero – subverted his power by undermining his reputation. Potenza
for power did not figure nearly as much in Botero’s vocabulary as did
virtù or riputazione, but the reality was as central to his thinking as they
were.
Botero devoted most of Book One of The Reason of State to princely
virtù, including justice and liberality, and Book Two to its vital compo-
nents, prudence and valor, temperance and religion. Books Three to Six
then developed further techniques of government for dealing with par-
ticular classes or groups of people, including heretics, infidels, and for-
eigners. With Book Seven he began his discussion of the state’s expansion
that filled the last four books. It revolved around “the instruments of pru-
dence and valor,” or virtù, the tools of expansion. These came to be the
prince’s resources (forze), which he reduced to “people (gente), many and
of high quality, and money and food supplies and munitions and horses
and offensive and defensive arms”;17 they too were basic features of his
power and likewise a source of reputation.
A prince could not rule successfully for any length of time without the
support of his people. It consisted in their love (affezione) for him and
his reputation (riputazione or stima) among them. These were “the foun-
dation of every government of a state.”18 So Botero introduced a non-
juridical form of consent into government; he incorporated the demo-
cratic element in princely rule found in Machiavelli, and the role of
consent insisted on by Scholastic authors. Benefits and moderate virtù
could elicit the love of the people but only outstanding virtù displayed in
matters vital to the people could evoke reputation. These Botero summed
up as “abundance, peace, and justice,” terms which included much of the
traditional concept of the common good. People could not but be con-
tent “who without fear of foreign or civil war, who without fear of being
assassinated in their houses through violence or fraud, who have the nec-
essary food at a good price are not concerned about anything else.”19 The
17
RS, 7.1 (p. 121) Botero uses the term “forze” in two different ways: sometimes it des-
ignates military resources and sometimes resources more generally. The same is true of
“gente”: sometimes it designates soldiers and at other times people or population. The
meaning has to be drawn from the context. Here it would seem to mean soldiers.
18 19
RS, 3.1 (p. 71). Ibid.
xxiii
Introduction
prince who fulfilled his obligation to provide for the common good would
enjoy his people’s support. Good government was good politics because
it helped secure reputation.
Botero elaborated on his concept of reputation in the Additions to the
Reason of State (Aggiunte alla ragion di stato), which was first published
separately in 1598 and often with later editions of The Reason of State. He
did not directly address its role in a ruler’s foreign relations, yet the rep-
utation or support that he enjoyed among his subjects clearly influenced
his international standing. Reputation now amounted to a composite of
love and fear that his subjects felt toward him; it was similar to the rever-
ence that was engendered by a holy person. It designated awe and wonder
elicited by the ruler’s virtù, which “have the quality of the lofty and the
admirable and elevate the prince above the earth and carry him beyond
the number of common men.”20 An element of mystery enshrouded the
prince which his subjects could not fathom.
Which was more important in reputation, Botero now asked, love or
fear? Siding with Machiavelli and in opposition to the tradition of the
“mirror of princes” tradition, with a certain sadness, he came down on
the side of fear. Given the world as it was, no government was more
unstable than one based on love. To satisfy all his subjects and unite
thousands in love of himself was a nearly impossible task for a prince.
Subjects murmured and longed for change. The subjection that followed
from fear was necessary. Moreover, it lay within his power for a prince to
create fear in his subjects, whereas to elicit love often exceeded his pow-
ers. But fear was a far cry from hatred, Botero warned, as had Machiavelli
and Aristotle long before him. Hatred as well as contempt quickly under-
mined government and had to be avoided at all costs.
Reputation had to be based on genuine virtue. Here his response to
Machiavelli led him into the favorite Baroque topic of the relationship
between appearance and reality. Feigned virtue would not long convince.
A prince simply could not counterfeit piety over a long period as Machi-
avelli recommended. Botero distinguished three types of reputation: nat-
ural, which actually corresponded to the virtù of the prince; artificial,
which resulted from conscious exaggeration of his virtù; and adventi-
tious, which exaggerated the prince’s reputation but was not caused by
a conscious attempt to do so. Neither of the second two would last, and
they could lead to trouble. The Venetians had executed the condottiere
20
Additions, Appendix D, 4 (pp. 223–24).
xxiv
Introduction
Carmagnola because he failed to win a battle that his reputation led them
to think that he should have won.
But a prince could and should polish his image. It was a fault if his rep-
utation fell short of what he deserved. A ruler might improve his stand-
ing by, for example, hiding his weaknesses or assigning unpopular duties
to others. A prince’s image was similar to a painting. Just as a painter
might exceed the limits of truth so long as he remained within those of
verisimilitude, so might the prince in fostering his image, wrote Botero,
drawing on contemporary art theory. But a reputation that endured had
to be rooted in reality; appearance was never enough.21
The prince gained the love of his subjects especially by justice and lib-
erality, the virtues “which are totally aimed to benefit [others].”22 Botero
discussed two forms of justice distinguished by Aristotle and usually
treated by the Scholastics: distributive, which dealt with the fair distri-
bution of honors and burdens in the state, and commutative, which pro-
tected the subjects from violence and fraud at the hands of one another.
They had to be present in those areas where the hand of government
most touched the lives of subjects, in the collection of taxes and the
administration of justice where the people desired above all fairness and
speed. Botero criticized the sale of offices: “this is nothing other than
to promote avarice rather than justice to tribunals,” he wrote.23 The
prince should pay judges well and prohibit them from accepting any gifts.
Botero praised the way the Chinese prepared their officials, and he lauded
the system of spies used by Cosimo de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany,
to check on his judges.
Liberality aimed at two goals, relief for the poor and patronage of the
arts. No work was more praised in Scripture than assistance of the unfor-
tunate, nor was there “anything more suited to and effective to win over
the minds of the populace and to bind them to their lord.”24 The good
and the useful were in harmony. The prince should demonstrate his con-
cern especially at times of natural disasters such as earthquakes. Here
Botero added the Machiavellian advice that at the time of such calami-
ties the ruler ought not permit any private person to become too promi-
nent in the aid effort since this easily led to a popularity with the people
that might prove threatening to the government. So the Gracchi brothers
had created a party in ancient Rome. Secondly, the ruler should exercise
21 22
Ibid., 4 (p. 223). RS, 1.11 (p. 17).
23 24
RS, 1.16 (p. 23). RS, 1.20 (p. 30).
xxv
Introduction
liberality by fostering the virtù of subjects, that is, their literary and artis-
tic abilities. The ruler ought to patronize the arts and sciences, as many
contemporary princes did, thus attaching prominent personalities to the
state. Nor did Botero fail to add the admonition that the prince should
not be so liberal with his gifts that he notably increased the tax burden
on the population, and so provoked discontent, a point also made by
Machiavelli.
Prudence and valor made up the leading components of virtù; they
were the source of reputation, “the two pillars on which every govern-
ment ought to rest,”25 he wrote at the start of Book Two. Prudence was
of the eye, corresponding to Machiavelli’s fox, valor of the hand, cor-
responding to Machiavelli’s lion. The overwhelming amount of space
given to prudence in The Reason of State indicated that the eye was more
important than the hand, and prudence soon became for the Antimachi-
avellians the cardinal virtue of the ruler or politician, combining moral
virtue with political skill as it had long done in the Aristotelian and
Thomistic traditions. Prudence was acquired above all by experience. A
major part of a prince’s or statesman’s education was the study of history,
for Botero as for Machiavelli. It was “the most vast theater that one can
imagine.”26 Botero then turned to an idea that he took from Bodin which
he elaborated much more fully in The Universal Relations. Peoples were
different. Geography and climate greatly affected their character. Those
who inhabited mountainous areas, for example, tended to be fierce and
wild, those who dwelt in valleys tended to be soft and even effeminate.
The ruler had to acquire an understanding of his own and other peoples.
So Botero began to think in terms of an individualized reason of state or
means to construct and maintain a state, adapted to the population and
situation of particular states. Thus he helped to prepare the way for fur-
ther thinking about reason of state in terms of the interests of particular
states.
Under prudence Botero then listed a number of precepts or maxims,
“headings of prudence (capi di prudenza),” that are impossible to sum-
marize but were of great importance for his political outlook. Many have
a Machiavellian ring and reveal a pessimistic vision of the world but they
never recommend clearly immoral actions. Reference has already been
made to the first of them, that interest always prevailed in the deliber-
ations of princes. The prince should never trust anyone whom he had
25 26
RS, 2.1 (p. 34). RS, 2.3 (p. 37).
xxvi
Introduction
offended or who felt himself to have been offended by him. The desire
for revenge remained latent and came to the surface when opportunity
beckoned. Botero urged princes not to go to war with powerful republics
unless victory was certain. “The love of liberty is so powerful and has
such roots in those who have enjoyed it for a while that to conquer it
and to extirpate it is nearly impossible, and the enterprises and counsels
of princes die with them but the designs and deliberations of free cities
are as it were immortal,”27 he wrote, sounding much like the republican
Machiavelli.
For Botero as for Machiavelli a sense of timing was fundamental in
politics. Philip II of Spain exemplified the prudent ruler who refused
to yield to the whim of chance or fortune. A prince had to know when
to act. “Nothing is of greater importance than a certain period of time
which is called opportunity (opportunità); it is nothing other than a com-
bination of circumstances that facilitates an endeavour that before or after
that point would be difficult.”28 As for Machiavelli, a ruler had to know
when to take advantage of the occasion (occasione), a term used else-
where by Botero in a similar context and divorced from any connection
with fortune. Botero warned also about sudden change, “because such
actions have something of the violent, and violence rarely succeeds and
never produces a lasting effect.”29 Especially at the start of his reign,
a prince ought to be slow to make changes. When they are necessary,
they ought to be made after the example of nature, which does not move
directly between summer and winter but passes through the intermedi-
ate phases of fall and spring. Charles Martel had demonstrated how to
do this by the way he prepared his son to succeed to the Carolingian
throne.
Fidelity to treaties and agreements belonged to prudence and was an
essential element in a ruler’s reputation. His outstanding example of this
was Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma, governor of the Netherlands, and
commander of Philip II’s army there from 1578 to 1592, who successfully
tamed the Dutch rebels and who seemed to serve, consciously or uncon-
sciously, as Botero’s counterpart to Cesare Borgia. A ruler ought not to
make promises that he could not keep; this also undermined confidence.
Elsewhere Botero insisted that a ruler had to remain faithful to the terms
on which another people had submitted to him. Any other way of pro-
ceeding would stir fears and cause trouble. It was counterproductive to
27 28 29
RS, 2.6 (p. 44). RS, 2.6 (p. 45). RS, 2.6 (p. 43).
xxvii
Introduction
build on any other basis than truth and fidelity to one’s word. But Botero
failed to supply any guidance regarding when newly perceived interests
might allow a ruler to abandon an agreement. The Scholastics had shown
flexibility in this regard.
Botero devoted much less space to valor or valore, the second source of
reputation. He sometimes used the term valore nearly as a synonym for
virtù, blurring the line between prudence and valor. More narrowly, valor
meant boldness or ardire. Together with prudence it brought forth “mar-
velous deeds.”30 Their common achievement was that they won subjects’
attention and harnessed their energies either by exciting their wonder
and awe at the prince’s undertakings or by keeping them occupied and
so preventing them from causing trouble. A prince ought never to risk a
venture that was not certain to result in success with honor nor undertake
projects of little importance that were unlikely to magnify his reputation.
Something “lofty and heroic” ought to characterize all his deeds.31 Two
types of deed were the military and the civil, with the former of greater
importance. The civil comprised building projects of grand scale or mar-
velous utility, like the aqueducts, bridges, and roads of the Romans or
the Propylaeum of Pericles in Athens. So Botero appeared to endorse the
construction projects of Sixtus V in Rome. One was the completion of
the aqueduct still called Acque Felice that channeled water to Rome from
20 kilometers east of the city, and another a new configuration of the
city’s streets.
Gradually, then, Botero’s perspective shifted from the magnificence
of the projects themselves to their ability to keep the people occupied; by
people he now meant principally the growing urban population and espe-
cially the urban poor who were by nature unstable and eager for change.
He envisaged the capital cities, first Rome, then Paris, Madrid, and others
where a restive population had to be controlled. Pope Sixtus’s building
program provided work for many in Rome. In one passage Botero showed
an uncharacteristic support for war. He seemed to endorse Machiavelli’s
traditional view that foreign war was useful to maintain peace at home,
and he explained the domestic peace enjoyed by Spaniards and Turks
partly by their engagement in foreign wars. For Christians there were
always the Turks, the traditional enemy against whom they could always
make war legitimately, as he was later to elaborate at the end of The Rea-
son of State. Botero considered the popular entertainments provided by
30 31
RS, 2.10 (p. 51). RS, 2.11 (p. 56).
xxviii
Introduction
the Medici in Florence suitable to distract the people. They should edu-
cate as well as entertain. Botero was highly critical of the contemporary
theatre, but he praised the ecclesiastical pageants staged by Carlo Bor-
romeo in Milan. “In short, it is necessary to do this in such a way that the
people have some occupation, pleasurable or useful, at home or abroad,
that engages them and so keeps them from impertinent actions and evil
thoughts.”32
Botero subsequently divided the population into three groups: the
nobles or the wealthy (grandi, opulenti), the middling sort (mezani), and
the poor (poveri, miseri). He quickly dismissed the middling sort as a
peaceful lot who posed no threat and turned to the other two who did. We
have already seen recommendations for handling the urban poor. At this
point he anticipated his program for economic development by show-
ing that the poor needed to be provided opportunities in agriculture and
in the crafts so that they would have a stake in the state. Among the
nobles three groups could be dangerous: princes of the blood, great feu-
dal lords, and those who stood out by their valor. Botero was concerned
about the threat to the prince from the overmighty subject, a threat that
the wars in France had led him to realize. The prince ought not to create
offices with excessive authority and should suppress existing ones like
the Great Constable of France. Rulers should avoid granting offices in
perpetuity like the governorships in France, so that incumbents could be
removed. There should be a clear distinction between members of the
king’s council who possessed no jurisdiction and officers with jurisdic-
tion such as governors, generals, and captains of major fortresses. Fer-
dinand the Catholic, Botero remarked, never appointed the general who
conquered a province to be its governor.
The last pair of virtues that constituted virtù was temperance and reli-
gion, upholding the others and so preserving the state. They were needed
in the people as well as in the prince. Religion was the mother of virtues,
temperance the wet-nurse. For Botero religion was valuable because of
the divine aid that it won for the state and for the virtues that it fos-
tered in the subjects, especially obedience. Like Machiavelli, he played
up the importance attached to religion by the Romans, who undertook
no campaign without first consulting the augurs and seeking the favour
of the gods. Like the Carolingians and the Capetians before them, the
32
RS, 3.3. This citation does not appear in the 1589 edition; it was added in RS 1596; see
the Firpo edition of 1948, p. 153.
xxix
Introduction
Habsburgs owed their prominence to their piety. Botero recounted a tale

already a part of Habsburg lore. Back in the thirteenth century, Count
Rudolf of Habsburg assisted a priest bringing Viaticum to a peasant in the
midst of a violent storm. The house’s subsequent good fortune resulted
from the blessing of the grateful priest. God rewarded princely piety.
“Religion is of such power for government that without it every other
foundation of the state wobbles,” Botero declared as he turned to the
subjects.33 The ruler must foster their piety. Religion was useful to the
prince in many ways. It inspired courage in battle, civic responsibility,
and a spirit of obedience. According to Christian teaching, all author-
ity came from God. Christians were bound in conscience to obey even
unworthy rulers except in the case when a command clearly contravened
the law of God, and even then, Botero continued – coming as close to a
discussion of the right of resistance as he ever did – a clear break with
the ruler ought to be the last resort. Under the Roman persecutions
Christians had demonstrated patience and long-suffering. At present,
Botero contended, Catholics endured patiently their trials in France, the
Netherlands, England, and Scotland, whereas the Protestants inclined
to rebellion; he overlooked the role of the Catholic League in France.
Christianity and specifically Catholicism served as a bulwark of the state
despite Machiavelli’s charges to the contrary.
His apparent opposition to the growing interference of rulers in eccle-
siastical affairs did not keep Botero from conceding to the prince a major
role in church matters. His assignment to the prince of responsibili-
ties for religion opened the door for an expansion of the state’s activity
that was typical of the Counter-Reformation as well as the Reformation.
Indeed, the growing role of government was as important to the develop-
ment of the state as was a standing army or a nascent bureaucracy. Botero
proposed a program of reform and Counter-Reformation. The prince
should provide an example to his people by genuinely and intelligently
practising his faith, avoiding pretence and superstition. He should make
sure that the people were provided with qualified pastors and preachers,
that suitable churches were available, and that the material needs of the
clergy were cared for.
Botero was wary of excessive wealth, as the republican Machiavelli had
been, who had seen it as weakening civic loyalty. In the name of tem-
perance Botero advocated luxury taxes and sumptuary laws regulating
33
RS, 2.16 (p. 64).
xxx
Introduction
expenditures on food and clothing, not to encourage a Christian simplic-

ity of life nor to express social distinctions as was frequently the case with
contemporaries, but to ward off dangers to the state. Temperance pre-
vented the people from falling into indulgence, luxury, and ostentation,
all of which blinded the mind, undermined resolve, and led to public and
private ruin. Such had been the case in ancient Rome where luxury and
softness enabled the tyranny of a Tiberius and a Caligula. Overrun as
it was with the delicacies of the East, Portugal was headed in the same
direction. Botero placed much of the blame on women. “The ladies are
much more apt to corrupt men than men are to restrain the ladies; few
husbands are masters of their wives.” All the great empires have been
ruined because of two vices, luxury and avarice, “and avarice is born of
luxury, and luxury of women.”34 Besides this, as a mercantilist Botero
was aware of the loss of money to the state as a result of the purchase of
imported jewels, perfumes, finery, and other luxury goods.
Books Three to Five discussed techniques of government and the way
to deal with particular classes of people. Here he dealt with religious dis-
sidents, who had become an acute problem following the Reformation.
For Botero as well as for many of his contemporaries, religious differ-
ences were the principal cause of division within states, and religious
unity was essential to a state’s power. Botero treated policy toward dissi-
dents not under religion but under the means to reconcile newly acquired
subjects to the rule of a prince; it was less a religious than a political
matter. The ideal was their conversion, and Botero recommended many
ways to bring this about. The first requirement was good missionaries,
men of solid doctrine and exemplary life. Education helped to win over
the parents as well as the children, and Botero praised the Jesuit schools
in Germany, India, and the New World. One could legitimately bring
pressure to bear on unbelievers as well as heretics by the concession or
denial of privileges like tax exemptions. Charity and almsgiving were also
effective.
But what about the irreconcilables who resisted all efforts at conver-
sion? These were for Botero the Muslims among the unbelievers and the
Calvinists among the heretics. The Calvinists stirred up constant unrest
and were responsible, according to a passage that he later deleted, for
the war in France, the rebellion in the Netherlands, and the overthrow
of Mary Stuart in Scotland. The prince had to resort to stern measures
34
RS, 2.17 (p. 70).
xxxi
Introduction
when it became clear that they would not convert and intended to oppose
the new arrangements. But it should be noted that the governmental
measures that he proposed were not aimed directly at conversion but
at the prevention of rebellion. Botero first suggested ways to undermine
the spirit of recalcitrants, for example by denying them the use of the
horse, as the Turks did the Christians, or by requiring them to wear dis-
tinctive dress. Secondly, the prince was to close off their sources of men
and money. Then he should prohibit them from bearing arms and hold-
ing fortified places, and assess special taxes. The Turks seized Christian
youths to serve in the Janissaries; Christian rulers might have to do the
same. Lastly, one should sow dissension among dissidents, sever their
contacts with foreigners, keep out preachers and subversive publications,
and in extreme cases one might have to relocate populations as the Assyr-
ians did with the Jews. Significantly, Botero did not cite as an example in
this context the expulsions of the Jews and Moors from Spain.
But, inevitably, troubles would break out. Once he took up the topic of
actual rebellion, Botero approached the position of Bodin and the French
politiques and showed an aversion to civil war that he undoubtedly owed
to his experience in France. If rebellion could be quickly suppressed by
force, this should be done, the more quietly the better. The part of pru-
dence was to know when to take a hard line and when to yield. Botero
made several suggestions about how to manage a mob. One was simply
to dissimulate, that is, to pretend not to notice a provocation; another
was to let the mob exhaust its energy for lack of leadership. But if it
appeared that this and other measures would not work, it was usually
better to yield in part or in full before actual hostilities began. In this way
the prince retained the affection of his subjects if not his reputation, and
even his reputation if he could make it appear that he was freely making
concessions. Once civil war broke out, it was unusually difficult to end it
without compromises, he wrote, again with the French experience prob-
ably in mind. Better to make concessions at the start, Botero seemed to
imply. He was not prepared to wage a war for the suppression of heresy.
The sum of wisdom was to resist beginnings. Trouble could usually be
foreseen well ahead of time; it rarely started with a full-scale rebellion.
The chief topics of Book Six were security and foreign policy. Here
Botero argued that the methods for expanding the state were fundamen-
tally the same as for preserving it. The distinction between preserving
a state and expanding it was a nominal one. Botero made it, it seems,
to show that the Christian ruler of a mid-sized state could enlarge his
xxxii
Introduction
state without resorting to territorial conquest. He did this with eco-

nomic development and military preparedness. The prince’s resources
were reduced basically to men and money. Men were more important
than money, as they were for Machiavelli. But whereas for Machiavelli
men were essentially soldiers, for Botero they extended to the whole pop-
ulation. This population was the most fundamental resource of a state
because it produced the state’s wealth, which in turn was the source of
the prince’s treasure. This treasure Botero understood to be ready funds
in the form of precious metals. Reputation required treasure, Botero
wrote, indicating his awareness of the change of thinking since the time
of Machiavelli; “the power (potenza) of states is assessed today no less
from the supply of money than from the size of the territory.”35 Botero
cited the familiar dictum that Machiavelli had rejected, “money is the
sinews of empire.”36
How much treasure ought a prince to accumulate? This was a thorny
question, and the answer varied from state to state. Obviously, the
amount of treasure needed was greater in time of war than peace. One
reason to avoid war was to prevent overtaxing the economic resources
of a state. For peacetime a general rule was that the prince never draw
into his treasury more than the amount by which the inflow of treasure
into the country surpassed the outflow. A balance of payments was neces-
sary. To draw in more than this was to hinder the availability of funds for
the normal course and growth of agriculture, commerce, and industry. A
limitation of Botero’s economics was that he failed to take into account
currency fluctuations as Bodin had done, and that he prohibited inter-
est or usury, which he saw as taking money out of circulation just as the
ruler’s treasure did, and as against church directives.
How was the prince to raise revenue? There were patrimonial lands as
well as levies on imports and exports and other, extraordinary sources of
revenue. Botero was one of the first political writers to declare that reg-
ular taxes should provide an ordinary source of revenue. They should be
levied on property, not persons, in order to avoid burdening the poor.
And in light of the rebellion in the Netherlands fomented in part by
Philip II’s attempt to tax movable property, Botero proposed taxes only
on land. Should it be necessary to tax movable goods, this should be
35
RS, 7.3 (p. 124, note 10).
36
RS, 7.3. This citation from Dio Cassius, Roman History, 66.2 was only added in later
editions; see Della ragion di stato, ed. Luigi Firpo (Turin, 1948), 225.
xxxiii
Introduction
carried out as it was in the German cities where the citizens assessed
the value of their own property.
Even more important than treasure was a large population; it was
both the cause and the result of the state’s wealth. The ruler should
actively encourage agriculture and industry. Agriculture was the basis
for all demographic growth; first one had to feed the people. The prince
should encourage the development of the “infrastructure,” for exam-
ple with irrigation and drainage projects as the Romans had done. But
industry was still more vital than agriculture. It supported more peo-
ple – according to Botero two-thirds of the Italian cities lived by the silk
and wool industries – and produced more wealth. Botero marveled at
the ability and ingenuity of human beings. Look what they did with the
excrement of worms. Neither Italy, nor the Netherlands, nor France pos-
sessed extensive natural resources, yet they were the wealthiest areas of
Europe. Foreign trade also enriched a state. In The Reason of State Botero
said little about it, but in On the Causes of the Greatness and Magnificence
of Cities in a lyrical passage he praised God who had created the vari-
ous peoples dependent on one another for various goods in order to lead
them to mutual love and union.
In his discussion of military power Botero took up many of the topics
raised by Machiavelli. When writing of discipline, he stressed the need
for rewards and punishments. His vision of human nature led him to see
punishments as more important than rewards. In war if the prince did
not reward, he would not be loved; if he did not punish, he would not
be obeyed, and nothing was worse than that. Like Machiavelli, he con-
tended that soldiers fought best under necessity (necessità) which height-
ened valor and virtù. Botero agreed with Machiavelli that a ruler ought
to draw his soldiers from his own subjects because this promoted his
independence, but he had nothing against the use of foreigners in a sec-
ondary capacity. Subsequently, and somewhat inconsistently, he noted
that recent experience had shown that the most effective armies of the
day were multinational ones because the different nations strove to have
the honor of the victory. So he set aside Machiavelli’s view that similarity
of language and culture was necessary for the unity and esprit of any army
and recognized what one observer had called the Noah’s ark of contem-
porary armies, perhaps with a view to Parma’s army in the Netherlands.
A general had to convince his troops that they were fighting in a just
cause; this greatly added to their effectiveness. Botero did not address
directly Machiavelli’s criticism of Christian soldiers, but he certainly had
xxxiv
Introduction
it in mind when he stated that hope in eternal life undoubtedly stimu-

lated their courage.
The final chapter of The Reason of State, entitled “Against Whom the
Prince Ought to Deploy his Military Forces,” was added to the edition
of 1590.37 Here just war theory shone through. “If a defensive war is
just and an offensive [that is, aggressive] war is just only insofar as it is
defensive in nature, then there is no case in which it is licit to take the
offensive except to defend [the state]. How therefore will I – someone
might say – expand my state?” Botero had already shown how a prince
might enlarge his state by promotion of the economy. Now he wanted
to point out that an opportunity was always at hand to make war for the
public good if a ruler was intent on securing military glory. This was to
make war on the Turks, who had long occupied Christian lands in south-
eastern Europe. Here Botero’s sense of Christendom came to the fore; it
anticipated the more universal outlook of The Universal Relations. War
with the heretics was still a civil war within Christendom. He shared the
concern about the real Turkish threat and the enthusiasm for a crusade
that had not died out at Lepanto. The empire’s forces would accept the
challenge in 1593 and continue in the field until 1606. Botero accordingly
concluded The Reason of State with a summons to a campaign against the
Turks; it paralleled Machiavelli’s call in the last chapter of The Prince to a
war to drive the foreigners out of Italy. Machiavelli was an Italian patriot,
Botero a European one. Surely divine support and assistance for such a
magnificent venture would be forthcoming.38
The Text
The basis for this translation is the edition of the original version of
The Reason of State, Della ragion di stato, published in Venice in 1589,
edited with an introduction by Chiara Continisio (Rome, 1997; repr.
2009). There were three further editions overseen by Botero himself, in
1590, 1596, and 1598. Most of the additions were further examples or
Latin citations. All the significant additions I have included either in the
footnotes or in the appendices, and I have also noted significant dele-
tions in the footnotes. I have been greatly helped by the edition of the
37
See Appendix C.
38
It is noteworthy that both these calls to war were expressed in chapters added to the
original composition.
xxxv
Introduction
1598 text, Della ragion di stato di Giovanni Botero con tre libri delle Cause
della grandezza delle città, due Aggiunte e un Discorso sulla popolazione di
Roma, edited by Luigi Firpo (Turin, 1948), and two translations: The
Reason of State, translated by P.J. and D.P. Waley with an introduction
by D.P. Waley, and containing also Robert Peterson’s 1606 translation of
The Greatness of Cities (London, 1956); and the recent excellent French
translation, De la raison d’État (1589–1598) par Giovanni Botero, trans-
lated and edited by Pierre Benedittini and Romain Descendre, with an
introduction by Romain Descendre (Paris, 2014). I have drawn exten-
sively on the notes from this edition.
Botero uses the word virtù in three senses: to designate “virtue” in the
traditional moral sense, to designate talent or skill along with virtue, and
to designate talent or skill alone. I translate the first sense with “virtue”;
for the other two I leave the Italian “virtù.”
xxxvi
THE REASON OF STATE
Dedication
To the Most Illustrious, most Reverend Lord, most Respected Lord

Wolfgang Theodore, Archbishop and Prince of Salzburg.1
These past years, for different reasons, partly my own and partly of my
friends and patrons, I have found it expedient to undertake various jour-
neys and to frequent more than I would have wanted the courts of kings
and great princes, both here and beyond the mountains. There among the
other things that I have observed I have marveled greatly at the mention
nearly every day of reason of state and in this context to hear cited now
Niccolò Machiavelli now Cornelius Tacitus, the former because he pro-
vides precepts for the government and rule of peoples, the latter because
he describes in a lively fashion the arts employed by Tiberius Caesar to
obtain and then to preserve his position in the Roman Empire. It struck
me then as worthwhile (since I have often found myself among people
who reflect on such matters) that I learn myself also to give some account
of them. So, having begun to page through one and then the other author,
I found that, in short, Machiavelli based reason of state on little respect
for conscience, and Tiberius Caesar cloaked his tyranny and cruelty in
a most barbarous law of majesty2 and in other ways that would not have
been tolerated by the most cowardly women in the world nor even by the
1
Some editions have different dedicatees, for example RS 1596 is dedicated to Philip
Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont, and RS 1598 to Federico Quinzio, Royal Fiscal for His
Catholic Majesty in the State of Milan.
2
Tiberius restored the lex majestatis aimed at crimes of lèse-majesté. But contrary to ancient
practice, where the law looked to actions against the majesty of the Roman people, Tiberius
following Augustus applied it to protect his own reputation; see Tacitus, Annals, I.72.2–4.
He applied it “atrociously” according to Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, “Tiberius,” 58.
1
Dedication
Romans if C. Cassius had not been the last of the Romans.3 So have I been
greatly astonished that such an impious author and such wicked, tyran-
nical means are so esteemed as to be held, as it were, as the norm and the
pattern of the way that states ought to be administered and governed. But
that which arouses in me wonder as much as contempt is to see accred-
ited such a barbarous style of government that is so shamelessly opposed
to the law of God to the point of saying that some things are licit by
reason of state and others by conscience. One cannot say anything more
irrational nor impious because whoever withdraws from the sphere of
conscience its universal jurisdiction over all that transpires among men,
in public as well as in private matters, demonstrates that he has neither
soul nor God. If all animals have a natural instinct that inclines them to
what is useful and holds them back from what is harmful, should the
light of reason and the dictates of conscience given to man to know how
to discern the good and the evil, be blind in public affairs and defective
in matters of importance? Induced by I do not know whether contempt
or zeal, I have often had a mind to write of the corruption introduced by
these two men into the government and counsels of princes which has
given rise to all the scandals in the Church of God and to all the disor-
der in Christendom. But after considering that a treatise on corruption
would have no credit or authority unless I first showed the true and royal
way that a prince ought to follow in order to become great and to govern
his people successfully, I have put off the first project to another time,
to outline at least the second in this book of the reason of state which
I send to your most Illustrious Lordship.4 The noise of the court and
the obligations of service (plus my limited ability) make it so that I do
not dare to say that I have described it even in part much less to have
embodied it. But desirous that it pass through the hands of men with
some greater distinction than it has received from me, I have boldly pre-
sumed to honor it with the most eminent name of Your Most Illustrious
Lordship. (Not to speak of the antiquity of Your most extensive House,
adorned as it has been at all times by ecclesiastical and secular titles, by
the singular valor of His Lordship your father in military campaigns,5 by
3
Cassius along with Brutus led the plot against Julius Caesar in 44 bce.
4
In some editions, from “But after … to another time” has been omitted and replaced by
“whence I have been prompted to outline at least a few things in these books of the Reason
of State.” See Giovanni Botero, Della ragion di stato, ed. Chiaro Continisio (Rome, 1997),
4, n. 2 and xxvi–xxvii.
5
Hans Werner von Raitenau was a military man in the service of the Habsburgs.
2
Dedication
the supreme authority of His Lordship Cardinal Altemps,6 your uncle,

in the Christian Church), I have not been able to find a prince who has
either greater knowledge of matters of state or who takes greater pleasure
in them or with greater wisdom and judgment administers them and puts
them into practice. The Divine Majesty has given Your Most Illustrious
Lordship a most extensive and wealthy state, both spiritual and tempo-
ral. You, in the heyday of your life, govern your people with such justice
and religion and moderate in such a way severity with grace in a noble
and amiable fashion that you are equally feared and loved. You unite in
such a rare fashion the solicitude of the pastor with the gravitas of the
prince, and so you elicit the greatest reverence for you in your subjects
and a stellar reputation among all. Finally, you bear yourself so in every
action in such a way that it makes one wonder which state you maintain
with greater dignity, that of prince or prelate. I trust that the reasons that
have moved me to send to you and to dedicate to you my modest efforts
will also move your Most Illustrious Lordship to accept and appreciate
them with the magnanimity and courtesy that is proper to you. The low-
liness of this topic that would perhaps have held others back leads me to
present it to you with greater assurance of your favor; for it is proper to
a great prince (so imitating the Most High God) to raise up base matters
and to magnify small matters with kindness and favor. I pray to the Lord
God for the well-being of Your Most Illustrious Lordship, and I most
humbly kiss your hand.
Rome, 10 May 1589
From the most humble and most devoted servant of Your Most
Illustrious and Most Reverend Lordship, Giovanni Botero
6
Cardinal Mark Sittich von Hohenems (Marco Sittico d’Altemps), 1533–95, was a nephew
of Pius IV and son of Clara de’ Medici, sister of the pope.
3
Book One
1 What is Reason of State

Reason of state is knowledge of the means suitable to found, conserve,
and expand dominion. It is true that speaking absolutely, it encompasses
all three of the above; nevertheless it appears that taken more strictly it
designates conservation more than the other two, and of the other two
more expansion than foundation. The reason is that reason of state pre-
supposes a prince and a state which are not at all presupposed by foun-
dation and only in part by expansion; rather they are preceded by them
as is clear.1 But the art of founding and expanding is the same because he
who expands wisely has to establish a foundation to which he adds and
where he establishes a foothold.2
1
This sentence is unclear. They, that is, the prince and the state, are preceded by them, that
is, by foundation and expansion.
2
In RS 1596 Botero added at the start “A state is a firm rule over people.” The addition
reads in Italian: “Stato e un dominio fermo sopra popoli.” I am grateful to Professor A.
Enzo Baldini of the University of Turin for clarifying this for me. In it there seems to be
an echo of the opening lines of The Prince: “Tutti li stati, tutti e’ dominii che hanno avuto
et hanno imperio sopra li uomini, sono stati e sono o republiche o principati.” In RS 1596
he also reformulated and expanded the last four lines thus: “The reason is that reason
of state presupposes the prince and the state (the former as the artificer, the latter as the
material), which are not presupposed at all by foundation and in part by expansion; rather
they are preceded by them. But the art of founding and expanding is the same because the
principles and the means are of the same nature. And even if all that which is brought about
by the above-mentioned causes is said to be brought about by reason of state, nevertheless
this is said more of those things that cannot be reduced to ordinary and common reason.”
This final clause was probably also added in response to critics who contended that this
was the normal understanding of reason of state. See, for example, Scipione Ammirato,
Discorso sopra C. Tacito (Florence, 1594), book 12, chap. 1 (pp. 228–42). See BD, 67, n. 1
and 68, n. 3.
4
Of Subjects
2 Division of Dominions
Dominions are of many types: ancient, new, poor, rich, and of other sim-
ilar qualities, but coming more to our point, we say that some dominions
possess superior power, others do not, some are natural, others acquired.
We call natural those of which we are masters by the will of the sub-
jects, either expressly as happens in the election of the king of Poland,
or tacitly as is the case with legitimate succession in a state, and the suc-
cession is either clearly lawful or doubtful. By acquired we mean those
that are obtained by purchase or the equivalent or by arms; by arms they
are acquired either by sheer force or by agreement; agreement is either at
the discretion of the conqueror or by treaty.3 Furthermore, some domin-
ions are small, others large, some middle-sized, and of these some are not
absolutely such but in comparison to and with respect to those border-
ing them; so that a small dominion is such that it cannot exist by itself
but needs the protection and support of another, as is the case with the
Republic of Ragusa or Lucca; middle-sized is that which has the forces
and sufficient authority to maintain itself without needing the support of
another, as is the case with the dominion of the Venetian lords, the king-
dom of Bohemia, the duchy of Milan, and the county of Flanders. We call
those states large which have a notable advantage over their neighbors,
such as the Turkish Empire and the Catholic King. Beyond this, some
dominions are unified, others are not. We call those unified whose mem-
bers are continuous and who touch one another, we call those dispersed
whose members do not form a continuous body and are not of one piece
as was the empire of the Genoese when they governed Famagusta4 and
the Ptolemais,5 Faglie Vecchie,6 Pera,7 and Caffa,8 or of the Portuguese
with their states in Ethiopia, Arabia, India, and Brazil, and that of the
Catholic King.
3 Of Subjects
The subjects, without which dominion cannot exist, are by nature settled
or transient, peaceful or warlike, dedicated to trade or to the military, of
3
The following is added in RS 1590 and later editions: “And their state is so much the worse
as the resistance to the acquisition was greater.”
4
On the island of Cyprus.
5 6
The town of St.-Jean-d’Acre, now Acre on the Israeli coast. Not known.
7
A Genoese colony opposite Constantinople, today Galata.
8
A Genoese colony in the Crimea, today Theodosie.
5
Of the Causes of the Ruin of States
our faith or of some other sect; and if of another sect, completely infidel,
or Jewish or schismatics or heretics; and if heretics, Lutheran, Calvinists,
or of some other form of impiety.9 In addition, they are all subjects of
one type with the same law and form of subjection, or with different
ones, as the Aragonese and the Castilians in Spain, the Burgundians and
the Bretons in France.
4 Of the Causes of the Ruin of States

Works of nature fail through two types of causes, some intrinsic, some
extrinsic; intrinsic I call excess and corruption of its early qualities,
extrinsic fire, sword, and other forms of violence. In the very same way
states are ruined by internal or external causes; internal are the inca-
pacity of the prince, either because he is a child, because he is inept,
because he is impious, or because he has lost his reputation which can
happen in many ways. States are also ruined intrinsically by cruelty
and licentiousness toward subjects which sullies the reputation of noble
and generous men; this it was that chased from Rome the king and the
Decemvirs, brought the Moors into Spain, and forced the departure of
the French from Sicily. Dionysius the Elder,10 having learned that his son
had carried on with the wife of an honored citizen, reproved him harshly,
demanding to know whether he had ever seen him do such a thing. And
because the youth responded, “If you did not do it, it was because you
were not the son of a king.” “Nor will you be father of a king,” he replied,
“unless you change your ways.” It is often disputed whether more states
come to ruin because of the licentiousness of princes or because of their
cruelty. To resolve this is not difficult. Cruelty gives birth to hatred and
fear of him who uses it. Licentiousness generates hatred and contempt,
so that cruelty leads to hatred which makes for opposition and to fear
which makes for support – weak support however, because it lasts only
a short time, whereas licentiousness does not in any way generate sup-
port but only hatred and contempt. Beyond this, cruelty weakens or kills
the one subject to it, which licentiousness does not do. Other intrinsic
causes of the ruin of states are envy, rivalry, discord, ambition among
the nobles, frivolousness, instability and the furor of the multitude, the
9
Added here in RS 1590 and subsequently: “And they ought to be held for more evil to the
degree that they are of a more distant sect and further from the truth.”
10
Tyrant of Syracuse, 405–367 bce.
6
Which is the Greater Work, to Expand or Conserve?
inclination of the barons and the people for a different government.11

External causes are the deceptions and power of enemies. So the Romans
destroyed the Macedonians, the barbarians Roman grandeur. But which
causes are more destructive? Without a doubt, the internal; rarely does
it happen that external forces ruin a state which internal causes have not
first corrupted.
From these two types of simple cause arises another which one can call
mixed, when subjects consort with the enemy and so betray their country
or their prince.
5 Which is the Greater Work, to Expand or to

Conserve a State
Without a doubt the greater work is to conserve; human affairs proceed
as it were naturally, now declining now growing after the manner of the
moon to which they are subject, so that to hold them in place and, when
they are growing, to sustain them in such a way that they neither fail nor
crash is an enterprise of singular and nearly superhuman achievement. In
making acquisitions opportunity plays a great part as does the disorder
of enemies and the work of others, but the retention of what has been
acquired is the fruit of an excellent virtù. One acquires by force but pre-
serves with wisdom; force is found with many, wisdom with few. More-
over, whoever acquires and expands his dominion worries only about the
external causes of the collapse of states whereas he who conserves has
to deal with the internal and the external. The Lacedaemonians, wish-
ing to demonstrate that it was a greater thing to conserve one’s own
than to acquire another’s, punished those who had lost not their sword
but their shield, and the Romans called Fabius Maximus “the shield”
and M. Marcellus “the sword of the Republic,” and there is no doubt
that they made more of Fabius than Marcellus. Aristotle was also of the
same opinion when in his Politics he wrote that the principal task of the
legislator is not to constitute nor fashion a city but to see to it that it
can maintain itself secure for a long time.12 And Theopompus, king of
11
The following is added in RS 1590 and subsequently: “Ambitious princes with little sense
often ruin their own states by scattering their own forces, desirous of encompassing more
than they can control; one can see this in the ventures of the Athenians and the Lacedae-
monians and especially in Demetrius, king of Macedonia [r. 294–288 bce] and Pyrrhus,
king of Epirus [r. 295–272 bce].”
12
Aristotle, Politics. This is a free interpretation of the Politics which does not seem to be
found in any particular passage (BD, 72, n. 5).
7
Which States are More Lasting
Sparta,13 having added to the royal office the senate or council of ephors,
responded to his wife who accused him of having weakened his rule that
“it would be greater the more stable and firm that it was.” But how
does it come about (someone will ask) that those who acquire are con-
sidered greater than those who conserve? Because the results of him who
increases his rule are more evident and more popular, make for a greater
din and excitement, have more visibility and novelty of which people
are beyond measure fond and desirous, so that it happens that military
enterprises produce more delight and amazement than the arts of conser-
vation and peace which, inasmuch as they have less turmoil and novelty,
require more judgment and sense from him who maintains them. And so
if rivers of great length are more noble than torrents, nevertheless many
more people stop to admire a dangerous torrent than a tranquil river, so
he is more admired who acquires than he who conserves.
6 Which States are More Lasting, the Large, the

Small, or the Middle-Sized
It is certain that the middle-sized states are more apt to survive because
the small due to their weakness are more easily exposed to the forces and
affronts of the large states which, as birds of prey feed on the small and
as the big fish on the small ones, devour them, and rise through their
ruin. So Rome expanded through the destruction of neighboring cities,
and Philip of Macedon through the oppression of the Greek republics.
Large states stir up jealousy and suspicion in their neighbors which often
leads them to ally, and many united accomplish what one cannot do. But
there are also many more subject to the internal causes of ruin, because
with size riches increase and with them vices, luxury, arrogance, licen-
tiousness, avarice the root of all evil,14 and the kingdoms which frugality
has led to the heights fail because of their opulence. Besides this, size
brings with it confidence in one’s own forces, and confidence leads to
negligence, leisure, disdain for subjects and for enemies, so that such
states often survive more through their reputation based on past events
than through present courage and principles. And as alchemy seems to
the eye to produce gold but the gold loses its value at a closer look, so
such states enjoy a great reputation but have little substance, similar to
some high and great trees that are hollow and rotten and to some men
13 14
From the late eighth to the early seventh century bce. 1 Timothy 6:10.
8
Which States are More Lasting
with large bodies but little spirit, as experience makes evident. Sparta,
so long as it remained within the borders prescribed by Lycurgus, flour-
ished beyond all the other Greek cities in substance and in reputation.
But when it expanded its imperium and subjugated the cities of Greece
and the kingdoms of Asia, it then declined in such a way that the city,
which before Agesilaus15 had never seen the smoke nor even the forces
of the enemy, after defeating the Athenians and despoiling Asia saw its
citizens flee before the Thebans, a vile people and of no account, and
hasten back to their own delightful environs and commit every crime
under their own walls. The Romans after conquering the Carthaginians
remained in fear of the Numantines for fourteen years. After conquering
so many kings and subjugating so many provinces to their rule, they were
torn to pieces by Viriatus in Spain16 and by the banished Sertorius17 in
Lusitania, and by Spartacus in Italy; and they were besieged from every
side and starved out by pirates.
Courage opens the way through difficulties to greatness but, once
arrived there, it is immediately smothered by riches, weakened by culi-
nary delights, deadened by sensual pleasures. It holds up through the
wildest tempests and most dangerous storms on the high seas but it per-
ishes and suffers shipwreck in port. Benevolent thoughts, high-minded
intentions, honorable enterprises cease and in their place ascend pride,
arrogance, ambition, the avarice of magistrates, and the insolence of the
mob. No longer do captains find favor but buffoons, not soldiers but char-
latans, not the truth but flattery. No longer is virtue esteemed but riches,
not justice but bribes. Simplicity yields to deceit and goodness to malice,
so that as the state grows the foundations of its strength are undermined,
and as iron generates rust which eats it away and ripe fruit of itself pro-
duces worms which spoil it, so great states produce certain vices which
little by little or sometimes at one stroke lay them low or give them as
prey to their enemies. So much suffices for great states.
The middle-sized states are the most lasting because neither by great
weakness are they vulnerable to violence nor by their great size are they
exposed to the envy of others, and because their riches and power are
moderate, their passions are also less vehement and ambition does not
receive the same encouragement, nor does licentiousness find such stim-
uli as in the great states. The suspicion of neighbors holds them in check,
15
Agesilaus II was king of Sparta from roughly 400 to 360 bce.
16
A rebel in Spain, 149–141 bce.
17
Sertorius, a Roman general during the civil wars, 121–72 bce.
9
United States or Dispersed Ones More Lasting
and if tempers fly and stir up trouble, they also quiet down and are eas-
ily calmed. Rome exemplifies this. There so long as it was a middle-
sized state, few revolts lasted and at the sound of foreign wars they grew
quiet and in every way subsided without bloodshed, but after the great-
ness of their empire opened the field for ambition and factions took root
while enemies were lacking, and the wars and spoils of Numidia and the
Cimbrians18 fell to Marius, of Greece and Mithridates to Sulla, of Spain
and Asia to Pompey, and of Gaul to Caesar, and they acquired a fol-
lowing and reputation and the means to maintain it, then war was no
longer conducted with stools and chairs as in past rebellions but with fire
and sword, and the struggles and wars ended only with the defeat of the
contrary factions and of the Empire itself. So we see that some middle-
sized powers have endured much longer than the largest ones. This is
the case of Sparta and Carthage, and above all of Venice whose mid-sized
dominion has been more stable and steady than any other. But even if
middling size is more suitable for the endurance of a state than expan-
sion, mid-sized states nevertheless do not long endure because princes
are not satisfied and want to advance from a mid-sized to a great and even
to the greatest state. So surpassing the limits of mid-size they expand
beyond secure boundaries, as happened with the Venetians who wanting
to encompass so much more than a mid-size state required, in the cam-
paign against Pisa took on a huge debt without turning a profit19 and
in the league against Ludovico Sforza20 came close to causing their own
ruin. But should a prince realize the limits of a mid-sized state and be
satisfied with them, his rule should long endure.
7 Whether United States or Dispersed Ones

are More Lasting21
Dispersed states are separated into territories either in such a way that
the territories are unable to assist one another because between them
18
The Cimbrians were a Germanic tribe that migrated from the Jutland Peninsula and
fought the Romans from 113 to 101 bce.
19
From 1496 to 1499, Venice took Pisa under its protection against Florence.
20
At the end of 1498 Venice allied with the king of France against Ludovico il Moro, duke
of Milan, until the duke fell from power in 1500.
21
This is the title of the chapter as given by Botero. But one also might entitle it “Whether
compact or composite states are more lasting.” On the concept of the “composite state,”
see J.H. Elliott, “A Europe of Composite Monarchies,” Past and Present, 137 (1992): 47–
71, and the ensuing literature.
10
there lie powerful principalities either hostile or unreliable, or in such

a way that they can assist one another and this in three ways: with the aid
of funds, but this can be of great difficulty; through an understanding
with the princes through whose lands it is necessary to pass; or, easily,
through naval forces if all the territories of the state have a sea coast. Fur-
thermore, the territories of a dispersed state are either so weak that they
cannot maintain themselves nor defend themselves against their neigh-
bors, or so great and powerful that they are superior or equal to their
neighbors.
Now I would say that a great empire is without doubt more secure
from the assaults and invasion of an enemy because it is large and united,
and the union means greater vigor and force. But on the other hand
it is more subject to the internal causes of ruin because size leads to
confidence, confidence to carelessness, and carelessness to contempt and
loss of reputation and authority. Power brings forth riches which are the
mother of all pleasures, and pleasures the mother of every vice. And this
is the reason that states fall from the summit: with their increase in power
courage grows less and with great wealth virtue declines. The Roman
Empire was at its peak under Caesar Augustus. Pleasures and licentious-
ness began to overwhelm virtue under Tiberius, and successively then
under Caligula and the others. Vespasian reversed this trend somewhat
with his courage, but Domitian worsened the situation with his vices.
Matters returned to their pristine state with the goodness of Trajan and
some few emperors who followed but after that they successively went
hurling downward precipitously until they ended in ruin, and if some-
times they were assisted and kept standing, this happened not because
of Roman valor but because of foreign emperors and captains. These
emperors were Trajan who was Spanish, Antoninus Pius French, Septi-
mus Severus African, Alexander Mamaean,22 Claudius Dardanian, Aure-
lian of Moesia, Probus from Sirmium, Diocletian Dalmatian, Galerius
Decian, Constans, who was the father of the great Constantine, Darda-
nian, Theodosius who can be said to have restored the Empire, Spanish.
The same can be said of those captains who demonstrated some merit:
Stilico, Ullin, and Aetius were Vandals, Castinus Scythian, Boniface
Thracian, Ricimer, who defeated Beorgor King of the Alans, a Goth.23
22
Changed to “Syrian” in later editions.This is probably an allusion to Alexander Severus,
emperor from 222–235 ce, who was born in Caesarea of Lebanon (BD, 77, n. 1).
23
These were all generals of the late Roman Empire.
11
So we see that Roman virtue, enfeebled and corrupted in such a way

by pleasure, was not able to stand on its own feet or keep its head up
without foreign assistance. And because their own interests and partic-
ular designs dictated the aid of the barbarians, and it often came with
treason and betrayal, the Empire finally collapsed. An empire that does
not possess internal strength cannot long survive in face of the plots and
assaults of its enemies. So Spain, generally corrupt, fell to the power of
the Moors within thirty months, and the Empire in Constantinople was
subjugated by the Turks in a few years. Besides this, if in a united state
there arises discord among the barons or an uprising among the people,
or dissoluteness among the one and the other, it easily spreads like the
plague or some other contagious disease to the healthy parts because of
their nearness. And if the prince is given over to laziness and is inept, the
compact state will more easily become demoralized and infected than the
disunited one, and consequently it will become weaker in the face of its
enemies.
On the other hand, the dispersed state is weaker against foreigners
than the united one, because the disunity alone weakens it, and if its parts
are so weak that each of itself is helpless against the attacks of its neigh-
bors, or they are divided in such a way that one cannot come to the aid
of another, a state so created will not long endure. But if the parts are
able to aid one another and each is large and strong enough that it does
not fear invasion, such a state ought not be considered less stable than a
united one, because, first of all, if the parts are able to reciprocally assist
one another, one cannot say that they are in fact dispersed, and even if
the dispersed state is by its nature weaker than a united one, it yet has
many advantages, first of all because it cannot be attacked all at once.
And this so much the less the further one part is from another because
one prince alone will not be able to do this and many together will unite
only with difficulty. So it follows that when a state is attacked in one part,
the others that remain undisturbed will always be able to come to the aid
of the one that has been attacked, as we see in the way that Portugal
has so often aided its state in the Indies. Moreover, the dissension of the
barons and the insurrections of the people are not as widespread because
the factions in one place do not predominate in the other, and the fami-
lies, the friendships, the loyalties, and the networks do not extend so far,
and it is easy for the prince with the loyal part to punish the rebels, and
similarly other forms of corruption do not spread so far nor so rapidly
through a dispersed state as through a united one, nor with such force,
12
On the Ways to Conserve [a State]
because the lack of unity interrupts the course of disorders and the dis-
tance among locations reduces the speed of their spread, and time always
favors a legitimate prince and justice, and because it rarely happens that
external causes bring about the ruin of a state which has not first become
internally corrupt. Nulla enim quamvis minima natio potest ab adversari
perdelere, nisi propriis simultatibus se iosa consumperit (For not even the least
element can be destroyed by enemies unless it has first been undermined
by its own enmities) says Vegetius.24
I do not consider less secure nor enduring dispersed states under the
following two conditions that unite them, in this case the kingdom of
Spain. First of all, the states that belong to this crown have sufficient
forces that they are not alarmed by every movement of arms by their
neighbors, as is attested by Milan and Flanders, which have been threat-
ened so many times in vain by the French, and so also Naples and Sicily.
Furthermore, even if the parts are distant from one another, one ought
not in fact to consider them dispersed because, beyond the fact that the
funds of which that crown has an abundance are available to all, they are
united by the sea. There is no state that is so far that it cannot provide
assistance, apart from Flanders due to the opposition of England, and
the Catalans, the Biscayans, the Galicians, and the Portuguese so excel
as mariners that one can truly say that they are masters of seamanship.
Now the naval forces that these peoples have at hand create an imperium
that otherwise seems disunited with its parts cut off from one another.
But it ought to be considered united and as it were continuous, so much
the more now that Portugal is united with Castile. These two nations, the
former extending from the west toward the east and the latter toward the
west, meet in the Philippine Islands and throughout such a grand tour
touch upon islands, kingdoms, and ports at their command because they
belong to their empire or to friendly princes, clients, or allies.
8 On the Ways to Conserve [a State]

The conservation of a state consists in the peace and quiet of the subjects,
and this is of two types, as it is also in the case of a disturbance or a war;
a disturbance arises either from your own [subjects] or from foreigners.
Disturbances from your own subjects arise in two ways; either they fight
among one another, and this we call civil war, or they fight against the
24
Cf. Concerning Military Matters (De re militari), 3, 10.
13
On the Ways to Conserve [a State]
prince, and this we call an uprising or a rebellion. Now one avoids each
of these through the use of those arts which gain for the prince love and
reputation from his subjects because just as natural things are preserved
by the same means whereby they were generated, so the causes of the
preservation and foundation of states are the same. Now, in those first
centuries there is no doubt that men set out to create kings and to give
the principality and government of themselves to others, moved by the
affection that they bore to them and by the highest esteem (which we call
reputation) that they had for their valor; these two features, it is necessary
to say, maintain the subjects in obedience and in peace. But what has the
greater influence in the election of a king, reputation or love? Without a
doubt it is reputation which leads people to give the government of the
republic to others, not to please or show favor to them but for the good
and the welfare of the community. So it follows that they elect not the
more gracious and more friendly candidates but those in whom they rec-
ognize valor and virtù. So the Romans in perilous times entrusted their
campaigns not to young and charming favorites but to mature person-
ages of much experience: to the Manlii, the Papiri, the Fabii, the Decii,
the Camilli, the Pauli, the Scipioni, the Marii. Camillus, hated and so
banned from Rome, was in time of danger recalled and made dictator.
M. Livius was many times scorned and condemned by the people and
so for a long time, because of the ignominy and dishonor he received, he
avoided the eyes of his fellow citizens; but in a time of extreme danger to
the republic, he was created consul and then general against the brother
of Hannibal, while all those were passed over who with every type of
ambition sought to acquire the love and favor of the people. Reputation
called L. Paulus to the Macedonian campaign, Marius to the Cimbrian,
Pompey to the campaign against Mithridates. Reputation also gave to
Vespasian, to Trajan, and to Theodosius the Empire in Rome, to Pepin
and to Hugh Capet the kingdom of France, and to Godfrey and others
that of Jerusalem.
But what is the difference between love and reputation? Both are based
on virtù, but love is content with a mediocre virtù while reputation is
obtained only through excellence. When the goodness and perfection of
a man exceed the ordinary and arrive at a certain eminent level, how-
ever much he may be beloved inasmuch as he is good, nevertheless his
lovability remains surpassed as it were by his excellence which brings
him not so much love as esteem. And if this esteem is rooted in religion
and piety, it is called reverence; if in the political and military arts, it is
14
How Great Must the Excellence of the Virtù of a Prince
called reputation. If those things that are suited to make a prince beloved
in the manner of his government are also suitable to make him esteemed,
they will always possess a certain divine excellence. What is more beloved
than justice? The excellence of Camillus’s justice when he sent back that
schoolmaster who had brought his students before him obtained for him
such a reputation that it enabled him to open the gates of the Falerii
when arms had not been able to do so.25 Similarly Fabricius, when he
returned to King Pyrrhus the doctor who had betrayed him, this so filled
the king with wonder and amazement that he set aside thoughts of war
and turned completely to negotiations for peace.26 What is more beloved
than honesty? Nonetheless, that outstanding action of P. Scipio when he
returned that most beautiful young woman untouched to her husband,
did not make him so much beloved as admirable, and it gained him such
esteem and reputation with all that the Spaniards held him to be nearly a
god descended from heaven.27
9 How Great Must the Excellence of the Virtù

of a Prince Be
The fundamental principle of every state is the obedience of the subjects
to its superior, and this is based on the eminence of the prince’s virtù. As
the elements and the bodies of which they are composed obey without
opposition the movements of the heavenly spheres because of the nobil-
ity of their nature, and in the heavens the inferior follows the motion of
the superior, so peoples submit voluntarily to the prince in whom shines
forth some preeminence of virtù because no one refuses to obey or be
subordinate to one who is superior to himself but he does do so to one
who is inferior or even equal to himself. Nec quemquam iam ferre potest
Caesarumve priorem Pompeiusve parem (Nor is Caesar able to bear anyone
else as superior nor Pompey [anyone else] as equal).28
But it is important that the superiority of the prince not be exercised in
irrelevant matters or those of little or no importance but in those which
25
Camillus, 446–365 bce, Roman general and statesman. When an enemy schoolteacher
offered to Camillus a number of boys to be held as hostages by the Romans, Camillus sent
them back to the enemy camp. See Machiavelli, Discourses, 3.20.
26
See Machiavelli, Discourses, 3.20.
27
By the laws of war at the time, Scipio might have kept her for himself. See Machiavelli,
Discourses, 3.20.
28
Lucan, On the Civil War (Pharsalia), 1.125.
15
Two Types of Excellence in the Virtù of a Prince
elevate the spirit and the intelligence and which reveal a certain grandeur
almost heavenly and divine, and that make a man truly superior and bet-
ter than the others, because (as Livy says) Vinculum fidei est melioribus
parere (The bond of loyalty is to obey one’s betters)29 and Dionysius,
Aeterna naturae legis est, ut inferiores praestantioribus pareant (It is received
as the eternal law of nature that inferiors obey those more excellent)30
and Aristotle states that natural reason dictates that those who surpass
others in intelligence and judgment should be princes,31 and he says that
nobles are to be honored because nobility is a certain virtue of family and
blood and that it is likely that good men are born of good men and better
men of better men;32 for this reason tyrants fear good men more than evil
ones and the large-hearted more than the cowardly because tyrants being
unworthy and incapable of the rank assigned to virtue, with reason fear
those who are deserving and worthy of it.
10 Of the Two Types of Excellence in the Virtù

of a Prince
Now this excellence is either absolute or partial; it is absolute in those
who in all or in most virtues surpass the level of mediocrity, partial in
those who are ahead of others in those particular virtues that are proper to
a ruler. In the first class among the emperors are Constantine the Great,
Constans, Gratian, Theodosius, Justin, Justinian (if he had not been a
Monothelite33 ), Tiberius II, Leo the Philosopher, Henry I, Otto I (if he
had not persistently arrogated the authority to confer benefices), Otto
III, Lothar II, Sigismund, Frederick III, Charles V, Ferdinand; among
the kings of France are Clovis and Charles Martel (even if he did not
have the title of king), Pepin, Charlemagne, Charles the Wise, Robert,
and Louis VII and IX. Among the kings of Spain the most glorious have
been Ricaredo, the first Catholic king of the Goths, Pelagius, Alfonso the
Catholic, called such for having extirpated the Arians in Spain, Alfonso
the Chaste, Ramiro, Alfonso the Great, Alfonso VII, Sancho,34 who was
29
Livy, History of Rome, 22.13. The citation is used in a sense a little different than in Livy
(BD, 83, n. 3).
30
Cf. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.5.
31 32
Aristotle, Politics, 3.13 (1284b), 3.17 (1288a), 7.3 (1325b). Cf. ibid., 3.13 (1283b).
33
Monotheletism was a heresy that asserted that there was only one will in Christ. It was
condemned at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680–81.
34
Sancho III (c. 1134–58), king of Castile.
16
Virtues Suited to Produce Love and Reputation
as it were another Titus in Spain and was called “the Desired” as Titus
had been called the “World’s Beloved,” both of whom lived and reigned
only a short time, Alfonso VIII, James, king of Aragon, Ferdinand III,
Ferdinand called the Catholic.
Among the supreme pontiffs of the most eminent virtù were, after St.
Silvester, Julius I, Damasus, Innocent I, Leo the Great, Pelagius, Gre-
gory I, and after him Boniface IV, Vitalianus, Adeodatus, Leo II, Conon
who because of the sanctity of his life was called “the Angelic,” Con-
stantine, Gregory II and III, Zacharias I, Stephen II, Adrian I, Leo III,
Pascal I, Eugene II, called the pope of the poor, Leo IV, Benedict III
made pope against his will, Nicholas I made pontiff in his absence and
also against his will, Adrian II, John IV, Leo IX who, chosen by Emperor
Henry, entered Rome as a private person and was there elected canon-
ically by the people, Nicholas II, Alexander II elected in his absence,
Gregory VIII35 who restored the liberty of the church and the authority
of the Apostolic See after it had been persecuted by the emperors, Urban
II, author of that heroic expedition against the infidels, Pascal II, elected
against his will, Gelasius II, Callistus II, Anastasius IV, Alexander III, of
indomitable constancy against the schismatics and Emperor Frederick,
Clement III, and Clement IV who did not want to agree that his nephew
hold more than one prebend, Nicholas III called “the serene” because of
the integrity of his life and the moderation of his habits,36 Nicholas V
elected against his will.
11 What are the Virtues that are Suited to Produce

Love and Reputation
But although every virtue is suited to bring love and reputation to him
who is adorned with it, nevertheless some are suited more for love than
reputation, and some the contrary.37 In the first class we place those
virtues which are totally aimed to benefit [others], humanity, courtesy,
mercy, and the others, which we are able to reduce to justice and liberal-
ity; in the other class we place those which contain a certain grandeur
and force of soul and ability, which are suited to great enterprises,
bravery, the military and political art, perseverance, vigor of soul and
35 36
An error for Gregory VII. Probably an error for Nicholas IV (BD, 85, n. 4).
37
This is corrected in RS 1590 to read “some more for reputation than love, and others, to
the contrary, more for love than reputation” (BD, 86, n. 1).
17
Of Justice
quickness of mind, all of which we include under the names of prudence

and valor.
12 Of Justice
Now, the first way to benefit subjects is to preserve and to assure to each
his own through justice, in which consists without a doubt the basis for
peace and the establishment of concord among peoples. Christ Our Lord
when instituting his Church as the best republic as it were, unified and
fashioned it with charity, which is of such force and virtue that there jus-
tice is not necessary where it flourishes and reigns, because charity not
only regulates the hand but unites the hearts, and where such a union is
found, neither wrong nor injustice nor the occasion for justice is possible.
But because men are ordinarily not perfect and charity regularly grows
cold, it is necessary, to keep order in the city and to maintain peace and
quiet in the community, that justice plant its roots there and make laws.
Not even assassins and thieves are able to live together without some
shadow of an excellent virtue; and the ancient poets said that not even
Jupiter could rule the peoples suitably without the assistance of justice,
and Plato entitled his books on politics On Justice. There is nothing more
appropriate for a king than to render justice. So Demetrius, king of the
Macedonians, after telling a woman who demanded justice that he did
not have time to do so, received that memorable reply, “Then give up
being king.”38 And there is no doubt that the first kings were created by
the people for the administration of justice; the princes of the Jews, whom
the kings succeeded, demanded to be called judges. And from the begin-
ning all the cities of Greece (as Dionysius writes) were under the kings
who decided disputes and rendered justice according to the laws.39 So
Homer called kings ministers of justice.40 But when kings limited in their
authority began to act as absolute and to abuse their authority, a large part
of Greece changed its form of rule and government. But because in some
cases the magistrates did not maintain the clear laws of the land nor were
these adequate to uphold the reputation of the magistrates, they returned
to a royal authority but under another name. The Thessalians called the
38
Botero here confuses Demetrius with Philip of Macedon; see Plutarch, Sayings of Kings
and Commanders, “Philip,” 32.
39 40
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 5.74. Iliad, 1.238–39.
18
Of the Justice of a King toward his Subjects
supreme magistrates “archons,” the Lacedaemonians “harmostes” (gov-

ernors), the Romans dictators and, being horrified by dictatorial majesty,
made Pompey only a consul, giving him the extraordinary authority of a
dictator but the ordinary title of consul. The kings of Egypt were so con-
cerned about justice that they made magistrates swear that they would
never obey their commands if they knew them to be unjust, and Philip
the Handsome, king of France, prohibited judges to take account of or
show respect for royal letters that pertained to justice if they did not
consider them to be lawful.
13 Two Types of Royal Justice

There are two types of royal justice, the one between the king and his
subjects and the other between subject and subject.
14 Of the Justice of a King toward his Subjects

Peoples are obligated to give to their prince all those powers that are
necessary for him to maintain justice among them and to defend them
from the violence of their enemies, so that he, satisfied to remain within
these limits, will not scourge or torment his subjects with unaccustomed
impositions out of proportion to their ability to pay, nor will he permit
that ordinary and suitable impositions are harshly exacted and increased
by rapacious ministers because peoples burdened beyond their strength
will either leave the country or revolt against the prince or go over to his
enemies. So Emperor Tiberius responded to a minister who proposed
unaccustomed means to raise money that a good shepherd ought not to
skin the sheep but be satisfied with shearing them. And I do not want
to leave out recounting what Polydore Vergil writes about St. Edward,
king of England; having been presented a huge sum of money collected
avariciously by his ministers, gazing at it he saw a demon sitting upon
and reveling in it; for this reason, filled with fear and horror, he com-
manded that it be immediately returned.41 No less should he keep from
spending the income wastefully (which is nothing else than the sweat and
41
Polydore Vergil, Historiae Anglicae libri XXVII (Basel, 1555), ed. Dana F. Sutton (The
Philological Museum, 2010), www.philological.bham.ac.uk/polverg (accessed April 17,
2015), 8.8.
19
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Huron University College, on 19 Mar 2021 at 12:12:37, subject to the
Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316493953.003
Of the Justice of a King toward his Subjects
blood of his vassals), because there is nothing that more afflicts and more
torments the people than to see their prince throw away needlessly the
money that they with such labor and hardship provided him for the sup-
port of his grandeur and the maintenance of the republic. And because
vanity has neither limit nor measure, it follows that he who spends need-
lessly falls into disorder and hardship, and in order to escape it, turns
to fraud, iniquity, and assassination of the innocent. So Caligula, hav-
ing in one year gone through sixty-seven million scudi which Emperor
Tiberius had over many years with inestimable diligence accumulated,
and lacking any measure to his expenditures, resorted to robbery and
every sort of cruelty. Solomon spent a good part of the one hundred and
twenty million left him by his father on the construction of palaces and
parks, on feasts and incredible pomp. Even if he did not find himself
reduced to necessity, he burdened his kingdom with so many taxes that,
unable to bear them any longer, the greater portion of the population
rebelled under his son Roboam.
It also belongs to this type of justice to distribute rewards and hon-
ors proportionately, balancing burdens with benefits and easing charges
with recognition. Where labors and services are recognized and rewarded
virtue takes root and valor flourishes because everyone desires and seeks
comfort and reputation (the lower classes more comfort, the upper
classes more reputation), and they seek these by the means which they
see to be valued by the prince, with virtue if he is pleased with it, with
adulation if he is vain, with ceremony if he is pompous, with money if he
is avaricious. But nothing is more harmful to a king than to assign titles
and offices on the basis of favor rather than merit because, beyond the
fact that this is an affront to virtue, the outstanding men, seeing that the
unworthy are preferred, abandon his service and frequently obedience to
him too, and the people who are governed by such men see themselves
as little valued and revolt against the prince himself because of hatred
of his minister, and if the prince wants to support him, he himself loses
credit and reputation and brings himself into a labyrinth from which he
can emerge only with difficulty. And there is no other way to conserve his
reputation than to assign magistracies and offices to competent and wor-
thy persons. No less dangerous is the invidious distribution of his favor
because as soon as a disproportionate grace comes to light, envy works in
such a way in the souls of the common people and contempt in those of
the high-minded that they begin to think about abandoning him. They
will not hesitate to oppose the king by bringing down the favorite, as
20
Of Justice between Subject and Subject
happened in England to Edward II because of the excessive favor shown

to a certain steward, Hugo,42 and in Brittany to Duke Francesco because
of the unlimited confidence he had in Peter Landais; the nobility con-
spired against him and forced the duke to give that wretched man into
their hands whom they then strangled.43 And in Naples the favors shown
foolishly by Giovanna II to Pandolfello Alopo and Giovanni Caracciolo
were the cause of so many troubles,44 so much the more since one who
is favored more than his rank and merit dictate, exercises restraint only
with difficulty. This increases the envy already felt toward him and adds,
as we are accustomed to say, fuel to the fire. Because it has no founda-
tion in merit and valor he is necessarily fearful for his own high position,
and he opposes virtue with all his power and keeps far from the eyes and
grace of the king all those who through the labors that they have endured
and the services they have performed have merited of him. He consid-
ers the rise of another his own downfall. Since the good are excluded in
this way, who does not recognize that matters devolve into the hands of
low types and those more quick to flatter with their tongue than to work
effectively with their hands? Those promoted to judgeships and to gov-
ernmental offices will not be persons who look to the service of the prince
and the benefit of the people but to the satisfaction and favor of those
who appointed them. So the court is filled with factions, the kingdom
with dissension, the barons with rancor, and the cities with grumbling.
15 Of Justice between Subject and Subject

It is especially the task of the prince to see that justice prevails among his
subjects which consists in maintaining the country and the cities free of
violence and fraud. Exiles, thieves, assassins, and murderers cause vio-
lence. They ought to be kept in check by vigorous and intimidating mea-
sures. It is of little benefit that enemy armies and forces are kept at a
distance if those who perhaps do more harm are active at home. Fraud,
even if it receives little notice, does not for that reason cause insignificant
damage: to manipulate weights and measures, to falsify testaments and
contracts and to counterfeit money, to lessen commerce with monopo-
lies, to steal provisions, and to do similar things which after the manner
42
The influence of Hugues Spencer on Edward II caused a large number of the barons to
rebel and compelled the king to abdicate in 1327 (BD, 90, n. 1).
43
Landais was the favorite of Francis II, duke of Brittany (1433–88).
44
These two lovers of Giovanna were assassinated.
21
Of Justice between Subject and Subject
of underground mines destroy concord and peace. If the prince will put
a stop to such abuses he will gain incredibly the love and affection of the
people. Louis XII of France was called “father” by the people for the
care he took and the solicitude he showed to help them and to defend
them from oppression by the nobles. But there is no matter to which
the prince ought to pay more attention than usury, because it is noth-
ing other than larceny, or even worse. The usurer was condemned by the
ancients, as Cato wrote, to pay quadruple if he took more than twelve per
cent, the robber only to pay double.45 This plague often caused disor-
der and greatly endangered the republic of Athens and the city of Rome
because of the extreme misery usurers created for both peoples, and the
kings of France have more than once been compelled to expel the Ital-
ian bankers. And how does it help the prince if he does not burden his
vassals immoderately but allows them to be ruined by the avarice of the
usurers who without working nor contributing any benefit to the repub-
lic consume the wealth of individuals? So much for individuals. Usury
also destroys the public treasury and ruins the public income. Customs
and taxes create adequate income when real commerce flows, entering
and exiting your states and as it passes through paying tribute at seaports
and river crossings, at city gates and other suitable locations. Now com-
merce is not able to flow properly if money is not invested in it. And who
does not know that those who want to grow rich through usury give up
trade because one cannot engage in it without risking one’s wealth and
without exertion of body and mind, and with a piece of paper selling
partly time and partly the use of money, draw interest from money and
so enrich themselves without effort? They are like certain wasps who
without exerting themselves or being of any use, invade a nest of bees
and devour the fruit of their industry and labor. So in this way, since
everyone prefers to earn without effort, the town squares are necessarily
deserted, the arts are abandoned, commerce is interrupted because the
artisan abandons his shop, the peasant his plow, the nobleman sells his
inheritance and changes it into money, and the merchant, whose calling
requires him to travel untiringly from one country to another, remains
at home. Inasmuch as the cities lose whatever they have that is beau-
tiful and good, taxes decline, customs produce no income, and the trea-
sury is depleted, and the people, reduced to extreme misery and despera-
tion, desire a change in the state. So Asia twice went over to Mithridates
45
Cato the Elder, De agricultura, preface, 1.
22
Of the Ministers of Justice
with a great slaughter of the Romans because with their infinite usury
the Romans had destroyed their wealth in the manner of Harpies.46 In
Athens Solon gained praise for ending or at least moderating usury, as
did Lucullus in Asia, and Caesar in Spain. The riches of a prince depend
upon the wealth of individuals. Their wealth consists in their posses-
sions and in the real exchange of the fruits of the earth and of indus-
try, in imports and exports, shipping from one place to another either
within a kingdom or from other countries. The usurer not only does
none of these things but, fraudulently taking in money for himself, takes
from others the means of doing business. We have in Italy two flourish-
ing republics, Venice and Genoa. Of these two Venice is way ahead of
Genoa both in its government and in its greatness. If we seek the reason
for this, we will find it to be the case because the Venetians, engaging
in commerce, become moderately rich as individuals but infinitely so in
common whereas the Genoese, active in banking, have increased private
wealth beyond measure but have greatly impoverished public revenues.
16 Of the Ministers of Justice

Because it is not fitting that a prince himself decide cases or hand down
sentences, it is necessary that he provide sufficient competent ministers
who act on his behalf. So he ought to use great care in selecting them
and then in retaining them in office. Let him choose, with the partic-
ular care that has always been employed by wise republics and princes,
men endowed with the knowledge and experience necessary for the task
that he wants to give them as well as with incorruptible virtue. Emperor
Alexander Severus, before sending governors into the provinces, pub-
lished their names many days ahead of time, so that if some vice of theirs
should come to light, he would be able to change the appointment and
assign the office to another. Those princes fail notably who sell magistra-
cies; this is nothing other than to promote avarice rather than justice to
tribunals. It is difficult for a judge who receives gifts to be fair in his judg-
ment (because, as God says, gifts blind even wise men);47 how much less
so one who buys the office and enters not as it were a field of thorns and
brambles but into a most fertile and abundant possession? Louis XII,
king of France, was accustomed to say that those who purchased their
46
Asia here is the Roman province of Asia Minor.
47
Deuteronomy 16:19, Ecclesiastes 20:31.
23
offices sold at a higher price retail what they had purchased at a lower
price wholesale. Aristotle criticized the laws of Lycurgus because they
provided that a magistracy had to be sought by the one who was judged
worthy of it rather than assigned to one deserving of it even though he did
not want it.48 What would he have said if he had seen it given to the one
who bought it? Polybius preferred the Romans to the Carthaginians. In
Carthage one obtained honors openly through gifts; this was considered
a capital crime in Rome. The two republics recognized virtue differently,
and so the qualities necessary and the means used to obtain rewards dif-
fered greatly in them.49
But because I said that practical knowledge is sought in officials, I do
not want to fail to say that the kings of China assign magistracies accord-
ing to a particular order, first to beginners at the lowest rank and then
gradually to those of higher rank, so that after gathering experience at
the first level they rise to a higher one. With us these processes are estab-
lished not by laws but through the diligence that ought to be employed in
the election of magistrates. A wise prince will be able through different
means to acquire knowledge of the competence and integrity of the per-
sons that he wants to promote for the administration of justice and the
government of the people. Among these means are evaluations by wor-
thy men because the judgment of a person without passion or interest
cannot go wrong. The illustrious actions and as it were heroic bravery
of someone amount to a powerful argument because such deeds result
from outstanding virtù and demand that a man not do anything unwor-
thy of the reputation that he has acquired. Knowledge of past conduct in
grave matters also helps because on the basis of past actions one can draw
highly probable conclusions about the future. It helps to have modesty
and moderation of spirit, which are revealed by a consistency of life; from
a well-composed spirit one can expect only well-regulated actions. Lib-
erality and beneficence help; one who is generous and kind will not easily
be led to act unjustly toward another. A weighty argument is public opin-
ion and reputation because it rarely deceives, and it leads to office more
than virtue, reputation, and standing. So the Spartans in choosing their
officials put a few men in a room near the place where the people were
assembled. Then in an order determined by lot they called out the names
of the candidates, and then they listened with attentive ears to the app-
lause and approval that each elicited. They then chose the candidate
48 49
Politics, 2.9 (1271a), 12–13. The Histories, 6.56.
24
who in this way was understood to enjoy the greatest regard and rep-
utation of the multitude, because it rarely happens that he who receives
the approval of the common opinion of men is not truly that for which he
is taken to be. Here it should be noted that the poor provide a much more
trustworthy testimony of the virtues of persons than the rich because the
rich are motivated by ambition and design, the poor more by respect for
virtue and zeal for the common good. On this point it occurs to me that
a Japanese named Bernardo happened to be in Rome at the time of the
creation of Pope Marcello50 and was then walking through the city at the
precise time of his election. Immediately he said that it had been a good
choice. When asked how he knew this, he replied, “Because the poor cel-
ebrate and rejoice.” Age is also a factor as in many other matters, because
the vehemence of their passions renders young men incapable of govern-
ing others because he who does not govern himself will not be able to
rule others well. Ancient legislators allowed only rich citizens to become
magistrates because they thought that the poor and needy would only
be able to refrain from extortion with difficulty; but this is a matter
of little importance. It is necessary that interior virtue and conscience
restrain the spirit and the hand; otherwise there will be no effective rem-
edy because, if avarice takes root in the soul, it will transport the rich
man much further beyond limits than the poor man, because if the latter
wants to grow rich, the former will do everything to become very rich,
and if necessity induces the poor man to some improper action, cupidity,
the root of all evil, will induce the rich man to something much worse.
Of greater consideration is whether a judge or other official ought to
be a native of the country or a foreigner. Foreign judges were brought
into Italy in Florence, in Lucca, and in Genoa, and in several other cities
of Italy, to deal with the factions of these peoples, divided as they were
in Guelph and Ghibelline. Two foreign judges were elected for Florence
to remove the mistrust and dissatisfaction that usually arose over judg-
ments between the parties after the city had recovered its liberty fol-
lowing the death of Frederick II,51 and the factions and civil wars had
been reduced to a degree. They adjudicated the differences among the
citizens. One was called captain of the people and the other podestà.52 The
50
Pope Marcello II reigned only from April 9 to May 1, 1555, when he died.
51
December 13, 1250.
52
In reality the institution of the podestà had existed for a long time in Florence; only the
captain of the people was introduced after the death of Frederick. Both offices had political
and military as well as judicial functions (BD, 97, n. 4).
25
On the Retention of Magistrates in Office
disadvantage with a citizen judge is that he allows himself to be easily

swayed by the interests of his friends and relatives. A foreign judge, real-
izing the weakness of his position, will seek support from the leading
citizens in order to maintain and defend it. Hence it would please me to
have neither a foreigner nor a native of the place exercise the office, but
someone from another area subject to us where the factions of the city in
which the tribunal is located do not rule. For this reason Marcus Aure-
lius ordained that no one govern his own native place and Philip the Fair
of France that no one be a judge in the territory where he was born.
17 On the Retention of Magistrates in Office

But it is not enough to take great care in the selection of magistrates.
It is also necessary to take every precaution, after they have been pro-
moted, that they remain incorrupt because many doves become crows
and lambs wolves, and there is nothing that more reveals the interior of
a man than a magistracy because it places power in his hand, and that
man is truly virtuous who has the opportunity to do evil but does not
do it. Of Vespasian one reads that he employed such diligence and care
restraining the officials of the city and the prefects of the provinces that
they were never more moderate nor just. Today, the means to ensure their
integrity are diverse. The first is to pay them and to threaten them with
serious punishments for accepting presents. The kings of China do this in
a singular way; they provide judges with provisions and living quarters,
furnishings, aides, servants, and all that belongs to their comfort and sta-
tus, so that no other thought remains for them than to attend with their
whole mind to the administration of justice and to the office committed
to them. They are enjoined with such severity and strictness that they
are able to enter the court room or give an audience only when they have
fasted, and if permission is granted to a weak person to take a cordial
or something similar, he is not permitted to drink wine. It is important
also, to assure the good administration of justice, that the prince does not
allow his ministers, however grand might be their rank, the final judg-
ment and the absolute power to make laws, but that he subjects them as
much as possible to the prescriptions of the laws, reserving final judg-
ment to himself because he is sure of the laws but not of the judgment of
another who is subject to various passions. He who has complete author-
ity in giving judgment often does not make use of that diligence which is
proper to master the case and to understand the applicable laws. But let
26
On the Retention of Magistrates in Office
us move on. The Romans were restrained by the fear of being accused
themselves because in that city, so full of ambitious rivalry, there was
no one so powerful that he did not have an adversary who sought every
opportunity to bring him down and humble him. Not only did private
feuds come to light but public wrongs also were avenged. A few severe
prosecutions of those who act unjustly suffice because the punishment of
one deters thousands of others. Cambyses, king of the Assyrians,53 hav-
ing found a judge named Sisami to be at fault, had him skinned alive, and
he covered with his skin the seat of judgment on which he had wanted
his son to sit and hold court. Of what importance do we believe was
this severe and almost cruel example in making others restrain them-
selves? Some princes make use of syndics or visitors as they are called,
but there is great danger of corruption in this remedy. So Cosimo, Grand
Duke of Tuscany,54 made use of several secret spies who, happening to
be present on various occasions as persons beyond suspicion, informed
him of everything that they had heard about the actions of his officials.
This method appears to me to be better than syndics because one syndic
is easily corrupted and two without great difficulty; many are a financial
burden to the prince and to the people. Not so with spies. They are not
known, and they do not wish to be known, and because they are not able
to reconcile their reports, they are not able to deceive the prince, and they
cost little. Some princes visit their states themselves, listening to the com-
plaints of the people, learning about the progress of the ministers, and,
finally, reviewing everything that has been done. This Trajan undertook
more than any other emperor, visiting nearly the whole Roman Empire.
Aritperto, king of the Lombards,55 celebrated for his exercise of justice,
was accustomed to travel about in disguise and cleverly to spy out what-
ever was spoken ill of him or his ministers. And in truth it is necessary
that princes either hear or see for themselves what is going on, because
all the other methods are more or less corruptible as well as the officials
themselves. The ways to deceive a prince who makes use only of the eyes
and ears of others, and the tricks to get him to take black for white are so
great that it is not humanly possible to defend himself from all of them.
A gentleman with great practical experience of courts told me that for a
king to understand the truth of things it would be necessary for him to
53
Cambyses, the son of Cyrus the Great, ruled from 530–522 bce.
54
Duke of Florence 1537–69, Grand Duke of Tuscany 1569–74.
55
Aritperto reigned from 653–61.
27
Caution regarding the Administration of Justice
be deaf not to be deceived by thousands of false reports but rather, stand-

ing on the top of a high tower, to see everything through a looking-glass.
But since this is not possible, let him make use of spies, intervene himself
often in the courts, visit in disguise now one place now another, and listen
to the truth from one who has no fear. Tiberius Caesar was accustomed,
either seated or walking, to speak to his judges, warn them and remind
them of their office, their obligation to obey the laws, the burden on their
conscience, and the importance of the cases with which they dealt. The
doges of Venice did the same. Caesar Augustus read various books and
was accustomed to note in them all that pertained to good government,
and he then sent a copy to his magistrates according to the needs of each
which he knew from the evaluations that each had received.
18 Words of Caution regarding the Administration

of Justice
There are many things that ought to serve for the administration of jus-
tice, but let us speak of two, more as words of caution than as precepts.
The first is that it be uniform and the second that it be speedy. We have
spoken above about how a prince is able to keep his ministers in check.
But it is not enough that the minister keeps the balance straight and
steady if he boldly bends and distorts it by pardoning one who deserves
punishment and grants life and continued residence to one who deserves
a thousand deaths and a thousand exiles. Truly, to show mercy belongs to
the prince. The judges are bound to proceed according to the law. Only
the prince can moderate its rigor and temper its harshness with equity.56
But he should not pardon when it results in prejudice to justice or to
the republic. Not to justice, because it ought to be the rule and the norm
of every political government, and to pardon one whose crime cannot
be excused by ignorance or by righteous grief is not to show mercy but
to commit iniquity. Nor to the republic, because the principal purpose
for which the people pay tribute and taxes to the prince is so that he
maintain peace and quiet through the administration of justice. Pardon
granted without respect to equity or the public good upsets everything
and from this there often follows the ruin of states because God punishes
56
Botero is here dealing with the classical moral issue of equity or epikeia; he disagrees with
Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, 2.2, q. 120, ad 3, who seems to allow the practice of
epikeia to other than the ruler.
28
Caution regarding the Administration of Justice
in princes the sins of those guilty of murder or unscrupulous business

practices whom they have pardoned, as can be seen in the cases of Saul
and Ahab.57
I do not want to omit saying that one ought never to easily dispense
from the nature of a punishment. When Giovanni di Vega was viceroy
of Sicily,58 he was persistently implored that a grandee of that kingdom
who was condemned to death for parricide be put to death secretly (and
he was offered thirty thousand scudi for this). He responded with those
memorable words, justice does not take place if it is not carried out in its
proper place.
The other condition is that it be speedy. Everyone desires this. But
there is no end to the supplications and memorials made to the prince and
magistrates; the prolongation of the case in this way wears down even the
party in the right so that when sentence is pronounced in its favor it takes
no pleasure in the outcome because the expense involved is frequently
greater than the funds at issue. I remember a case in Paris where six scudi
were at issue; he who lost the case was condemned beyond this to pay
sixty scudi in expenses. Now when such an expense is required to obtain
justice, the poor desire and seek it in vain and turn instead to give up their
right rather than litigate it. Now, a suitable way to make justice expedi-
tious and to cut off such delaying tactics would be to commit the matter
to a committee of nobles. I do not believe that this would be impossible.
Julius Caesar, a figure of great valor in wars, did not judge this considera-
tion unworthy of himself whereby, because the administration of civil law
was scattered here and there and had almost disappeared, he entrusted
to outstanding men the task of shaping it and of selecting the laws most
necessary and useful. Vespasian made a great effort to ensure that suits
were decided expeditiously, and he chose some outstanding persons to
whom he gave the authority to provide summary justice. Titus, his son,
because of his desire to shorten lawsuits, prohibited de eadem re pluribus
legibus agi et quaeri de cujusdam defuncti statu ultra certos annos (that many
laws deal with the same matter and that suits regarding the property of
a deceased person be introduced after a certain number of years).59 And
the Catholic King wrote recently to the senate of Milan that it would be
a great service if someone would propose a more brief and more expedi-
tious way of administering justice and bringing lawsuits to an end. The
57 58
1 Samuel 15:9 and 1 Kings 20:34. 1547–57.
59
Suetonius, Twelve Caesars, “Titus,” 8.14.
29
On Freeing the Needy from Misery
laws are infinite but this would be of little import if subtlety of mind had
not found so many at least apparent contradictions, so many diverse and
contrary interpretations, and finally, so many ways to obscure the truth
and call into question the certain, so that the administration of justice has
never been in a worse state. There is nothing worse than the multitude
of doctors who continually write and who, even if they always show little
judgment, add to the number. He wins not who speaks better but who
cites the most. And still the truth ought not to be found by authority but
by reason, nor by the number of opinions but by the force of the proofs.
19 On Liberality
One also does good by liberality, and this in two ways: one is to free the
needy from misery, the other to promote virtù.
20 On Freeing the Needy from Misery

There is no work more royal nor more divine than to aid the poor. Noth-
ing is more praised in Scripture over everything else than the mercy of
God and the care and protection that he has for the suffering and the
poor, and he recommends the same most strictly to princes, and one can-
not imagine anything more suited and effective to win over the minds
of the populace and to bind them to their lord. The Jews take it as a
maxim that almsgiving preserves their families and contributes to their
greatness. So we see that the most famous Christian princes have been
the most liberal toward the needy: the Constantines, the Charlemagnes,
the Theodosiuses, and others. I do not want to leave out Robert, king
of France,60 who with the abundance of his alms stabilized the kingdom
and crown of France in the house of Hugh Capet, whose son he was, by
feeding a thousand poor and also providing them with carriages so that
they might follow the court and pray for him. Nor do I want to omit
Louis IX,61 who reigned happily for forty-four years; he regularly sup-
ported one hundred and twenty poor people, during Lent one hundred
and forty. And what will I say about Louis, duke of Savoy,62 so kind
toward the poor and so generous toward the needy, who engaged in no
60
Robert the Pious, king of France (r. 996–1031).
61
Saint Louis reigned from 1226–70.
62
Duke of Savoy and Piedmont (r. 1440–65), called “the Generous.”
30
The Promotion of Virtù
other pastime than to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, and provide aid
to whomever had need of it? And if liberality always becomes a prince, yet
is it of greater efficacy through the effect of which we speak at times of
public calamities when hunger or want or plague or earthquake or fires or
floods or the scourges of enemies or war or any other such event afflicts or
torments them. Titus, who was an example of a most friendly prince and
for this reason was called “the delight of mankind,” in times of plague or
other disasters showed not only the care of a prince but the affection of a
father toward the afflicted, consoling them with letters and helping them
effectively in every way that he could. And if the disasters are so great
that little can be done to help them, he at least ought to demonstrate
sympathy, as Caesar Augustus did after the slaughter of Varus’s army
in Germany, and as the king of the Jews did in the attack on Jerusalem
when there was extreme hunger. He put on sackcloth in order to pla-
cate God’s anger and to show that he shared the distress of his people.
Indeed, public disasters provide the appropriate situation and the best
occasion that a prince can encounter to win over the souls and hearts of
his subjects. At that time it is necessary to sow seeds of benevolence and
to plant love in the hearts of subjects which will grow and return with
interest of one hundred per cent. This he ought to do so much the more
promptly the more that his rank and his office require it, because the
need of a private person can be met by an individual but the disaster of a
community requires the remedy from its prince. Besides, it is not expe-
dient that when a private individual wants clearly to provide a remedy,
he allows him to become involved, because it does not contribute to its
security when a community becomes so indebted to a private man. The
Romans knew this when they killed Cassius, Manlius Capitolinus, and
the one and then the other Gracchus because they created a bond with
the Roman people that was not proper for a private citizen partly through
their generous distribution of grain during a time of famine and partly
with laws that benefited the multitude. It is highly effective to encourage
love for a prince if he gives up something himself in order not to burden
or cause hardship for the people.
21 The Promotion of Virtù

Liberality serves not only to raise the poor man out of his poverty but
even more to foster and promote virtù because this sort of generosity,
beyond the fact that it does not create envy since it is directed toward
31
Words of Caution about Liberality
persons who merit it, fosters talent, supports the arts, allows the sciences
to flourish, and adds luster to religion which is the supreme ornament
and splendor of states and binds the people closer to their prince. Out-
standing men, in letters or in other areas, are as it were leaders of the mul-
titude that depends on their judgment; they remain indebted to the king
because of the favor and benefits they receive from him, and they bind the
rest to him. So all outstanding princes have fostered outstanding talent as
well as virtue. Alexander wanted never to be portrayed except by Apelles
nor sculpted except by Lysippus. Even though he favored all artists, Cae-
sar Augustus did not much like that his name be celebrated except in a
serious way by outstanding persons, and he commanded the presidents
of the provinces not to permit that his name be used in the competitions
among poets and other writers so that it not be degraded. Theodosius,
in order to promote the sciences and liberal studies, founded, as some
claim, the studium of Bologna, and increased the number of professors
and stipends at the school of Rome. Emperor Justinian, although not only
unlearned but illiterate, showed prudence when he greatly fostered let-
ters and the liberal arts. Charlemagne, king of France, was unique in this
respect. Besides an infinite number of Latin and Greek schools that he
founded throughout his realm, he founded the universities of Paris and
Pavia, restored that of Bologna, worked to discover outstanding talent,
praised the arts, stimulated virtù so that during his time learning and
morals flourished marvelously. With the arts no less than through his
military valor he gained for himself the title “the Great.” Emperor Con-
stantine Ducas,63 although with no knowledge of letters, favored enthu-
siastically the sciences and learned men, and he was accustomed to say
that he would desire to be ennobled rather for his learning than for his
imperial title. Although still a youth, Otto III earned the admiration of
the whole world by the favor that he showed to letters and to the lettered.
22 Words of Caution about Liberality

Three cautions deserve mention. The first is that one not give to the
unworthy because the gift, beyond the fact that it is poorly invested
when given to one who does not merit it, wrongs worthy persons and
beyond this, it wrongs virtù. So it happens that subjects seeing their
prince generous toward those without merit, disdain virtù and embrace
63
Emperor of the East (r. 1059–67).
32
Words of Caution about Liberality
every other means to obtain his favor and secure rewards which although
they are owed only to virtù, are given more readily for everything else.
Because his predecessor had badly misused the public income and funds,
Emperor Basil the Macedonian64 sent into exile those who had received
money from him as a gift until they made restitution. The second caution
is that he not give immoderately because this cannot last long before the
prince extends his hand where he ought not to do so, turning to robbery
and becoming a tyrannical king. In fourteen years Nero gave away more
than fifty million scudi but, in order to give to his flatterers and other
similar types, he assassinated good men, ruined the rich and the honor-
able in order to enrich the rascals and the worthless. Galba revoked all
the gifts bestowed by him.
Finally, one ought not to give at once all that one intends to give but to
do so little by little, so that he who receives is bound to the giver by the
hope of receiving more. But he who receives all at once withdraws and is
satisfied with this, so that as a gentle rain waters and sinks further into the
earth, so liberality exercised with measure and reason is more effective
for eliciting and preserving the good will of him who is benefited.
64
Basil I, emperor of the East (r. 867–86).
33
Book Two
1 Of Prudence
We now come to those things that lead to reputation; they are principally
two: prudence and valor. These are the two pillars on which every gov-
ernment ought to rest. Prudence serves the prince as his eye, valor as his
hand. Without the former, he would be as a blind man, without the latter
he would be powerless. Prudence aids counsel and valor power. The for-
mer commands, the latter executes; the former perceives the difficulties
of an enterprise, the latter overcomes them; the former draws up a plan,
the latter puts it into effect; the former refines the judgment, the latter
emboldens the heart of great personages.
2 Of the Knowledge Suitable to Sharpen Prudence

For no one is it necessary to know more things, as Vegetius says, than
for a prince whose knowledge is useful and advantageous to his many
subjects.1 But in particular not only useful but necessary for him is the
knowledge of all those things regarding affections and behavior about
which the moral philosophers write abundantly, and of the methods of
government which the political writers explain; moral philosophy com-
municates knowledge of the common passions and politics teaches how,
with rules of good government, to moderate or encourage these pas-
sions and the effects that follow from them in the subjects. And because
war also is the responsibility of the prince, he ought to have complete
1
Concerning Military Matters, 1, Proemium.
34
Of the Knowledge Suitable to Sharpen Prudence
knowledge of military matters, of the qualities of a good captain, of a

good soldier, of the way to choose them, to draw them up in battle for-
mations, to improve them, and also knowledge of the subjects that are
related to military science, geometry, architecture, and all that is related
to mechanics in which Julius Caesar stood out. But I do not intend that
he attend to these matters as an engineer or as a craftsman but as a prince,
that is, that he have enough knowledge of them that he know how to dis-
tinguish the true from the false and the good from the wicked, and from
the many proposals made to him, to choose the best. It is not his respon-
sibility to construct bridges or engines of war, nor to emplace or handle
artillery nor to design or build fortresses but to make good use of those
who make profession of such skills.
But because the arts of peace and the military arts are not well served
without an eloquence that soothes tempers, quiets the republic, and leads
the people, he must stand out in it. Because eloquence is not able to be
vigorous, effective, noble, without knowledge of the natural world, which
is the foundation for things artificial, it would be well for him to under-
stand enough for him to be able to make judgments and to speak intel-
ligently about it. To have knowledge of the disposition of the world, of
the order of nature, of the movements of the heavens, of the qualities of
simple and compound bodies, of the generation and corruption of things,
of the essence of the soul, of its powers, of the properties of herbs, plants,
rocks, minerals, of the affections and as it were of the behavior of animals,
of the production of imperfect substances, rain, clouds, hail, thunder,
snow, lightning, rainbows, of the origins of springs, rivers, lakes, winds,
earthquakes, the ebb and flow of rivers and the various movements of the
sea, they all stimulate the intelligence, enlighten judgment, and raise the
soul to great things. From all this is born judgment in administration of
the republic and magnanimity for undertakings, as we know of Alexan-
der the Great, and a certain grandeur in speaking and talking as one
reads of Pericles who, shining brightly and thundering, turned Greece
upside down, winning over the people to courses they had opposed. This
outstanding personality learned eloquence not from the rhetoricians but
from the greatest philosopher of his times.2 Nor ought a prince to be ter-
rified by the variety and greatness of the matters that we propose to him,
nor fail to trust in his intelligence or in the times, for what is difficult for
a private person, and perhaps impossible, ought to easily stir a prince to
2
Anaxagoras.
35
Of History
action. And among the other means to achieve outstanding success, one
is to have near him persons scarce in every profession: mathematicians,
philosophers, captains, soldiers, outstanding orators from whom at table
and elsewhere he is able to learn in a few words what is learned in the
schools in many months. Let him put to these men questions for discus-
sion while walking, riding, and on every other occasion. Let him keep
them on their toes in such a way that they come into his presence pre-
pared and with a desire to converse about notable and rare happenings.
Spending time with them that others spend with jesters he will acquire
notably superior knowledge that will be of the greatest moment for the
perfection of his intellect and the governance of his people. Who was ever
more occupied with perpetual projects than Alexander the Great and
Julius Caesar? They never abandoned the study of the sciences, and they
never took less account of the pen than of the sword. Who was busier than
Charlemagne? But he never lacked time to listen to men outstanding in
doctrine in whom he took great pleasure. And no less so Charles the Wise
of France of whose favor for the literati and the study of Sacred Scripture
one cannot say enough. And so also of Alfonso X, king of Castile,3 who,
besides his other studies, claimed that while attending to his other duties
he had read the whole of the Sacred Scriptures with commentaries forty
times; and Alfonso I of Naples,4 than whom no king ever faced more dif-
ficulties, was accustomed to say that an illiterate prince was a crowned
ass, and, with the value that he placed in letters, filled his court and his
whole kingdom with men outstanding in every profession, as did Francis
I the kingdom of France. Trajan, emperor of such great fame, was not
ashamed to ask Plutarch to write out for him instructions on how to gov-
ern the Empire in a praiseworthy manner and with authority, adding that
he would be highly pleased if he illustrated his instructions with exam-
ples.5
3 Of History
But there is nothing more necessary for the perfection of prudence and
for the administration of the republic than experience, mother of the
3
Alfonso the Wise, king of Castile and León (r. 1252–84).
4
Alfonso I of Aragon reigned in Naples 1442–58.
5
Institutio Traiani, attributed to Plutarch; it was integrated into the text of John of Salis-
bury’s Policraticus of the twelfth century, a work on which Botero drew extensively for this
chapter (BD, 117, n. 1).
36
Of History
above-mentioned virtù. Many things appear to be based on reason so

long as one discusses them at leisure in the council room but then, when
put into effect, do not succeed. Many appear easy to implement which
practice then shows to be not only difficult but impossible. Now experi-
ence is of two sorts; it is acquired either directly by us or through others.
The first is necessarily much restricted as to place and time because one
is not able to be in many places nor to have experience of many things,
but he ought to exert himself to extract the essence of prudence from
what he sees and hears. The second way is of two types; one may learn
from the living or the dead. The first, even though it is not very large as
to time, can nevertheless encompass many places because ambassadors,
spies, merchants, soldiers, and similar persons have been in many places
and participated in many events, for pleasure, business, or some other
reason. They are able to inform us about an infinite number of things
necessary or useful for our office. But a much greater field from which
to learn is that offered us by the dead with the histories written by them.
These take in the whole life of the world in all its parts, and indeed his-
tory is the most vast theater that one can imagine. There, at the expense
of others man learns what is useful for him; there he sees shipwrecks
without dread, wars without danger, the customs of various peoples and
the institutions of different republics, all without expense. There passes
before one’s eyes the principles, the means, and the ends and the causes
of the growth and collapse of empires. There one learns the causes why
some princes reign quietly, others face many troubles, some flourish with
the art of peace, others with the valor of arms, others spend profusely
without profit, others frugally with dignity. History is of such great util-
ity that Lucullus, having been dispatched to the Mithridatic War, applied
himself during the voyage, without any teacher, to reading about the past,
and became one of the great captains of his time.6 And, not to cite only
our examples, Muhammad II, king of the Turks,7 who was the first to
have been called the Great Turk, continually had some ancient history at
hand. Selim I8 took great delight in reading of the deeds of Alexander
the Great and Julius Caesar, and he had them translated into Turkish, so
that he was much like the one and the other in the ardor and quickness
of his campaigns.
6
118–56 bce, Roman consul and general.
7
Ottoman sultan from 1444–46 and 1451–81, the conqueror of Constantinople. Also known
as Mehmed II the Conqueror.
8
Ottoman sultan from 1512–20, who greatly expanded Ottoman holdings.
37
Of the Location of a Country
Nor is poetry to be overlooked. We read that Alexander the Great

drew considerable inspiration from Homer. Even if the poets tell ficti-
tious stories, they present them in such a way that they stimulate spirits
and inflame them with a certain ardor to imitate the heroes that they cel-
ebrate. We read that Ferdinand, marquis of Pescara,9 having read in his
adolescence romances, was so set on fire by that desire for glory that he
became a distinguished captain. I speak here of heroic and lyric poets
who in an elevated and grave style celebrate the valor of great person-
ages, such as Homer, Pindar, and Vergil. The others have for the most
part with their immodesty and lasciviousness disgraced the Muses rather
than ennobling and honoring them, and they are more suited to demor-
alize their readers than to rouse them to virtue.
4 Of the Knowledge of the Nature and Inclinations

of Subjects10
Because nothing is more necessary for good government than to know
the nature, the minds, and the inclinations of the subjects (because these
ought to influence the form the government takes) we return at the start
to the consideration of the above-mentioned topics. We say therefore that
the nature, inclinations, and humors of persons can be learned from their
location, their age, their fortune, their education. But because many have
spoken of education, and Aristotle has spoken divinely of age and fortune
in his On Rhetoric,11 I will content myself with a couple of words about
location.
5 Of the Location of a Country

With regard to location, one ought to consider whether it is north or
south, facing the east or the west, flat or mountainous, subject to winds
or not, because as in every matter the good lies in the middle, so in the
9
Ferdinand Francis d’Avalos, called Ferrante (1489–1525), marquis of Pescara, husband of
Vittoria Colonna, general in chief of the imperial army under Charles V.
10
Botero turns here to an old topic (see Ptolemy of Lucca and his continuation of Thomas
Aquinas’s De regimine principum) which comes to the fore again in Machiavelli (The Prince,
dedication and chap. 5) and in Jean Bodin (Les six livres de la république, edn. of 1583, 4.7
and 5.1), the knowledge of the nature or character of individual peoples. The theory of
climate is important here; it postulates an interdependence of geographical zones, the
customs of peoples, and their forms of government (BD, 119, n. 2).
11
Botero may refer here to Aristotle, Rhetoric, 2.12–17.
38
universe. The peoples who have been placed between the north and the
south and between the hot and the cold are better qualified than the oth-
ers because they are endowed in mind and spirit and most suited to rule
and to govern. So we see that the great empires have been placed in the
hands of such people, the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Mongols, Turks,
Romans, French, Spanish. The northern peoples, but not those at the
extreme north, are spirited but without guile; on the other hand south-
erners are astute but lack boldness. The northerners have bodies similar
to their souls, that is, they are tall, heavy, and full of blood and vigor; on
the contrary the southerners are thin and dry and more suited to flight
than to resistance. The former have a simple, genuine spirit, the latter
are secretive and cunning in their ways. The former have much of the
lion in them, the latter much of the fox. The northerners are slow and
consistent in their actions, the southerners are impetuous and frivolous;
the northerners merry and subject to Bacchus, the southerners melan-
cholic and subject to Venus. Those in the middle then, sharing in the
extremes, have modest and moderate ways, are not astute but prudent,
not ferocious but brave. So the northerners rely on power, and they gov-
ern themselves either as a republic or an elective monarchy as do today
the Transylvanians, the Poles, the Danes, and the Swedes. And even if
now the southern peoples live for the most part in hereditary principal-
ities, this is not because their nature is such that they prefer absolute
monarchy but because monarchy is of such excellence that it transforms
all other forms of government into itself. But yet we see that even if the
French live under a king, they desire that he be peaceful, friendly, and
of such a manner that he be as their brother or at least, as they say, their
cousin. The Scots have had up to the present a hundred and six kings,
nearly an incredible number, more than half of whom they have mur-
dered. It is known how many civil wars the English have had, how many
variations of government, how many changes of kings! The southerners,
much given over to speculation, often govern themselves in part through
religion and superstition; there astrology was born; there magic has its
origins; there priests, gymnosophists,12 Brahmins, magicians are held in
esteem. The Empire of the Saracens, based completely on the vanity of a
highly foolish superstition and a most brutal law, which they think came
down from heaven, had its origins in Arabia. The Sharif, after deceiving
12
“Naked philosophers,” a name given in the West to Indian holy men given over to asceti-
cism and contemplation.
39
the people in the dress of a pilgrim or hermit, not long ago had himself
made king of Morocco and Fez,13 and the Great Negus, whom we call
Prester John,14 obtained as it were adoration from his followers because
he shows them nothing else of himself but his foot. We see then that
of the heresies that have afflicted the church of God those born more
toward the south have had more of the speculative and the subtle; on the
other hand, those of the north more of the physical and the coarse. To
the south some have denied the divinity, some the humanity, others the
plurality of wills in Christ, others the procession of the Holy Spirit from
the Word and other such things. To the north they are not so concerned
about things high and sublime; they have denied fasts and vigils, pen-
itence and all the practices that prevent the increase of blood of which
they have an abundance, the celibacy of priests, and other such things
which, even if they deeply conform to reason and the Gospel, are repul-
sive to flesh and to the senses which largely hold them in sway. They deny
the authority of the Vicar of Christ because, being of a large heart, they
love liberty immoderately; and as they govern themselves temporally in a
republic or under a king who depends upon their election and their will,
so they would want a spiritual government of this type. And as the north-
ern captains and soldiers make use of force in war more than artifice, so
their ministers in disputes with Catholics rely more on curses than on
reason.
But the peoples in the middle as they are located between north and
south, govern themselves in a moderate manner, that is, with justice and
reason. So they have established laws, created constitutions, and mas-
tered the arts of peace and war. The peoples living in the extremes of
north and south, in the excess of cold and heat, show much more of the
brutish than others, and the one and the other are small of body and
poorly dressed because the former are at home in the cold and the latter
suffocated by the heat. In the one there is an abundance of phlegm which
dulls them, in the other melancholy which nearly turns them into beasts.
And that which I have said of the peoples on this side of the equinox
13
The Sharif claimed to be a descendant of Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, and
the fourth caliph of the Arabs; in 1549 a Moroccan family claimed this descent, took
the throne, founded the prosperous dynasty of the Sadiana, and expelled the Portuguese
(Waley, 39, note).
14
The Great Negus was the king of Ethiopia or Abyssinia; by this time he was identified
with the mythical Nestorian Christian, Prester John, who was thought to be a ruler first
in Asia and then in Africa.
40
Points about Prudence
should also be said of those in the same distance from it on the other
side.
Those to the east are easy-going by nature and tractable, beautiful and
stately persons; those to the west more proud and reserved. The peoples
located to the east and to the south, such as the Tuscans and Genoese,
possess a subtle mind and shrewd ways; on the other hand, those who
look to the west and to the north possess a more open and simple soul.
The inhabitants of lands subject to unpredictable and vehement winds
have restless and turbulent habits, those who inhabit quiet and tranquil
places take on the natural air with gentleness and consistency of manners.
Mountain-dwellers tend to the fierce and the wild, valley-dwellers to the
effeminate and the soft. In barren countries industry and diligence flour-
ish, in fertile lands leisure and refinement. Maritime peoples through
their considerable contact and dealings with foreigners show themselves
to be shrewd and wise and successful in their business dealings; on the
other hand, those who live inland are sincere, loyal, and easily contented.
6 Points about Prudence15

Let it be taken for a settled matter that in the deliberations of princes
interest overcomes every other consideration, and so the prince ought
not to trust any friendship nor relationship nor alliance nor any other
bond with negotiating partners that is not based on interest.
Meet with vigorous measures the beginnings of any trouble because
with time disorder increases and gathers strength. But when the trou-
ble is too much for your forces, stall for time because with time matters
change and vary as do their features, and whoever has time has life.16 Do
not ignore minor disorders because all troubles are small in their begin-
nings but in the course of time grow and threaten disaster as we see to be
15
This chapter is a collection of political cautions in the style of the editions of the Consigli
e avvertimenti of Francesco Guicciardini (later known as the Ricordi) published between
1570 and 1580 (BD, 123, n. 3). Botero has added important points to this chapter in
subsequent editions. The following notes reproduce five additions that he inserted in RS
1598.
16
RS 1598 adds: “Do not agree that anything be brought into council that includes any
change or novelty in the state because those matters that are taken up in negotiations or in
council acquire credibility and positive evaluation no matter how strange and pernicious
they may be. The ruin of France and Flanders began with two memoranda.” One was
read by Gaspard de Coligny to Francis II that called for tolerance for the Reformed in
1560, and the second was presented in 1566 by Henri de Broderode and Louis de Nassau
to Margaret of Parma, then governing the Netherlands for Philip II, that advocated the
end of persecution for the Reformed and the recall of the Inquisitors (BD, 124, n. 2).
41
the case when imperceptible vapors gradually give birth to storms and
horrible tempests.17
Do not undertake many enterprises of importance at the same time
because he who undertakes much holds on to little.
Establish yourself well in acquired territories and do not attempt any-
thing else before you have firmly secured your position; so it is the part
of a wise king not to embark on a new enterprise in the first years of his
reign. For this reason Ariosto, intending to praise King Francis, inad-
vertently charged him with imprudence when he said that he began the
campaign in Lombardy “the first year of his happy reign when the crown
was not yet firmly fixed on his head.”18 Ladislaus, son of Charles III,
king of Naples,19 not having yet established himself firmly in the pater-
nal kingdom, went off to take possession of the kingdom of Hungary to
which he had been summoned. But scarcely arrived in Zara he received
the news that the Hungarians, having changed their mind, had placed
Sigismund, king of Bohemia, on the throne, and that the barons of his
own kingdom had revolted.20
It is the part of a wise man sometimes to yield to the weather and to
avoid severe storms because there is no better way to take shelter against
an overwhelming storm than to lower the sails. In this respect Philip,
king of the Macedonians, was excellent. When at the start of his reign
he saw an infinite number of enemies coming at him, he chose to come
to terms with the more powerful at cost to himself, and he made war
on the weaker ones. So he bolstered the spirit of his own people and
demonstrated courage to his enemies. The Venetians when they were
attacked by Louis, king of Hungary, and his allies wisely yielded and so
secured their own position,21 but not wanting to yield in the war made
17
RS 1598 adds: “Do not think in your deliberations that it is possible to avoid all disdvan-
tages because just as it is impossible that in this world something be generated without
the corruption of something else, so to every good act is joined some evil. Habet aliquid
ex iniquo omne magnum exemplum; quod contra singulos utilitate publica rependitur (There is
an element of evil in every exemplary punishment imposed on individuals for the public
good).” Tacitus, Annals, 14.44.4.
18
Francis I of France invaded Italy in the first year of his reign, 1515.
19
Ladislaus reigned 1386–1414.
20
RS 1598 adds: “Do not clash with those more powerful nor carry on several wars at the
same time because ne Hercules quidem contra duos (not even Hercules [could prevail] against
two) [reported of Socrates by Plato in the Phaedo, 89c.]. The Romans kept their eyes
carefully on this as have the Turks. Dissimulate injuries from the more powerful and
offenses that cannot be punished.”
21
1357–58. This alludes to the Peace of Zadar in 1358.
42
against them by Louis XII, king of France, they were on the point of
losing everything.22
There is nothing more unworthy of a prudent prince than to entrust
himself to the decision of fortune and chance; in this Tiberius Caesar was
most firm. Immotum adversum eos sermones fixumque Tiberio fuit non omit-
tere caput rerum, neque se in casum dare (Notwithstanding these remon-
strances, it was the inflexible purpose of Tiberius Caesar not to quit the
headquarters of empire or to imperil himself or the state).23 Among mod-
ern captains are Prospero Colonna24 and Ferrante of Toledo, duke of
Alba,25 to say nothing of Fabius Maximus and other ancients; but incom-
parable in this respect is Philip, king of Spain.26
Do not make sudden changes, because such actions have something
of the violent, and violence rarely succeeds and never produces a lasting
effect. Charles Martel, aspiring to become king of France, did not want
as majordomo of the king suddenly to usurp the title of king but took the
title of prince of the French nobility. His son Pepin then easily obtained
the title of king and the kingdom. The Caesars from perpetual dicta-
tors became tribunes, then princes, and finally emperors and absolute
masters.
Having prepared to undertake some campaign, do not put it off; when
this happens the delay usually causes disorder among your forces and not
among your enemy’s. Nocuit semper differre paratis (It is always harmful
to delay when you are prepared).27
Prefer old things to new and the quiet to the upsetting because this
is to place the certain before the uncertain and the secure before the
dangerous.
22
The French and their allies in the League of Cambrai defeated the Venetians decisively at
the Battle of Agnadello in 1509.
23
Tacitus, Annals, 1.47.
24
Prospero Colonna (1452–1523), a successful Italian commander in the Italian Wars
who under Charles V became commander of the imperial army at the end of his
career.
25
Fernando Alvarez de Toledo (1507–82), 3rd duke of Alba, was considered by many the
finest general of his age. He held many military and administrative offices under Charles
V and Philip II, including the governorship of the Netherlands at the time of the Dutch
Revolt.
26
RS 1598: “He who has neighbors more powerful than himself should do everything to
keep peace between them because should they go to war, if he helps the one he offends
the other; if he assists both he spends his own resources without gaining anything; if he
sides with neither, both consider him an enemy.”
27
Lucan, On the Civil War, 1.281.
43
Remember that saying of Demetrio Falareo to Tolomeo Filadelfo, that

he would find in many beautiful secret books that which no one would
dare to say to him.28
Do not break with powerful republics if you are not at a great advan-
tage and so sure of victory because the love of liberty is so powerful and
has such roots in the souls of those who have enjoyed it for a while that
to conquer it and to extirpate it is nearly impossible; and the enterprises
and counsels of princes die with them but the designs and deliberations
of free cities are as it were immortal.29
Similarly, do not break with the church because it is difficult that such
an enterprise be just, and it will always appear to be impious and will
not advance anything. The dukes of Milan, the Florentines, the kings of
Naples, and the Venetians all learned this; their wars with the church cost
them much and benefited them nothing because the church never loses
its claims, and even if one pope dissimulates them another will take them
up and revive them.
Do not wage continued war with your neighbors because this will make
them warlike and bellicose. After he was wounded by the Thebans, Age-
silaus was told that he had received the reward that he deserved from that
people whom he had taught how to manage their forces through his con-
tinuing wars with them. The Turk has practiced this art with Christian
princes; he has never waged a long war against one of them but attacking
now this one, now that one and having taken an important area from one
and a kingdom from another, then, not to give them time to prepare their
forces, has made peace or a treaty and then turned elsewhere. Likewise
he has not given time to peoples to become spirited and bold through the
continuation of the war but after taking from them some city or state, has
readily granted them peace or a treaty. So it happens that their troops
have always been veterans and ours always new because he has contin-
ually waged war with one of our princes and none of them has warred
continually with him.
But much less does it make sense to carry on a war with your sub-
jects, especially your natural subjects, because they become embittered
and ever more alienated. And if in the beginning they were stirred by
28
This is a citation of a comment of Demetrio Falareo (345–282 bce), a Peripatetic philoso-
pher, to Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, Ptolemaic king of Egypt (r. 285–246 bce), regarding
the translation of Jewish religious texts. It is found in Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities,
12.
29
Machiavelli, The Prince, 5.
44
resentment, in the long run they break out into open rebellion as hap-
pened to King Sigismund in the war of Bohemia30 and to the Catholic
King in the war of Flanders. No people is so shameless that at the first
moment without warning it revolts against its prince, because the words
treason and rebellion mean infamy and hatred; but once the swords are
bloodied and the pretense and the care to proceed justly has been torn
away, a complete break and rebellion are the result. Alexander, king of
the Jews,31 after warring with his subjects for a period of six years during
which fifty thousand persons were killed, because he did not see any end
to the campaign, asked finally how it would be possible to reach some
form of a good peace. “Not otherwise,” they responded, “than with your
death.” He did at the end what he should have done at the beginning.
Do not trust so much in a peace when you disarm because a peace with
disarmament is weak.
Take it for sure that in campaigns quickness is of much greater impor-
tance than force because it strikes without warning whereas force is usu-
ally foreseen; quickness throws the enemy into disorder, force crushes,
and it is easier to stir up disorder and then crush than to crush that which
remains well-ordered.
In the same way take it for certain that major campaigns are brought
to a successful conclusion by patience not by force; force presses ahead
with violence, patience weakens by taking advantage of opportunity and
time, and it is easier to weaken and then wear down than to overcome at
one stroke.
Study to recognize the proper time for campaigns and for negotiations
and embrace them at the right moment. Nothing is of greater importance
than a certain period of time which is called opportunity; it is nothing
other than a combination of circumstances that facilitates an endeavor
that before or after that point would be difficult. In this Philip II, king
of Macedon, stood out; in an admirable fashion he took advantage of
the weakness and discord of the Greek city-states in order to achieve
his goal. No less shrewd than he in this respect was Amoratto I, king of
the Turks,32 who, in order to enlarge his empire in Europe exploited the
differences among the Greek princes. In the last resort neither forces nor
cleverness are of much use if they are not favored and guided as it were
by opportunity.
30
This refers to the Hussite Wars, 1419–36.
31
Alexander Jannaeus (Jonathan), c. 126–76 bce, king of Judaea.
32
Murad I, Ottoman sultan (r. 1360–89).
45
Do not admit into your council of state any person dependent upon
another prince because the advice of one who has at heart the interest of
another cannot be sincere.33
Do not entrust the execution of a campaign to one who in the council
was not of the opinion that it should be undertaken because the will is
not able to be effective when it is not moved by the intellect. On the day
of Lepanto, Occhiali, who did not share the view that they should engage
in combat, avoided the battle.34
Consult carefully about undertakings but do not prescribe the method
of carrying them out because this depends in large part on the oppor-
tune time and the situation at that time, all of which change continually.
To limit his execution of the plan is nothing other than to cripple the
minister and bungle the outcome.
Do not think to avoid labors and dangers by fleeing them but by going
out to meet them and putting them to flight because if you flee they run
at you and increase in number, but if you go out to meet them, they with-
draw and dissolve into nothing.
Be careful not to show yourself partial to the nobility rather than to
the people or vice versa, because in this way you will become not a prince
but the head of a party.
Do not trust anyone who has been offended by you or who thinks that
he has been offended by you;35 the desire for revenge is extremely power-
ful and it is awakened when the opportunity presents itself as the example
of Count Giuliano36 and Charles of Bourbon37 shows.
The ministers who are present with you at court will look after them-
selves. Take care of those who are absent because they usually incur more
expenses and endure more hardship than the others.
33
RS 1598: “and there is nothing that enters through more ways into the councils of princes
and of others and more subtly than interest.”
34
Occhiali or Uccialli was the name in Italy given to the notorious Ulug Ali, corsair and
captain in the Ottoman navy. Of Calabrian origin and a convert to Islam, he died in 1587.
Contrary to what Botero writes, he inflicted heavy losses on the Christians at Lepanto and
returned to Istanbul (BD, 131, n. 2).
35
Machiavelli, Discourses, 3.17.
36
According to partially legendary accounts, Count Julian, the Christian governor of Ceuta,
encouraged and aided the Omeyyades to conquer the Iberian Peninsula in 711; the Span-
ish king, Roderick, had violated his daughter (BD, 132, n. 1).
37
The High Constable of France, Charles de Bourbon (1490–1527), took revenge on Francis
I for attempting to seize a part of the Bourbon inheritance by becoming the leading general
of Charles V (BD, 132, n. 2).
46
Of Secrecy
Do not oppose the multitude directly. You will not easily conquer
them, and if you do, this will happen with a great loss of affection. But
after the manner of a good sailor, take your direction from the wind, and
appear to want and to give that which you cannot prevent or take away.
7 Of Secrecy
There is nothing more important for him who carries on negotiations of
peace or war than secrecy. It facilitates the implementation of plans and
the management of campaigns which if discovered would have encoun-
tered many substantial difficulties. Just as mines, if they are hidden, pro-
duce marvelous effects but otherwise do harm rather than bring benefits,
so are the counsels of princes, so long as they remain secret, effective and
more easily implemented but this is not the case if they suddenly come
to light. Then they lose all their force and are more difficult to carry
out because their enemies or rivals seek to oppose or to counter them.
Grand Duke Cosimo de’ Medici, a prince of outstanding judgment, con-
sidered secrecy to be one of the principal features of the government of
states. But the way to keep things secret is to communicate them to no
one, which that prince was able to do with confidence because he had
so much experience of affairs and so great judgment that he was able
to make decisions himself. So one reads was Antigonus, king of Asia,38
who once upon being asked by his son Demetrius when he wanted to
summon the army out of its quarters, responded angrily, “Do you alone
think that you will not be able to hear the sound of the trumpets?” So
too was the Macedonian Metellus39 who responded to one who asked
about his plan for the contest in Spain, “Be content,” he said, “not to
know, because if I thought that the shirt on my back knew what I have in
mind, I would right away throw it in the fire.” Peter of Aragon40 made
the very same response to Martin IV who wanted to know to what pur-
pose he had assembled the great armada with which he took Sicily from
the French. But if the prince does not possess the valor to make the deci-
sion himself or if the business at hand requires the input of others, this
should be done with a few and secretly because a secret known to many
38
Antigonus the One-Eyed, a general and satrap under Alexander the Great, founded the
Antigonid dynasty in Macedonia, where he ruled from 306–301 bce.
39
Metellus Macedonicus (210–115 bce), a Roman consul and general under whom Mace-
donia became a Roman province, hence “Macedonicus.”
40
Peter III of Aragon (r. 1276–85) conquered Sicily.
47
Of Counsels
will not long remain secret. And because councillors, ambassadors, sec-
retaries, spies are usually ministers who ordinarily share the secrets, per-
sons ought to be chosen for these offices who either by nature or by effort
are slow to speak and very shrewd. Dissimulation helps here. Louis XI,
king of France,41 saw in it an important feature of the art of rule, and
Tiberius Caesar prided himself on nothing more than the art of dissim-
ulation of which he was a master. Dissimulation means to pretend not to
know or to care about that which one does know or care about, as sim-
ulation is to pretend and to take one thing for another. Because there is
nothing more contrary to dissimulation than the force of anger, it is expe-
dient that the prince moderate this passion above all in such a way that
he does not blurt out in words or in other signs his mind and his feelings.
Alfonso, duke of Calabria,42 while in Lombardy for the war with Ferrara,
often allowed to come from his mouth that upon his return to Naples he
would straighten out matters in the kingdom by punishing some. These
words, reported, were the cause of the rebellion of Aquila and the barons.
Passerino, lord of Mantua,43 after threatening Louis Gonzaga, was fore-
stalled and murdered with his son. Francesco d’Orso of Forli because he
saw himself to be threatened by Count Geronimo Riario,44 anxious about
this, murdered him in his room; threats are the arms of the threatened.
8 Of Counsels
Because I have mentioned counsels and designs above, I do not wish to
omit saying what the counsels of the prince ought to be.
First of all, he ought to profess not astuteness but prudence. Prudence
is a virtue whose function is to seek and recover suitable means to reach
the goal; astuteness tends to the same goal but differs from prudence in
that in the choice of means prudence seeks the honorable more than the
useful, while astuteness takes account only of interest.45
Counsels ought not to be valued because they have more of the subtle
and the shrewd; for the most part these do not succeed because inas-
much as their subtlety is greater, their execution must be more right
41
1461–83. The dictum “qui nescit dissimulare nescit regnare” is usually attributed to him.
42
Alfonso II of Aragon (1448–95), duke of Calabria and son of Ferdinand I of Naples,
became king of Naples from 1494–95.
43
Ronaldo Bonacolsi, called “Passerino,” lord of Mantua and Modena, was overthrown by
Louis Gonzaga in 1328.
44
1443–88, Lord of Imola and Forlì.
45
This paragraph disappeared from RS 1590 and subsequent editions.
48
Of Counsels
on the mark. This cannot ordinarily be achieved because grand projects

require for their execution many means and, as a result, meet with many
unanticipated situations. And so as the more intricately a clock is put
together and assembled, so much the more easily it fails to work and to
tell time accurately, so designs and projects that require a certain minute
subtlety for the most part do not succeed. Nor ought those projects be
recommended that have more of the grandiose and magnificent instead
of those with more simplicity and security, because the former usually
result in embarrassment and harm. So it was with the plan of Anti-
ochus the Great46 when he caused to be buried with much honor and
pomp the Macedonians who died in the battle between King Philip and
Q. Flaminius.47 This did not at all win him the favor of those peoples
and was the reason that he broke completely with the king. On this Livy
wrote that due to their nature and their vanity, kings are accustomed
ordinarily to embrace counsels that appear to be good but have little
substance.48 Much less ought one to commit to vast plans that include
nearly immense features for which he is not able to supply either the
funds, the life, or the forces and which require such great resources. Such
were ordinarily the plans of Emperor Maximilian I.49 Also dangerous are
plans of great boldness which, even if in the beginning they exhibit I
do not know what spirit and bravado, encounter in their implementation
enough difficulties and troubles and end up in misery and desperation.
So in their place they ought to follow well-founded and mature counsels
subject as little as possible to chance. Although this ought always to be
observed, nevertheless, when it is a question of acquiring and mounting
a campaign against enemies, sometimes one can risk something (because
he who does not risk does not gain) and demonstrate boldness because
ardor is more suited to him who attacks. But where it is a question of
preserving what one has and retaining what one has acquired, nothing is
less expedient for a wise king than to take a risk, because the loss would
be much greater than any useful gain. Long consultations are appropri-
ate for great princes because they ought to attend more readily to con-
servation than to acquisition; prompt and rapid deliberations are more
suitable for those who look to increase their territory rather than to pre-
serve it and, because recognition of the value of counsel does not depend
46
Antiochus III, the Great, Seleucid king of the Hellenistic Syrian Empire (r. 223–187 bce).
47
This probably refers to the Battle of Cynoscephalae in Thessaly in 197 bce in which the
Roman general Quinctius Flaminius defeated Philip V of Macedon.
48 49
History of Rome, 36.8. Reigned 1493–1519.
49
Of Not Introducing Novelties
less on practical knowledge than on speculation, the advice of practical

men ought not to be less valued than that of persons of great intelligence
because, as Aristotle says, judgment is no less in practical men than in the
learned.50 So one ought not to easily trust in new inventions if experience
has not first warranted it.
9 Of Not Introducing Novelties

Nothing is more hateful in governments than to change things which
have acquired esteem through their antiquity. Nihil motum ex antiquo
probabile est, says Livy, veteribus, nisi quae usus evidenter arguit, stari
malunt (No movement away from the ancient is acceptable; they prefer to
remain with the old unless usage evidently convinces otherwise).51 This
is always to be avoided especially in the beginnings of a government. So
Saul waited two years after he was elected king and anointed by Samuel, a
private man as it were, without a court and without a guard; so he thought
to avoid envy and rivalry.52 Caesar Augustus, in order to lessen the nov-
elty of his principate, did not want to be called emperor or king but estab-
lished the Empire with the title of tribune, and he based his laws and
ordinances as much as possible on examples from the past. But there was
no one who made greater use of antiquity than Tiberius Caesar; he also
covered and as it were honored with ancient expressions the crimes and
tyrannies that he introduced from day to day, not only his praiseworthy
statutes and orders. The novelty brought forth hatred, and the change
of deep-seated customs was not possible without resentment. Vonones,
king of the Parthians, was chased from the kingdom because he lived
there in the manner of Rome where he had been for a long time.53 More
serious was the blunder of Louis XI, king of France;54 after succeeding
to the kingdom, he deprived of their office and rank all those who had
enjoyed the favor and esteem of his father. Because he was new to gov-
ernment and so had neither the knowledge nor experience of affairs, he
should have at least retained the former ministers because if the prince
and ministers are all likewise newcomers, changes necessarily follow as
Louis himself showed when he found himself more than once in serious
trouble. And if they have to make changes, it is necessary that they pro-
ceed little by little and as it were imperceptibly imitating nature which
50 51 52
Metaphysics, 1.1.980. History of Rome, 34.8. 1 Samuel 13–15.
53 54
Vonones II (d. 51 ce). Reigned 1461–83.
50
Of Valor
does not move directly from winter to summer nor from summer to win-
ter but places two temperate seasons between them, that is, spring and
autumn, so that their pleasant character renders tolerable the passage
from cold to hot and the return from hot to cold. Nec res hunc tenerae
possent perferre laborem, si non tanta quies inter frigusque caloremque iret,
et exciperet coeli indulgentia terras (Nor could the tender beings endure
the world’s harshness did not between the seasons of cold and heat come
such repose, and earth receive the blessings of a tender sky).55
10 Of Valor
Valor consists in prudence and vigor of spirit, which two things united
in one man produce marvelous deeds. And for the maintenance of states
valor is of much greater importance than power. Aristotle proves this
with the example of princes who acquire a state and rarely if ever lose
it as their descendants do who have not acquired virtù along with the
power of their ancestors.56 Here we will speak of valor only inasmuch
as it consists of courage. Now courage proceeds partly from the spirit,
partly from the body, and partly from external forces of which we will
speak in their place. And if the spirit is the principal source because it
often prevails over the infirmity of the body, governs it, and keeps it on
its feet, nevertheless the unhealthy or ill-formed body will ordinarily drag
down the spirit. So it is desirable that the prince be a person well put-
together and with a healthy and hardy constitution, and nature ought to
be helped by those arts which preserve and promote good health. Sobri-
ety and moderation in food preserve health; the vices of gluttony, drunk-
enness, and excess fill the body with ill humors and indigestion from
which come gout and other sicknesses which make life miserable and no
less tedious than for others. Continence helps the preservation of health
and of strength; unbridled lust weakens beasts as well as men, hastens old
age, enfeebles spirits, wears down nerves, weakens sight, and opens many
paths to gout, drooling, and death. Exercise then increases strength, and
it ought to be such that stimulates and moves all the members as do ball
games especially recommended by Galen, and the hunt. To secure this
result it also helps to accustom oneself to diverse and contrary condi-
tions, to cold and to hot, to keeping watch, to hunger, to thirst, to water
55
Vergil, Georgics, 2.343–45, trans. H.R. Fairclough (Cambridge, MS, 1916).
56
Politics, 3.14 (1286b). This citation does not seem to address directly the issue that Botero
is discussing.
51
Of the Ways to Preserve Reputation
and wine, and to every variety of life and food. In this way a man secures
his health and fortifies his members and strengthens his person and so
makes himself ready and able for every accident and for any obstacle. If
the training of the prince requires him to face an infinite number of sit-
uations, his body hardens and is disposed so that no obstacle is new or
arduous for him. But because sometimes the weakness of nature over-
comes every aide whatever be the condition of the body, it is necessary
that the spirit at least be filled with vigor and courage and a certain vivac-
ity that readies it to face all difficulties and dangers to which necessity
summons it. He ought finally to overcome the trials of the body with the
greatness of spirit of which Charles V gave us an outstanding example in
the War of Germany where even though he was tormented by the gout
in such a way that he was not able to keep his foot in the stirrup and
so supported it with a sling, nevertheless he stood the whole winter, a
bitter one, amid snow and mud and supported the weight of his body
with his vigor of spirit. Now, the ways to keep the spirit awake and alert
are all those that foster health, that hinder melancholy, that incite a man
to the desire for honor and glory: to speak about the virtues proper to
a prince and about the campaigns of great generals, to read the lives of
some emperors and persons of great valor, to converse with men no less
courageous than prudent, and finally to consider his duty. This brings to
my mind the memorable saying of Emperor Vespasian who at the final
moment of his life while bleeding said Imperatorem stantem mori oportere
(An emperor ought to die standing up).57
11 Of the Ways to Preserve Reputation

Up until now we have discussed the virtues that give birth to reputation:
prudence and valor. Now we discuss some particular ways by which it
can be maintained and further increased.
The first is astutely to hide his weaknesses because many princes,
although they are weak, preserve their standing and reputation as power-
ful by hiding their lack of power instead of building fortifications. Build-
ing fortifications often reveals their weakness which otherwise is not
known.58 To increase reputation it helps to show off forces but with-
out ostentation. Ludovico Sforza stood out in this respect more than
57
Suetonius, Twelve Caesars, “Divine Vespasian,” 8.24.
58
The sentence “Building fortifications … not known” is omitted in later editions.
52
in their use whereas Alfonso of Aragon, king of Naples,59 stood out in

both respects. And even if Hezekiah was reproached for this, it happened
because instead of giving the infidels to understand that he trusted not in
himself but only in God, he showed that he trusted in his own wealth.60
It also helps to have more deeds than words because the former are
more valued than the latter and as a result, so are men who show deeds
rather than those who profess words. So men who are more reserved in
speech and of a melancholy disposition are more highly regarded than
those who are cheerful and talkative. And reputation calls for gravity and
firmness in speaking and for promising less than what one is able to do
and for not allowing out of one’s mouth words of boasting and bravado.
In this Scipio Africanus was admirable. Livy writes that while speaking
to the ambassadors of the Spanish cities Loquebatur ita elato ab ingenti
virtutum suarum fiducia animo, ut nullum ferox verbum excideret, ingensque
omnibus quae ageret cum maiestas inesset, tum fides (He spoke with such
confidence and trust in his own qualities that no arrogant word escaped
him, and supreme dignity and confidence marked everything that he
did).61
Avoid in discussion embellishments and the use of hyperbole because
they undermine belief in what you say and argue little experience of
affairs, so that it is women and children who naturally use them.
It is of no little importance to keep your word because this proceeds
from firmness of spirit and judgment; and it secured glory in Flanders
for lord Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma.62
Also of great importance is perseverance in adversity because it indi-
cates greatness of heart and vigor and moderation in prosperity because
it argues a spirit superior to fortune. In both the one and the other sit-
uation the Romans were marvelous in the Second Punic War and in the
campaign against Antiochus to whom they proposed the same conditions
before their victory as if they had already won and after the victory as if
they had not conquered.
Guard against attempting an enterprise that is beyond your strength,
and do not enter into a negotiation nor into a business that is not certain
59
Alfonso I reigned in Naples from 1442–58 (and as Alfonso V, the Magnanimous, was king
of Aragon from 1416–58).
60 61
2 Kings 20:12–19. Livy, History of Rome, 26.19.This citation is inaccurate.
62
Alexander Farnese (1545–92), duke of Parma, served as governor of the Spanish Nether-
lands from 1578–92. He is known especially for his campaigns against the Dutch, and
many consider him the outstanding general of his day. He was for Botero the counterpart
of Cesare Borgia for Machiavelli.
53
to succeed honorably; in this regard the Spaniards are without a doubt

wary, so much the more so that they almost never want to win a bat-
tle unless decisively. A prince ought not invest in trivial and unworthy
campaigns because that which does not have something grand about it
cannot augment reputation. Campaigns ought to be grand especially at
the start of a reign or government because by these will the rest of the
reign be judged, and the beginning constitutes half, and as Plato says,
even more than half of the work. But once having begun an honorable
enterprise, he ought not easily to abandon it in order not to show that
he had demonstrated little judgment in entering upon it and little spirit
in withdrawing from it. As Marcello said to Q. Fabio, during the siege
of Casilinum, Multa magis ducibus sicut non aggredienda, ita semel aggres-
sis non dimittenda esse, quia magna famae momenta in utramque partem fiunt
(Just as there are many instances when the commanders ought not to have
attacked, so once having attacked they ought not to withdraw, because in
each case they gain much in reputation).63
No less important is not to show himself dependent on the counsel
or the work of anyone whoever it might be, because this is to admit a
superior or an equal in the administration of affairs and to reveal your
incapacity and weakness.
He ought not to make profession of anything that does not befit a
prince, expressed in those verses of Vergil: Tu regere imperior populos,
Romane, memento, parcere subjectis et debellare superbos; hae tibi erunt artes,
pacique imponere morem (Remember, Roman, yours is to govern peoples
by your power, to spare subjects and to tame the proud; these are your
arts, to impose the rule of peace).64 Therefore, it is not appropriate for
a prince to perform or write verse as did Nero, to draw the bow as did
Domitian, to make lamps as did Aeropos, king of Macedonia,65 or images
of wax or clay as did Emperor Valentinian. It is scarcely compatible to
make machines of wood for use in war as did King Demetrius,66 or to
hunt the whole day as did Charles IX, king of France, or to cast artillery
as did Alfonso I, duke of Ferrara, or to attend to astrology with such zeal
as did Alfonso X, king of Castile. Philip I, king of Macedonia,67 hav-
ing begun to discuss with an excellent musician about his profession and
63
Livy, History of Rome, 24.19. Casilinum was near Capua; the siege took place during the
Second Punic War.
64 65
Aeneid, 6.851–53. Reigned 397–394 bce.
66
Demetrius, king of Macedon (r. 294–288 bce).
67
Philip I, king of Macedon (r. 640–602 bce).
54
desirous, after some disagreement, that the musician yield to his posi-
tion, the musician said “O Philip, may God protect you from being able
to compete with me in the study of music,” wishing to imply that in a
prince it shows a lack of judgment to engage in such studies.
Also of great importance is secrecy because beyond the fact that it
makes him similar to God, it makes men who are ignorant of the prince’s
thoughts stand in suspense in great expectation of his designs.
He ought not allow that his affairs be managed by other than outstand-
ing men; Alexander the Great, in order not to derogate from his great-
ness, wanted no one but Apelles to portray him and no one but Lysippus
to sculpt him. Augustus Caesar disdained that his name be celebrated
other than by unusual talent and in a sublime style and seriously.
He should not carry on negotiations through base or weak men, as
did Antiochus, king of Syria, who made use of his doctor, Apollofane, as
head of his council of state, and Louis XI, king of France, who made use
of his doctor as chancellor and his barber as an ambassador. The baseness
of the means degrades the negotiations and weakness spoils them. But he
should make use of honorable subjects, men of prudence and valor joined
to dignity.
He ought not to converse nor become familiar with every sort of per-
son, not with talkative and gossipy persons because, making known what
ought to be kept secret, they will discredit him with the people. He
should not appear daily in public nor on every occasion but on grand
occasions and with dignity.
Let him wear sober rather than showy apparel, reserved rather than
ostentatious.
Let him avoid extremes, neither hasty nor slow, but mature and mod-
erate, and rather slow than hasty because slowness is more similar to pru-
dence and haste to rashness than which nothing is more contrary to rep-
utation.
Severity also helps because, as Menander says, it is more salu-
tary for cities than pleasantness, as bitterness is more wholesome than
sweetness.68
Let him see to it that all his possessions are of excellent quality and
are made to fit their surroundings. Aemilius Paulus69 did not acquire
68
This saying cannot be found among Menander’s fragments (BD, 146, n. 3).
69
Lucius Aemilius Paulus (229–160 bce), Roman consul and general who conquered Mace-
donia.
55
less reputation by the banquet that he gave at Amphipolis for the Greek
ambassadors than by his defeat and capture of the Persian king.
Let him show magnificence in every operation by supporting gener-
ously causes widely held to be honorable; and honorable are those that
pertain to the worship of God or the benefit of the state, and on extraor-
dinary occasions.
He should show magnanimity, and with this virtue adorn all the oth-
ers. Let him carry himself in a grand manner with dignitaries and in a
humane manner with equals. Let him take greater account of the truth
than of opinion.
Let him not be concerned to do many things but few that are excellent
and glorious.
Let him show in every action something of the lofty and heroic; in this
Scipio Africanus was admirable as well as Alfonso, king of Naples, and
“il Gran Capitano.”70
He should maintain the obedience and subjection of his subjects and
dependence on him in important matters.
He should not share with anyone that which pertains to his grandeur,
his majesty, or supremacy: such as the authority to make laws and grant
privileges; to declare war or to make peace; to appoint the principal mag-
istrates and officials for peace and for war; to grant pardons to those who
have been deprived of life, honor, or possessions by judicial process; to
coin money and to establish weights and measures; to impose burdens or
taxes on the people, or to name the commanders of fortresses, or other
like things that concern the state or his majesty.71 Remember the words
of Sallustius Crispus: Eam condicionem esse imperandi, ut non aliter ratio
constet quam si uni reddatur (The one condition of rule is that it cannot be
maintained unless it is conferred on one person alone),72 and those oth-
ers, sit summus severitatis et munificentiae (let him be the height of severity
and munificence)73 and of Tiberius Caesar, ceteris mortalibus in eo stare
consilia, quid sibi conducere putent, principum diversam esse sortem quibus
praecipua rerum ad famam dirigenda (it is the business of other mortals to
attend to their own interests; but the lot of princes is different, for their
main concern is what leads to fame).74
70
Gonzalo Fernández de Cordoba (1453–1515), Spanish general in Italy.
71
Here are listed the marks of sovereignty developed by Jean Bodin in chap. 10 of the first
book of the République (BD, 147, n. 5).
72 73 74
Tacitus, Annals, 1.6. Ibid., 1.46, from memory. Ibid., 4.40.
56
Princes who have been Said to be Great or Wise
Finally, let him hold for certain that reputation depends on being, not
on appearing.
12 Of those Princes who because of their Greatness or

Reputation have been Said to be Great or Wise
We have said that reputation is based on wisdom and valor. Let us
now see with what qualities some outstanding rulers acquired the title
“Great” or “Wise,” so that ours, imitating them, aspire to the same great-
ness. But we should not think that those with these titles have shown
more valor or wisdom than all the others because neither Scipio nor Han-
nibal nor Marius nor Julius Caesar nor Trajan nor Severus were inferior
to any of those who have been called Great even though they did not have
this title of Great. It suffices that in those who have the title the light of a
singular valor and prudence shines, absolutely or in part.
The first of this celebrated rank who acquired this glory by virtue of
the incomparable greatness of his deeds was Alexander, king of Mace-
donia; in little more than ten years he conquered the whole East and
filled the whole universe with the fame of his victories. Antiochus, one
of his successors, had the same honor more from the greatness of the
states that he lost when conquered by the Romans than because of his
valor. Fabius Maximus was called thus not because of his deeds in war
but because he tactfully suppressed the tumult and the danger to the
republic arising from the libertine multitude. Pompey had the title Great
much earlier in life because of the cheers of the soldiers given a victo-
rious young man (as with the Gran Capitano of our days) rather than
because he had really conducted a campaign worthy of the title. Mithri-
dates, king of the Parthians,75 and another king of Pontus76 were cele-
brated as Great, the former because of the extent of his conquests, the
latter because of the length of the war that he waged against the Romans.
Herod I was called Great, I think, because of the skill and notable valor
with which he rose from private person and foreigner to become king of
the Jews and maintained this position amongst the most dangerous mis-
fortunes and threatening ruin caused by the hatred of Cleopatra and the
contempt of Antony and then of Octavius Caesar, and no less because
of the cities that he enlarged, some founded by him and others restored,
75
Mithridates II, the Great, king of Parthia (r. 121–91 bce).
76
Mithridates VI, the Great, king of Pontus (r. 120–63 bce).
57
and the various buildings he constructed in a grand style. Because of the

greatness of his victories and of his empire Genghis, king of the Tartars,
was given the title of Great, and this title has remained hereditary with
his successors who are all called the Great Khan.77 The innumerable vic-
torious campaigns of Muhammad I earned him the title of Grand Turk;
he conquered two Christian empires, twelve kingdoms, and two hundred
cities. This title has remained for his successors; he had it because of
his valor, they through inheritance as it were.78 For the same reason the
kings of Egypt are called the Great Sultan, but he who first acquired it
for himself and for his successors I have not yet found out. The same
title was held by Tamerlane because of the size of his armies and cam-
paigns, the most memorable of which was the capture of Bajazet, king of
the Turks.79 Muhammad, his successor in our time, with eight hundred
thousand soldiers, partly infantry partly cavalry, conquered the East and
extended his empire infinitely between the Ganges and the Indus.80 He
is called the Great Mogul because his people are called Moguls. Because
of the greatness of his campaigns and for his conquest of Persia, Ismail is
called the Great Sophy.81 The Spaniards gave the same title of Great to
Mansour, king of Africa and Spain.82
But let us come to Christian princes. The first of these to obtain this
glorious title was Emperor Constantine because of the greatness of his
empire and of the help that he gave to the universal propagation of the
faith. Under him the Empire, then divided into many parts, was reunited
and our holy faith incredibly increased throughout its extent. After him
I found Emperor Theodosius to be called Great, though not with the
same eminent fame, because he liberated the Empire from most powerful
tyrants and dangers. But no one ever acquired such greatness in his name
more gloriously than Charles I, king of France, because of the great-
ness of his enterprises, in peace and in war, the propagation of the faith,
the favor with which he embraced and as it were revived letters and sci-
ences, but chiefly because he was the first emperor of the West. Michael
77
c. 1162–1227, founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire.
78
This should be Muhammad II or Mehmed II, the Conqueror, Ottoman sultan from 1444–
46 and 1451–81.
79
Bajazet I reigned as Ottoman sultan from 1389–1403.
80
The Mogul conquest of India began in 1525.
81
Ismail was the first of the Persian dynasty, the Safavids, that came to the throne in the
early sixteenth century. In the West the Persian kings were called the Sophy.
82
Al Mansour (931–1000?), a Muslim hero, ruled the kingdom of Cordova and later cap-
tured Santiago de Compostela.
58
Comnenus Paleologus was called Great either because he drove the

Latins out of Constantinople and Greece and recovered the Empire for
the Greeks or because in the Council of Lyons he united the Greek
Church with the Latin.83 Emperor Otto obtained the same title by virtue
of his many victories over the princes of Germany, Bohemia, and Hun-
gary and against Berengarius who was first conquered and then driven
out of Italy, and further, because he most zealously promoted the faith
which under his reign as emperor expanded infinitely in the northern
provinces.84
Among the kings of Spain Ferdinand III attained the title of Great,
because he was the first to unite under one crown the kingdoms of León
and Castile and because with his outstanding valor he took large states
from the Moors; moreover, he was no less glorious because of his justice
and his religion than for his military and his victories.85 Alfonso III was
honored with the same title because of the supreme valor with which
he conquered rebels and seized many cities from the Moors, and built
churches and palaces in a grand style and, among other things, enriched
and enlarged the structure and income of the church of Saint James of
Compostela.86
Among the kings of France beyond Charles I, Francis I was called
Great. I do not know whether this was to distinguish him from his
nephew Francis II whom the French call “Little King Francis,”87 or
because of the greatness of his campaigns which were for the most part
unsuccessful, or because of the many good laws by which he reorganized
the administration of justice and revived the study of letters in France.
Among the kings of Poland Casimir II had this glorious greatness not
so much because of his many victories as for the cities that he rebuilt, for
the castles that he fortified, for the churches that he enriched, and for
other similar works of peace.88
Nor should we leave out Matteo Visconti, called Great, no less for hav-
ing with patience overcome fortune than for having with valor acquired
the incomparable duchy of Milan for himself and his descendants;89 nor
Can Grande della Scala, illustrious with the same title for the states
that he acquired in Lombardy that made him feared by his neighbors.90
83 84
Reigned 1261–82. King of Germany 936–73, Holy Roman Emperor 962–73.
85
King of Castile 1217–52, king of León 1230–52.
86 87
King of León, Galicia, and Asturias (r. 866–910). Francis II (r. 1559–60).
88
Botero errs here. Casimir III (r. 1333–70) was called “Great.”
89 90
Lord of Milan (r. 1287–1322). Lord of Verona (r. 1308–29).
59
Of the Wise
Alfonso I, king of Naples, was called not Great but Magnanimous

because of the nobility of his deeds in the conquest as well as in the
administration of the kingdom, no less in adversity than in prosperity.
In the house of Medici where political prudence has always flourished
in a singular fashion, there are three who have acquired the title of Great:
Cosimo the Elder, Lorenzo, and Grand Duke Cosimo: Cosimo the Elder
because as a private person he accomplished the works of a king; Lorenzo
because with his valor as head of the Florentine Republic he made him-
self arbiter of the affairs and rulers of Italy; Cosimo, because to the great
wisdom with which he established in his house the principality of Flo-
rence and added to it Siena, he joined outstanding religion for which he
was honored by Pius V (a pontiff than which I know no greater for his
prudence and sanctity) with the title of Grand Duke91 which his son Don
Francesco inherited and which Don Ferdinando presently holds by every
right of inheritance and of his own valor.
Among the Roman Pontiffs Leo I and Gregory I have had this honor,
Leo because with zeal and marvelous rhetoric he made Attila, filled with
rage and fury against the city of Rome, turn back and because with his
authority, in a council of 630 bishops celebrated at Chalcedon,92 he con-
demned the heresy of Nestorius and Eutyches, and cast down the pride
of Dioscurus; Gregory because of the sanctity of his life, the loftiness of
his doctrine, the extirpation of heresies, the reform of ceremonies and
of every area of ecclesiastical discipline, and for the conversion of the
English.93
From what has been said, one can understand that of those who have
been called Great, some have acquired this honor by the size of the terri-
tories that they have united under their crown when circumstances have
ordinarily played a greater role than valor; others by the greatness of their
undertakings in peace and in war. The undertakings are considered to be
great either by their importance or because you have been the first to
carry them out.
13 Of the Wise
The first to acquire this title among the kings, after Solomon, was
Alfonso X, king of Castile, not because of his wisdom in governing or
91
Cosimo I, who reigned in Florence from 1537, acquired the title of Grand Duke of Tus-
cany in 1569.
92 93
In 451. Reigned 590–604.
60
Of Religion
his political prudence but because of his private study which led him
to philosophy and chiefly to consideration of the heavenly movements
to which his astronomical tables testify.94 After him Albert, archduke of
Austria, was given the title Wise, I think, because of his skill in nego-
tiations and in the enrichment of his own.95 Charles V, king of France,
received the title, and with greater reason, not so much because he was
a great patron of letters and of the literati but because, without sally-
ing forth into combat and bearing arms, he waged war most successfully
against the English through his ministers and retook from them all that
his father had lost.96 I do not want to pass over Otto III who, even though
he was called neither Great nor Wise, had a greater honor; he was named
a miracle of the world (miracolo del mondo) because of the shrewdness and
valor he showed even at a young age.97
14 Of the Virtues which Preserve the Aforementioned

Qualities
The virtues which we have up to this point discussed and on which
love and reputation depend do not long endure if they are not assisted
and maintained by two others; these are religion and temperance. The
republic is as it were a vine which cannot flourish nor bear fruit if it is
not favored by heavenly influences and helped by human industry which
trims and cuts away what is superfluous. Religion procures the mainte-
nance of the state with the supernatural aid of the grace of God; temper-
ance keeps at a distance effeminacy and all that feeds the vices that lead
to ruin.
15 Of Religion
It is most certain that in heroic times princes were responsible for sacred
matters, as Aristotle teaches,98 not because they themselves offered sac-
rifices, although Methusale99 was at the same time king and priest, but so
that with their help sacrifices would be celebrated magnificently. And the
same Aristotle says that it is proper that the supreme magistrate sacrifice
in a grand manner and magnificently.100 The Romans did not undertake
94 95
King of Castile, León, and Galicia (r. 1252–84). Reigned 1330–58.
96 97
Charles V the Wise (r. 1364–80). Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor 996–1002.
98 99
Politics, 3.14 (1285b). Probably an error for Melchisedech.
100
Nicomachean Ethics, 4.2 (1123a).
61
Of Religion
any campaign or public business without first deliberating about how to

obtain omens and to placate the anger of the gods or to win their favor
or to thank them for benefits. Finally, they held religion to be a princi-
pal feature of their government nor did they allow that this be changed
in any way, much less broken off. Diotimus writes that there are three
things necessary for a king:101 piety, justice, and an army, the first for
his own perfection, the second to control his own office-holders, and the
third to keep enemies at a distance. And Aristotle advises even the tyrant
to appear to be religious and pious:102 first, because considering him to
be such, they will not fear being treated badly by one whom they think
reveres the gods, and they will be careful not to rise up and cause dis-
turbances against him whom they think to be dear to the gods. But it is
difficult that he who is not truly religious be considered so because there
is nothing that lasts less than simulation.103 Therefore the prince ought
to humble himself with his whole heart before the Divine Majesty and
acknowledge that the kingdom and the obedience of his subjects come
from him; and the more that he is placed in a higher rank over others, so
much the more ought he abase himself in the presence of God, nor set
his hand to any negotiation, nor undertake any campaign or anything else
which he is not certain to be conformed to the law of God. God himself
commands the king that he have near him a copy of his holy law and that
he observe it carefully; and God does this with words that, because they
are of such importance, will not be difficult for me to set down here. He
says Postquam autem sederit in solio Regni sui, describet sibi Deuteronomium
legis hujus in volumine, accipiens exemplum a sacerdotibus leviticae tribus,
et habebit secum, legetque illud omnibus diebus vitae suae, ut discat timere
Dominum Deum suum, et custodire verba et ceremonias eius quae in lege prae-
cepta sunt, ne elevetur cor eius in superbiam super fratres suos, neque declinet
in partem dexteram vel sinisttam, ut longo tempore regnet ipse et filius suus
super Israel (When he is enthroned in his kingdom, he shall have a copy
of this law made from the scroll that is in the hands of the levitical priests;
and he will have it with him and will read it all the days of his life, so that
he learn to fear the Lord, his God, and to heed and fulfill all the words
and ceremonies which are prescribed in the law. Let him not raise his
heart in pride over his countrymen, nor turn aside to the right or to the
left from these commandments, so that he and his son may reign a long
101 102
There is no Diotimus to whom this saying can be traced. Politics, 5.11 (1314b).
103
Machiavelli advises the ruler to appear to be religious (Prince, 19).
62
Of Religion
time over Israel).104 For this reason it would be necessary that the king
never bring to the council anything for deliberation that was not first vet-
ted in a council of conscience to which outstanding doctors of theology
and canon law belonged. Otherwise he will burden his conscience and do
things that he will later have to undo if he does not want to damn his soul
and the souls of his successors. Nor ought this to appear strange. If the
Romans did not attempt anything without the advice and approval of the
auspices and the augurs, if the Turk does not start to wage war or to do
anything of importance without consulting the mufti and obtaining his
judgment in writing, why should the Christian prince close the door of
his privy council to the Gospel and to Christ and follow a reason of state
contrary to the law of God as though it were a rival altar? O how can he
hope that things ought to have a happy outcome if they have been delib-
erated without any respect to the author of all happiness? Who was ever
more religious and more successful in wars than Constantine the Great
who placed all his confidence in the cross? Of Theodosius, Nicephorus
writes that he obtained many victories more rapidly through the fervor
of prayer than through the valor of his soldiers.105 The greatness of the
princes of Austria was born of their outstanding piety. According to the
story, Rudolf, count of Habsburg, was hunting during a great rainstorm
when he encountered a priest walking alone. He asked the priest where he
was going and what led him to journey at such an inopportune time. The
priest responded that he was bringing the Most Holy Viaticum to a sick
man. Immediately Rudolf dismounted, and humbly adoring Jesus Christ
hidden under the species of bread and wine, placed his cloak over the
shoulders of the priest, so that the rain would not pour down on him and
so he might carry the Most Sacred Host with greater dignity. The good
priest, admiring the kindness and piety of the count, gave him immortal
thanks and beseeched His Divine Majesty that he reward him with an
abundance of his divine graces. A miracle! Within a short time Count
Rudolf became emperor, his successors archdukes of Austria, princes
of the Low Countries, kings of Spain with the monarchy of the New
World, lords of infinite states and of immense countries. The Carolin-
gians acquired the kingdom of France through the protection and favor
that they accorded to religion and to the vicar of Christ. The Capetians
104
Deuteronomy 17:18–20.
105
Nicephorus Callistus, Historia ecclesiastica, Book 4 (in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, vol. 146,
col. 1066).
63
Of the Means to Propagate Religion
acquired the same kingdom through the same means of piety. Religion
is the foundation of every principality because every power comes from
God, and because the grace and favor of God is not acquired by any other
means than religion; every other foundation will collapse. Religion ren-
ders a prince dear to God, and what can he fear who has God on his side?
The goodness of a prince is often the cause of the prosperity of peoples.
But because God often permits misfortunes and deaths of princes, rev-
olutions in their states, and the ruin of their cities because of the sins of
the people, and because this fosters the glory and service of His Majesty,
the king ought to employ every effort and all diligence to introduce reli-
gion and piety and to increase it in his state. For this reason William,
duke of Normandy, after he acquired the kingdom of England, in order
to stabilize and firmly establish his rule there, summoned a great synod at
Winchester, with the authority of Alexander II. Here he saw to it that the
best laws were issued to reform the corrupt customs of clergy and peo-
ple and that all matters regarding religion and the worship of God were
properly ordered.106 In the time of Emperor Arnulf107 and the following
years, religion died out because of the bad example and the faults of the
emperors who were extremely insolent toward the church. All virtue dis-
appeared and Italy was ravaged by the Saracens and finally ruined by the
barbarians to the point that Sergio II, who was a man of great holiness of
life and of a great religious spirit, and Emperor Henry II108 , who was of
great valor in war and of no less piety in every aspect of his life, once again
lit up the world and led the church back to its ancient splendor. Religion
is as it were the mother of every virtue. It renders subjects obedient to
their prince, courageous in campaigns, bold in times of danger, generous
in time of scarcity, alert to every necessity of the republic because they
know that in serving their prince they render service to God whose place
he holds.
16 Of the Means to Propagate Religion

Religion is of such power for government that without it every other
foundation of the state wobbles. So all those who have wanted as it were
to establish new empires have also introduced new sects or renewed old
ones, as did Ismail, king of Persia, and Sharif, king of Morocco, Louis,
106 107
In 1070. Reigned 896–99.
108
King of Germany 1002–24, Holy Roman Emperor 1014–24, subsequently canonized.
64
prince of Condé, Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France, and William

of Nassau who by their heresies brought scandal to the faith and upset
Christianity.109 But of all the laws none is more favorable to princes than
the Christian because it submits to them not only the bodies and facul-
ties of subjects where this is appropriate but the souls and consciences as
well, and it binds not only the hands but even the affections and thoughts,
and it prescribes that obedience be given to wicked princes as well as to
ordinary ones and that everything be endured in order not to disturb the
peace. And there is nothing that dispenses a subject from obedience owed
to the prince unless it is against the law of nature or of God. And in these
cases the Christian law prescribes that everything should be done before
it comes to an open break. The Christians of the primitive church give
a powerful example of this because, even though they were persecuted
and tormented with every cruelty, nevertheless nowhere do we read that
they rebelled against the Empire or revolted against their princes. They
endured the wheel, the sword, and fire, as well as the inhumanity and
fury of tyrants and executioners, for the sake of public peace. Nor should
we think that this happened because they had no forces because entire
legions threw down their arms and allowed themselves to be tortured
cruelly and, what amounts to a minor miracle, with all this they prayed
daily for preservation of the Roman Empire. And in our times we see that
Catholics are oppressed everywhere in Scotland, in England, in France,
in Flanders, and in many areas of Germany. It shows the truth of the
Catholic faith that renders these subjects obedient to their prince and
binds their conscience to them, makes them desirous of peace and ene-
mies of rumors and scandals. But Luther, Calvin, and the others, dis-
tancing themselves from evangelical truth, sow everywhere weeds and
revolutions in the states and the overthrow of kingdoms. Now, because
of the great importance of religion for the successful government and
peace of the states, the prince ought to favor it and make efforts for its
expansion. And it is necessary first that he avoid the extremes which are
simulation and superstition, the former because, as I have said, it can-
not last and, once discovered, entirely discredits the simulator, the latter
because it causes contempt. Let him be genuinely religious against pre-
tense and intelligently pious against superstition. God is truth, and wants
to be adored in truth and in sincerity of soul.
109
Louis de Bourbon, prince of Condé (1530–69), and Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of
France (1519–72), were prominent Huguenot leaders in France; William of Nassau
(1533–84), “the Silent,” Prince of Orange, was a leader of the Dutch Rebellion.
65
Given this foundation, let him pay due honor to the Vicar of Christ
and to the ministers of the sacred and give an example to others. Let him
be persuaded that there is nothing more foolish, nothing that so reveals
extreme meanness of spirit than to fight with popes and religious persons.
If you honor them for the sake of God whose place they hold, but do
not yield to them, you are impious; if you do not honor them for the
sake of God but because of qualities that they possess, you are foolish. In
this respect one cannot adequately praise Hernán Cortés, conquistador
of New Spain, because this most excellent personage, with the incredible
reverence that he bore toward priests and religious, accorded the highest
esteem and repute to the faith and the Christian religion in those lands.
His example carried such force that up to the present day there is no place
in the world where the clergy are more respected and religious persons
more revered than in New Spain. And it is not possible that you esteem
the religion without taking account of the religious because how can you
honor the religion, which you do not see, if you do not esteem religious
whom you have before your eyes?110
Select religious persons of excellent doctrine and virtue and accord
them the greatest credit with the people that you are able, listening to
them often if they are preachers, making use of their prudence if they are
persons of practical knowledge, participating in the divine office in their
churches whose ministers give a good example, honoring them occasion-
ally at your table, asking their opinion on some matters, submitting to
them some types of memoranda or supplications regarding conscience,
assistance of the poor, or some other pious works, finally providing them
the material and an occasion to use their talents for the common good.
And because a great part of the spiritual assistance for the people depends
on preachers, see carefully to it that you have an abundance of them, and
give support not to those who with a certain type of florid and wandering
speech, which is ineffectual and vain, are more entertainers than preach-
ers but those who scorn this type of pompous and as it were shameless
speech and in their preaching breathe into the souls of their hearers and
as it were infuse into them spirit and truth, reprove vices, detest sin,
inflame souls with the love of God, and finally, preach not themselves but
Jesus Christ et hunc crucifixum (and him crucified).111
He should not permit that ecclesiastics be contemned because of their
begging because there is nothing that more degrades religion and the
110 111
Religious here are members of religious orders. 1 Corinthians 2:2.
66
Of Temperance
worship of God among the common people than the need and misery of
his ministers.
In the construction of churches let them display grandeur, and con-
sider nothing more worthy of a Christian prince than to restore ancient
churches rather than to build new ones because restoration will always be
a work of piety but in the construction of new churches vainglory often
plays a hidden part.
Finally, let him foster the worship of his Creator in every way possible.
David in the midst of wars prepared all that was necessary for the con-
struction of a most magnificent temple; he introduced an improved order
for the service of the tabernacle; he improved and increased the instru-
ments and the voices for the divine office. Charles the Great brought
up from as far as Rome excellent musicians for the divine office, and he
ordered a diligent search for the sermons of the Holy Fathers and the
lives of the martyrs, and their circulation; he provided an opportunity for
Paul the Deacon to write about the deeds of the saints and for Usuard to
draw up his Martyrology.112 Constantine the Great ordered, for the sake
of understanding religion, that at his own expense the books scattered by
past persecutions be collected and that extensive libraries be built.
But as far as government is concerned, leave freely to the prelates the
judgment of doctrine and the direction of customs and all the jurisdic-
tion that the good government of souls requires and that the canons and
laws concede to them, and promote their observance with authority or
with power or with money or with deeds because the more the subjects
will be accustomed to and fervent in the way of God, so much the more
manageable and obedient will they be to their prince.
17 Of Temperance
Religion is the mother and temperance the wet nurse of the virtues, for
without its cooperation and assistance prudence becomes blind, courage
becomes weak, and justice becomes corrupt, and every other good loses
its force. “Gluttony, sleep, and idleness”113 banish from the world what-
ever there is of the honest and the generous, debauchery dulls intelli-
gence, diminishes vigor, and shortens life, delicacies and excessive com-
forts give birth to effeminacy. But the evil does not end here; in order
112
Usuard was a French Benedictine monk of the ninth century whose Martyrology was
later a source for Cardinal Cesare Baronius’s Ecclesiastical Annals, 12 vols. (1588–1607).
113
Petrarch, Canzoniere, 7.1.
67
Of Temperance
to be able to surpass their equals and to equal their superiors, in the

magnificence of their table, the elegance of their dress, and in every lux-
ury and vanity, not satisfied with the income from their own possessions
and profits from their own business, men stretch out their hands toward
sacred things and give themselves over to every kind of wickedness, and
so private persons go bankrupt, the public interest is ruined, and lacking
any foundation, states collapse. Whoever wants to consider the causes
of the collapse of the Roman Empire will find it to have been softness
and display because after pleasures came to Rome from Asia and Greece
and began to delight the people of Mars, their spirits hitherto uncon-
quered by the sword were overcome by pleasure, and Roman men became
women, and the most just lords became the most cruel assassins of the
peoples subject to them; each one desiring to live as a king despoiled
the cities entrusted to their government. So valor died out smothered
by pleasures, and the affection of the peoples was lost because of the
oppressive violence of the governors. These developments encouraged
the barbarians to enter the provinces and then to assault Rome itself.
Pleasures entered Rome with the triumph of Scipio Asiaticus and Man-
lius Vulso114 and gradually diffused their poison to the point that hav-
ing lost their greatness of spirit and ancient nobility, the Romans were
not ashamed to support the horrible tyranny of Tiberius, the bestiality of
Caligula, the inhumanity of Nero, and the indolence of Heliogabalus, and
to obey such monsters of the human race without showing any notewor-
thy signs of resentment. If some of these were in fact killed, it was as if the
women were more responsible than the men, the barbarians rather than
the Romans, private citizens rather than the senate; nor was there ever
a people in the world that allowed themselves to be so freely oppressed
and outraged by tyrants as these. All this shows that their virtue van-
ished in the theaters, wasted away in the villas of Lucullus, drowned in
the fish ponds of Messala,115 enfeebled in leisure and pleasures. So it was
easy for Alaric, king of the Goths, Ataulf116 and Genseric, kings of the
Vandals, Odoacer, king of the Heruli, Theodoric and Totila, kings of the
Visigoths,117 to take Rome, sack it, burn and reduce it to dust and ashes,
114
Scipio Asiaticus was the younger brother of Scipio Africanus; he led the Romans to vic-
tory over Antiochus the Great of the Seleucid Empire at Magnesia in 190 bce. Manlius
Volso, consul in 189 bce, defeated the Galatian Gauls of Asia Minor that year.
115
Probably Marcus Valerius Messala Rufus (104–26 bce), Roman senator.
116
Ataulf, king of the Visigoths (r. 410–15 ce).
117
Theodoric the Great was king of the Ostrogoths from 475–526 ce, Totila from 541–42.
68
Of Temperance
while the provinces left without spirit became the prey of the barbar-
ians. Of such a nature is human greatness which at its peak generates the
worms of pleasure and the rust of luxury which consume it and gradually
destroy it.
The kingdom of Portugal provides a great example of this in our day,
ruined not by the Moors but by the delights of India. There is no project
more difficult than to remedy this. Those who would be able to provide
a remedy are the first to be ensnared and give themselves over to sensual
pleasures, and rarer than white crows are those whom victories do not
leave licentious, prosperity does not blind, and power to do evil does not
make vicious. The Roman Empire itself would have fallen much earlier if
the valor of some princes had not upheld it to a degree; as Cato said, how
could that city last for a long time where a fish was sold for more than
an ox? Caesar Augustus endeavored to moderate the excesses in the cost
of buildings, and to this purpose, in a public edict called all to consider a
fine speech on this topic by P. Rutilio. Tiberius reformed his household
furniture and his table, and by his example greatly fostered public fru-
gality; in the formal banquets that he gave he often served the leftovers
of the previous day such as half a wild boar remarking that it was the
same as the whole pig. Vespasian significantly moderated intemperance
with the simplicity of his clothing and the frugality of his table. His son
Domitian prohibited the use of litters, purple garments, pearls, and other
similar things except for some few persons of a certain age and on certain
days. But no one attended more to this than did Aurelian and Tacitus
who did not make use of nor want others to make use of garments made
completely of silk. Aurelian aimed to eliminate gold from clothing, from
rooms and furnishings, and from every other place; this use of gold he
said was wasteful. But there is nothing for which greater care must be
taken than to limit the display and adornment of the ladies; the unseemly
dress of the ladies, according to Aristotle, not only has in itself a certain
indecency and ugliness118 but it awakens the desires of men and leads
them toward an evil course of action. Since ladies are much more apt to
corrupt men than men are to restrain the ladies, few husbands are mas-
ters of their wives. Display foments ambition and vanity, and I will also
say that the lust and lewdness of that sex causes the ruin of the property
and patrimony of the husband, and as the display increases, so do the
trousseaus and the dowries. Therefore, require that expenses for food and
118
Politics, 2.9 (1269b–1270a).
69
Of Temperance
for clothing be limited. This can be done in two ways. The first is to pro-
hibit completely the use of certain types of cloth and ornaments for dress
as the Portuguese and Genoese have done. The second is not to prohibit
these things but to burden them with such heavy taxes and impositions
that they become very expensive; in this way only the prince and nobles
will be able to wear such adornments, and there will be some benefit for
the prince. All the above things do infinite harm to temperance and as
a result to the preservation of states. They also are the reason that fre-
quently huge quantities of gold and silver are taken out of your country.
Since pearls, jewels, perfumes, and fragrances and other such things are
in the hands of foreigners, they are sold at their price, and because of the
sensibilities and idle talk of women your state is emptied of true riches.
You ought not to take little account of all this, because it is most certain
that all the great empires have been ruined because of two vices, luxury
and avarice, and avarice is born of luxury, and luxury of women.
70
Book Three
1 Of the Ways to Divert the People

Up to this point we have discussed in general the virtues with which
a prince can win the love of his subjects and a good reputation among
them; these two things are the foundation of every state. We speak now a
little more about some of the means to this end. The first are abundance,
peace, and justice; the people who without fear of foreign or civil war,
who without fear of being assassinated in their own houses through vio-
lence or fraud, who have the necessary food at a good price, are not able
not to be content and are not concerned about anything else. The people
of Israel showed this in Egypt where, although they were under a bit-
ter servitude and were harshly treated by the ministers of the pharaoh-
king so that they scarcely had time to breathe, nevertheless because of
the plentiful food that they had there, they did not think about liberty.
On the contrary, when they progressed through the desert, at every least
lack of water or some other similar thing they murmured and complained
beyond measure against him who had taken them out of Egypt. And all
those in Rome who aspired to the kingship attempted this by gratifying
the people with the distribution of grain, with the concession of plots of
land for cultivation, with agrarian laws, and with all that was suited to
satiate the Roman people; so proceeded the Cassii, the Melii, the Man-
lii, the Gracchi, Caesar, and all the others.1 Vespasian, once he secured
1
Spurius Cassius Vecelliunus, executed in 485 bce; Spurius Maelius, decapitated in the
fifth century bce; Marcus Manlius Capitolinus, executed in the fourth century bce;
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Caius Sempronius Gracchus, executed in the second
century bce.
71
Of the Ways to Divert the People
the Empire, took no greater care of any other business than of abun-
dance, and Severus with great solicitude and diligence saw to it that at
his death he left for the people of Rome in the public storehouses enough
grain for seven years. In order that provisions be sold at a better rate
Aurelian increased the weights by an ounce; he judged, as he wrote in a
letter, that there was nothing in the world happier than the Roman peo-
ple when they were well-fed. Experience has taught us in Naples and
in other places more than once that there is nothing that more moves
and exasperates the people than scarcity of provisions and shortage of
bread.
But an abundance of provisions does not help if it cannot be enjoyed
either because of the violence of enemies or the injustice of the providers;
so it is necessary to join it with peace and justice. Also, because the peo-
ple are by nature unstable and desirous of novelty, it happens that if they
are not entertained in various ways by the prince, they will seek it on
their own even with a change in the state and the government. As a result
all wise princes have introduced some popular entertainments which the
more they stimulate virtue of the mind and of the body, the more suitable
they will be. The Greeks have shown more judgment in their Olympic,
Nemean, Pythian, and Isthmian Games2 than the Romans in their Apol-
linarian, secular, and gladiatorial games and in their comedies, hunts, and
other similar things in which the Roman citizens exercised neither their
mind nor their body so that they served as pure entertainment.3 But the
games of the Greeks served also as exercise. However that may be, Caesar
Augustus, a prince of great prudence, appeared in person at the games,
in order to give status to the performances and satisfaction to the people,
and to demonstrate the care that he took for their recreation and amuse-
ment. These entertainments, interrupted for many years by the floods
and wars with the barbarians, were revived by Theodoric, king of the
Goths, a prince (if he had not been an Arian) of outstanding prudence.4
He rebuilt the theaters and amphitheaters, the arenas and artificial lakes
for sham naval battles; he introduced the ancient games and spectacles,
to such delight of the crowds that they had no concern for a change of
government.
2
These were the four Panhellenic competitions.
3
Starting in 212 bce, the Apollinarian Games were celebrated every year in Rome, the sec-
ular games only rarely.
4
Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, ruled Italy from 493–526.
72
Of the Ways to Divert the People
Matteo and Galeazzo Visconti5 operated in the same style in Milan,

and Lorenzo and Piero de’ Medici6 acquired the love and benevolence
of the people with various tournaments, jousts, and other similar inven-
tions. Such spectacles ought to take place without danger to life because
beyond the fact that they offend the law of God, it is also against the
nature of the game to risk serious injury or loss of life for anyone. Zizim7 ,
the brother of Bajazet, when asked what he thought of a tournament at
which he was present, responded that these contests amounted to little
if one truly fought but they were excessive as an amusement because of
the dangers that they ran. Furthermore, the men who are accustomed to
see the wounds, blood, and death of others in a game necessarily become
fierce, cruel, and bloody, and from this there easily follow brawls, homi-
cides, and other scandals in the city. For this reason the gladiatorial con-
tests were suppressed by the Emperor Honorius8 , as some writers claim
because a certain monk was sent to condemn this impious custom; the
people used to being amused every day by the sight of the wounds and
deaths of men, pursued and killed him.
To the extent that the above-mentioned spectacles will be more decent
and more serious, so they will have greater force to attract, delight, and
entertain the people. The happiness at which these entertainments aim
consists of two elements, namely pleasure and moral conduct. For this
reason I would praise tragedy more than comedy because comic material
is ordinarily such that morality has no part in it, and the actors more read-
ily play the part of ruffians than comic actors. For this reason the church
canons do not allow them to be baptized nor to receive the sacraments of
penance or the Eucharist without first giving up this infamous practice.
But why do I cite the church canons? Scipione Nasica, fearing that come-
dies and farces would infect the Roman people with vices, advised the
senate to destroy a theater that was under construction.9 Ecclesiastical
5
Matteo II (1319–55) and Galeazzo II (1320–78) Visconti; they were co-rulers of Milan
along wih their brother Bernabò.
6
Lorenzo de’ Medici, the Magnificent, governed Florence from 1469–92, his son Piero
from 1492 until the French invasion in 1494.
7
Zizim (1459–95), brother of Bajazet (Bayezid) II, sultan from 1481 to 1512, a pretender to
the throne, fled to Rhodes and was held prisoner in Italy and France at the request of the
sultan.
8
Honorius Flavius, Roman emperor in the West from 393–423; after the sack of Rome in
410, he moved his capital to Ravenna.
9
Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica died in 141 bce.
73
Of Honorable and Great Enterprises
spectacles have more of the serious and the marvelous than do secular
spectacles because they participate in the sacred and the divine. For this
reason Aristotle advised the prince to offer sacred sacrifices,10 and we
have seen Cardinal Borromeo entertain the innumerable population of
Milan with feasts celebrated religiously and with ecclesiastical activities
undertaken by him with ceremony and incomparable gravity, in such a
manner that the churches were always filled from morning until evening
nor were the people ever happier, more content, and more quiet than
were the people of Milan in those days.
2 Of Honorable and Great Enterprises

The works and honorable and magnificent enterprises of princes provide
great diversion, very serious and nearly heroic; they are of two kinds,
some civil, others military. Of the civil are buildings which are amaz-
ing either for their size or for their utility, such as the Propylaeum con-
structed by Pericles,11 the lighthouse built by Ptolemy,12 the port of Ostia
made by Claudio and expanded by Trajan, the aqueducts, the bridges
over rivers or streams, the reduction and improvement of swampy areas,
the roads for use within the city and beyond such as were the Emilian,
the Appian, the Cassian and others, the redirection of rivers for the ben-
efit of navigation and agriculture such as the canals of Milan, the hospi-
tals, monasteries, cities; we will mention here also the ships of marvelous
grandeur like that of Alfonso I of Aragon, and the engines of war such
as the one built for the siege of cities by Demetrius.13 But with similar
works it is necessary to guard against two drawbacks. One is that they do
not become in fact useless. The other is that the people are not excessively
burdened by them. In this the kings of Egypt deserve blame because for
the sake of a foolish show of their infinite riches, they created immense
structures. And what will we say of the vanity of Semiramis who had a
statue sixteen stadii high set on a mountain?14 Little more useful was the
Colossus of Rhodes15 so celebrated by the ancients. Nor merit less blame
10
Politics, 3.14 (1285b).
11
The Propylaea atop the Acropolis in Athens, built in 437 bce.
12
The lighthouse of Alexandria, begun under Ptolemy Philadelphus (r. 285–246 bce).
13
Demetrius I, Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia (r. 294–288 bce).
14
It was found on a crag in Bagistan between Babylon and Ecbatana; in reality it rose only
166 meters. Semiramis had her own image carved into the lower section of the statue.
15
A statue of the Greek titan-god of the sun, Helios, erected on the island of Rhodes in
280 bce and destroyed in an earthquake of 226 bce.
74
Of Enterprises of War
perhaps the palaces and pleasure villas built by King Solomon at infi-
nite expense and, consequently, an intolerable burden for the subjects. It
is not fitting when building such things for the diversion of the people
and to preserve them in peace, that they suffer abuse and are reduced
to desperation. In order to keep them content and quiet, buildings and
other such things will better serve the purpose the more they will pro-
duce greater common utility and pleasure; this will ease the tasks, render
the hardships agreeable and the labors mild because interest pacifies all.
3 Of Enterprises of War
But military enterprises occupy the people much more because there is
nothing that more engages the spirits of the people than important wars
that are undertaken either to secure the borders or to extend rule and to
acquire justly riches and glory, or to defend allies or to benefit friends or
to preserve religion and the worship of God. All those who can contribute
something either with their hands or with counsel usually come to par-
ticipate in such enterprises and there they vent their feelings against the
common enemy. The rest of the people follow the camp in order to pro-
vide provisions or perform some similar service or they remain at home
where they pour out prayers and offerings to the Lord God in order to
win victory or they stand held in suspense by expectation and by the
course of the war in such a manner that there does not remain in the
souls of the subjects any room for revolts so much are all taken up in
deed and in thought by the enterprise. At times of sedition on the part of
the plebs the Romans ordinarily resorted to this remedy as a last resort;
they led an army in campaign against enemies, and so they put to rest
the ill will against the nobles. Cimon, seeing that the Athenian youth
did not know how to remain peaceful, armed two hundred galleys and
led them out to prove their courage against the Persians.16 And if we
will consider well why in our times Spain remains in complete peace and
France is involved in perpetual civil wars we will find that this results in
part from Spain’s investment in foreign wars and in campaigns in remote
areas, in the Indies, in the Low Countries, against heretics, against Turks
and Moors. These occupy partly the hands and partly the minds of the
Spaniards, so their homeland has enjoyed the greatest peace and diverted
elsewhere every peccant humor. France, on the other hand, at peace with
16
Cimon (510–450 bce) was an Athenian statesman and general.
75
Whether it is Expedient to Go to War in Person
foreigners, has revolted against itself, and since it has no other pretext
has taken that of the heresies of Calvin and of a new Gospel which, wher-
ever it is heard, announces not joy but mourning, not peace but horrible
war, and fills souls not with good will but with furor and madness. The
Ottomans also with a perpetual course of the greatest campaigns and vic-
tories have not only extended their dominion but even more, which is
not of little importance, have secured their acquisitions and kept their
subjects at peace.
4 Whether it is Expedient for a Prince to

Go to War in Person
It will not be outside our purpose to discuss whether it is good for a
prince to go in person on military campaign; it is a matter of great dis-
pute, by example and by reasoning, for one side and then the other. On
the one hand it more easily happens that among the captains and barons
given to arms there are one or more with excellent judgment and valor,
and that these qualities are not always found in the prince. In this case it
is better that he manage campaigns through others rather than in person.
If he does not have those qualities that are sought in a captain, his pres-
ence will be more likely to upset the proper decisions and to impede their
execution rather than to facilitate the former and to expedite the latter.
Without leaving Constantinople, Justinian, making use of the prudence
and valor of excellent men, liberated Italy from the Goths and Africa
from the Vandals, held at bay the boldness of the Persians, and was con-
sidered fortunate thanks to the virtù of Belisario,17 Narses, and the other
ministers that he had. In the same way, Charles VI, king of France, while
remaining in Bourges, chased the English out of his kingdom by means
of his outstanding commanders, and so he received the title “the Wise.”18
On the other hand, if the prince is such as we have described, by going
personally to war he will bring with him all those qualities that a minister
would bring and in addition the advantage of his reputation and author-
ity which will double the vigilance of the captains and the ardor of the
17
Flavio Belisario (505–65 ce) was considered the most famous general of the Byzantine
Empire.
18
There is a misprint or error here. Charles V of France (r. 1364–80) was given the title “the
Wise,” not Charles VI (r. 1380–1422). Botero got this right above, RS, 2.13, p. 61. Charles
VII (r. 1422–61) ended the Hundred Years’ War.
76
soldiers because urget praesentia Turni (the presence of Turnus spurs

them on).19
But because as much as a prince with the proper qualities can be
greatly desired, only God, no other, can make one, it remains for us
only to demonstrate which campaigns require absolutely the presence
of the prince and which do not. Let us therefore first of all suppose
that the prince ought not to move except for important wars or cam-
paigns. Now such campaigns are undertaken either for defense or for
offense and the acquisition of another’s [territory]. Defense is either of
your own principal state in which you have your residence, or of some
other separate and distant member. Let us say then, that if an enemy
will come with great force to assault you at home, it would be good for
the prince to go out to encounter him personally because besides the
reputation that he will bring to the campaign and to the following of
the nobility and the people who will accompany him voluntarily and in
competition with one another, he will also inspire the soldiers with his
example and compel them by force of necessity to fight courageously
for the defense and salvation of the king and the kingdom; this applies
to offense, not only to defense. Furthermore, the defense and preser-
vation of the state is of so great and universal a benefit that the prince
should not act as though there were an obligation to any other than
himself for it; otherwise he runs the risk of [losing] the state as hap-
pened to Childeric, king of France.20 Abdimar, king of Spain, entered
that most noble kingdom with 450,000 Saracens. While Childeric, occu-
pied with the delights of his palace like a Sardanapalus,21 gave himself
over to good times and to plunging still further into sensual pleasures,
Abdimar with terror and dispersion of the people put to fire and sword
all that he encountered throughout the delightful country of Saintonge
and Poitou. But Charles Martel was not sleeping. Having assembled a
powerful army which included the sinews and flower of the nobility and
people of France, he defied the barbarians with great spirit and in an
awe-inspiring feat of arms killed 375,000 of them. This valiant defense
had such an effect and with such general approval placed the souls of
the French universally under obligation to Martel that the king counted
19
Vergil, Aeneid, 9.73.
20
Botero here mistakes Childeric for Theodoric IV, king of the Franks, when Charles Martel
defeated a Saracen army near Tours in 732.
21
Sardanapalus, the last king of Assyria, reigned from 667 to 626 bce; he lived isolated in
his palace and became proverbial for his soft and lascivious life.
77
for nothing, so that it does not surprise that Pepin his son was so readily
acclaimed king of France in 752.22
And not only did the people bind themselves to him who defended
the state and the temporal [power] but no less to him who maintained
the spiritual and religion because this anchor is a benefit of the greatest
importance that belongs to all. And in this same kingdom of France one
sees how great was the love and reputation that some princes acquired
through the protection that they always provided the faith and the cause
of God. But it is not necessary that the prince always be under arms; it is
sufficient that he sometimes approach the army and the battlefield, and
finally that he do this in such a way that it is recognized that the safety
of the state depends in whole or in great part upon his judgment, coun-
sel, vigilance, magnanimity, and valor. The same ought to be observed in
offensive wars of importance that are fought nearby, because proximity
increases the grace and favor of him who conducts the enterprise to its
end, and the benefit appears, truly, greater. The king of León and Castile
and, successively, the other kings of Spain were personally present in
all the campaigns against the Moors, and in particular Ferdinand, king
of Aragon, and Isabella, queen of Castile, his wife, in the campaign and
capture of Granada.23 But if the war is fought far from home, the prince
ought not to leave the heart of his states from where his authority and
his power radiates to all around him. Tiberius Caesar diligently followed
this policy. When in a situation of great danger the legions in Germany
were rioting and it seemed to most that the prince, in order to quiet the
rebels with the majesty of his presence, ought to journey there, he firmly
resolved not to heed the murmurings of the common people nor the judg-
ment of whoever it might be. He considered that it did not befit a great
prince to depart without necessity from the seat of his empire and the
place from which originated his government of the rest.24 To the same
point Herodotus wrote that it was not allowed the king of Persia to depart
for war outside the kingdom without leaving at home, in order to avoid
civil wars, a vicar with the insignias and title of king.25 The Ottomans
do not easily go on maritime campaigns. Suleiman, alone among all of
them, in the campaign of Rhodes crossed over the little bit of sea that
separates that island from land.26 I wonder that Machiavelli counsels his
22
Pepin was acclaimed king of the Franks, not of France, in 751 and anointed king the
following year at Soissons.
23 24
Granada was taken on January 2, 1492. Tacitus, Annals, 1.46–47.
25 26
Herodotus, Histories, 7.2. Suleiman conquered Rhodes in 1522.
78
prince or tyrant, which ever he is, to move the residence of his person
into lands that he has acquired.27 This is nothing other than to endanger
his natural subjects for the sake of his acquired ones and the substantial
for the sake of the accessory. Nor is the example valid that he adduces of
the Grand Turk, Muhammad I, who moved his residence from Bursa to
Constantinople. The Turk has no natural subjects, and the site of Con-
stantinople is much more comfortable than what he would be able to find
in the midst of his states.28
27
Prince, chap. 3.
28
Botero errs here; it was Mehmed II (Muhammad II), not Muhammad I, who conquered
Constantinople in 1453 and moved his capital there.
79
Book Four
1 Of the Way to Avoid Rumblings and Rebellions

Therefore it is not enough to possess the art of distracting the people,
because this is misleading; more is necessary to see to it that they are not
able, or at least ought not to have reason, to rise up and disturb the public
peace and the majesty of the prince. Above all, it is necessary to remove
the occasion and the easiness of revolts.
2 Of the Three Types of Persons who Make

Up the City
In every state there are three sorts of persons: the rich, the poor, and
those in the middle between the two extremes of these three types. Those
in the middle are ordinarily the most quiet and the easiest to govern.
The extremes are more difficult because the powerful, on account of the
opportunity that their riches supply them, refrain from evil only with
difficulty, and the poor because of the necessity in which they find them-
selves are similarly accustomed to be more prone to vice. So Solomon
prayed to God that he would not give him great riches nor permit him
to fall into great poverty.1 Furthermore, those who abound in riches and
thrive on nobility, family connections, and clients do not know how to
be subject to others because of the refinement of their upbringing nor do
they wish to be so because of their proud spirit. On the contrary, the poor
are prepared to obey in dishonorable as well as in honorable matters. The
1
Proverbs 20:8.
80
Of the Princes of the Blood
former give themselves over to violence and take pleasure in overbearing

conduct; the latter become malicious and fraudulent. The former offend
their neighbor openly, the latter work and grouse secretly. The rich do
not know how to govern themselves because of their prosperity. This is
why Plato, when asked by the Cyrenians to give them laws by which to
govern themselves, did not wish to do so, saying that it was difficult to
give laws to the Cyrenians who lived in such great prosperity.2 The poor
are not able to live under laws because the necessity in which they find
themselves knows no laws.3 But those in the middle have enough that
they do not lack what is necessary for their state of life; they are not so
powerful that they are able to take it to heart to plan and to undertake
great enterprises. Ordinarily they are friends of peace and content with
their state; ambition does not raise them up nor does desperation bring
them down and, as Aristotle says, they are most suited to virtue.4 And
so it happens that great cities, because they have a large number of per-
sons of modest means, are less subject to rebellions than the small ones.5
Supposing therefore that those in the middle are by nature calm, we will
discuss the extremes and the way to see to it that they do not break out
in disorder and tumult.
3 Of the Great Ones

There are three types of persons whose authority and power are able to
rouse the prince’s suspicion: relatives who by reason of their blood have
a claim to the crown or who are able to make the claim with the people;
lords of important fiefs or of strategic locations; and personalities who
because of their valor in war or their skill in peace-making have acquired
reputation and credit with the people.
4 Of the Princes of the Blood

Nothing is more a cause of jealousy than [the rule of] states; often it leads
princes to fury and rage. The ambition and jealousy of which we speak
2
Plutarch, Morals, 50.1.
3
This is a translation of the juridical adage necessitas non habet legem. Its usage here is orig-
inal; it does not indicate exceptional situations which dispense from the law but identifies
necessity with poverty and so the difficulty for the poor to be integrated into the juridico-
political order. (See BD, 184, n. 6.)
4 5
Politics, 4.11 (1295a–b). This sentence is suppressed in later editions.
81
can be so great in the souls of those whom it tyrannizes that it despoils

them of their human nature or at least of their humanity. Alexander the
Great, wanting to set out on his campaign in Asia, had all his relatives
killed. The Turks as soon as they accede to the Empire have all their
brothers killed. Murad III who now reigns had the throat cut of a con-
cubine of his father who was pregnant.6 The kings of Ormuz, before
that kingdom fell to the Portuguese, blinded their relatives, which some
emperors in Constantinople were also accustomed to do. The kings of
China, abhorring this cruelty, were content with a more humane mea-
sure, to lock up those of the blood in some large and spacious places filled
with every comfort and amusement. The kings of Ethiopia did the same,
confining their relatives on a high and most pleasant mountain called
Amara where they remained until fate called them to the succession to
the crown. This mountain is so steep that it can be said to be an impreg-
nable fortress. One can only climb up it by means of an extremely narrow
path, and at the top there is a large arable field that can support a brigade
with its produce, so that it is easily protected from attacks and need not
fear to be starved out by a siege. But returning to our theme, let us say
that neither the kings of China nor the emperors of Ethiopia by confining
their relatives nor the Turks by killing them nor the Moors by blinding
them secured their states from sedition or uprisings. Neither the Chinese
nor the Ethiopians were able to do this because even when their relatives
remained calm and well-ordered, it could happen that the people and the
barons, led on by anger and passion or moved by fear of punishment or
the desire of vendetta, sought to win over those confined and by brib-
ing or overcoming the guards free them from their prisons or places of
confinement and install them in office as the rebellious Communeros of
Spain tried to do with the duke of Calabria who was then a prisoner in
the fortress of Jativa.7 But I do not deny that the customs of the Chinese
and the Ethiopians have less of the barbarian and the unjust, because cus-
tom has the force of law and it is rational that, to free the kingdom from
danger and also from suspicion, the relatives of the king are content with
this peaceful confinement. But there is not that total security that one
6
Murad III, sultan from 1574–95.
7
Ferdinand of Aragon, the duke of Calabria, son of Frederick the deposed king of Aragon,
was imprisoned in 1512 by Ferdinand II, the Catholic, at Jativa in Valencia. He had been
there nine years when the Communeros wanted to liberate him and make him leader of
their revolt; he refused (BD, 187, n. 1).
82
thinks because in China many kings have been murdered and many of the
cruelest tyrants, even women, have ruled there, and in Ethiopia not many
years ago Abdimilec was called to the Empire not from Mount Amara but
from Arabia whither he had retired.8 But much less secure is the cruelty
of the Turks who murder or of the Moors who blind their brothers and
relatives because in the other kingdoms a spirit eager for honor and for
rule has no other stimulus that moves him to cause an uproar and take
to arms than ambition, which can be variously ensnared or restrained or
turned away and diverted elsewhere. But among the Ottomans and the
Moors, beyond ambition there is the reputed necessity to preserve one’s
own life; so nowhere have there ever been more civil wars or more revolu-
tions than in Ormuz, Tunis, Morocco, and Fez, and among the Turks, as
demonstrate the wars between Orkhan and Musa and between Musa and
Mehmed,9 between Bajazet and Zizim, between Selim I and his father
Bajazet II, between him and his nephew Alemschah,10 between Suleiman
and his son Mustapha, and between Selim II11 and his brother Bajazet,
who finally fled to the court of Tahmasp, king of Persia,12 where he was
murdered by his host for a million in gold promised him. The knowledge
that he would have to be killed by whoever acquired the Empire makes
each one consider his own situation and take up arms with the help of
subjects and foreigners. So Selim I used to say that he deserved pardon
even if he murdered so many, his brothers, cousins, nephews, and rela-
tives of every sort, because the lowest member of the Ottoman house who
rose to this rank would have treated him the same way.
On the contrary we see that in the kingdoms of Spain, Portugal, and
France, and in the principalities of Germany and in the other states of
Christendom, even if there are and have been many blood relatives and
many princes with a claim to the throne, there do not arise so many
wars and lengthy revolutions as among these barbarians because cruel
laws and customs make men cruel and humane ones human. Why are
there so many princes of the blood in the house of Austria, more brothers
8
There is perhaps confusion here between the negus in power from 1578–97, Sarsa Dengel,
who took the name Malak Sagad I, and the sultan Saadien of Morocco who reigned from
1576–78 after retiring not to Arabia but to Turkey (BD, 187, n. 4).
9
During the period called the “Interregnum,” Musa, brother of Mehmed (Muhammad) I,
broke his alliance with him, to proclaim himself sultan of Edirne in 1410.
10
Once on the throne in 1512, Selim I had all his brothers and nephews killed.
11
Orhan, Mehmed I, Bajazet II, Selim I, Suleiman the Magnificent, and Selim II are
Ottoman sultans from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century.
12
Shah Tahmasp I of Persia (r. 1524–76).
83
and more cousins? But they have never offended against affection or dis-
turbed the commonwealth by ambition; indeed they yield to one another
their rights and their pretensions and live together most harmoniously
as if many bodies were animated by one spirit and governed by one
will. In France, even if there have always been many princes of the royal
house, the succession has never been disturbed among the descendants
of Charlemagne, Hugh Capet, or Merovech who preceded them. But is
the sweetness of rule able to be so strong, the satisfaction so great, the
contentment so complete that it ought to be purchased with the death of
brothers and the extermination and ruin of relations? Or what kingdom
is so rich and happy that one can enjoy it with good cheer and delight
without having near a person of the same blood to whom one can commu-
nicate the benefits and a share of the prosperity? The way then to main-
tain the quiet and peace of states on the part of the prince who has the
right of succession is justice and prudence. With these and a knowledge
of the nature and the humors of the people, avoidance of insults, removal
of the material for envy, than which there is no passion more vehement
and more tempestuous, the state will remain quiet because as ferocity and
cruelty embitter and infuriate the spirits of the great, so do peacefulness
and suitable conduct keep them faithful to their duty and acting reason-
ably. The Turks, because they aim to kill their brothers, compel them to
take up arms. In contrast Antoninus the Philosopher13 took as his com-
panion in rule Lucius Verus, his brother, and Valentinian did the same
for his brother Valens, which resulted in nothing other than love and the
redoubling of benevolence.14 Gratian divided the Empire with Theodo-
sius who was not related to him; nor was there ever a greater union of
souls than between these two princes.15 And I do not want to omit saying
that the most probable cause of the future fall of the Turkish Empire is
their cruelty toward relatives. The reason is that the Ottomans take as
many women as they want and so they generate sons beyond number (it
is said that one son of the present Amurat had fifty within two years)16 ,
all certain to be put to death by the one who acquires the kingdom, and it
is likely in the long run that civil wars should arise in that Empire which
13
Marcus Aurelius, emperor 161–80 ce.
14
Valentinian governed the Empire in the West from 364 –75 ce; his brother Valens gov-
erned the Empire in the East from 364–78.
15
Gratian, Roman emperor from 375–83 ce, son and successor of Valentinian, raised the
general Theodosius to the imperial dignity in 379; he ruled until 395.
16
This parenthetical sentence was suppressed in later editions.
84
Of Feudal Barons
would weaken its forces and divide the state into more parts, and in this
way open the way for enemies to attack and subject it. Nor should anyone
wonder that this has not yet happened because not many centuries have
passed yet since Osman who died in 1328 founded the Turkish Empire
at the time of Benedict XI;17 but we have already seen the most vicious
wars among them which make credible this my prediction.
5 Of Feudal Barons
There are both good and bad in the individual lords of a kingdom; the
evil is authority and power inasmuch as it is suspect to the sovereign
prince because it is as if it were both a support and a ready refuge for him
who would want to mutiny or to rise up or for him who would attempt
to start a war or to attack the state as have the princes of Taranto and
Salerno and the dukes of Sessa and Rossano in the Kingdom of Naples.18
The good is that these lords are as the bones and the firmness of the
states which, deprived of them, would be as it were bodies composed of
flesh and pulp, without bones and nerves which in the case of a great
battle in war, the rout of an army, or the death of a king would eas-
ily collapse. Without any persons of lofty birth or inveterate authority
who would stand out among the others and so qualify to be leaders, the
people become confused and, deprived of decisive leadership and coun-
cil, yield to the enemy, as has been seen more than once in Egypt and
would be seen in Turkey if it should please God that the enemy for once
should be defeated in battle. On the other hand we see kingdoms where
a numerous nobility is as it were immortal, as France and Persia show.
Having fallen nearly completely under the kings of England, France was
revived by the efforts of its infinite nobility. Persia, similarly subjected
either by the Tartars or by the Saracens, survived because of the valor
of its abundant nobility. And was Spain not liberated from the servitude
of the Moors by the valor and efforts of its nobility? Now someone will
say that the titled lords are good for the conservation of the country and
the state but not for the king because if they are apt for maintaining the
country and inspiring the multitude, so they also can frustrate the prince
and make him work. Who doubts this if the prince should be weak for
the burden that he bears or incapable of greatness or unworthy of his
17
Osman I died in 1325 during the pontificate of John XXII.
18
This alludes to the plot of the barons against Ferdinand of Aragon in 1485.
85
Of Those who are Great because of their Courage
fortune? If he does not have eagerness for justice, nor the light of coun-
sel, if finally he will not be such as we have described? In this case he
will be not only tormented by the barons but deceived by his councillors
and untrustworthy persons, and he will serve not as a king but as a pawn
as did Childeric and Charles the Simple19 in France (under whom the
fiefs began in that kingdom where because of the ineptitude of the king,
each feudal lord usurped those cities and places that he governed), and
Wencelaus in Germany,20 Ramiro in Spain,21 Andreasso in Naples,22 and
Maximilian Sforza in Milan.23 No sort of security will be good for such
a man because he lacks the advice and the judgment to make use of it.
6 Of Those who are Great because of their Courage

The third sort are those whose power can be suspect and those who, even
if they are not illustrious because of their blood, nor great because of their
riches or the number of their vassals, possess great authority either by
their handling of great matters or by their courage in various situations in
peace and in war. And truly nothing is more dangerous to republics than
the sovereign greatness of an individual; the Athenians rid themselves
of them by ostracism. Nor is he any less dangerous for all monarchies;
Aristotle thought that the conservation of the principality required that
no one rose disproportionately over the others either in authority or in
riches24 because few are those who know how to be moderate in prosper-
ity and to lower the pole of their boat in the face of favorable winds. One
can remedy these drawbacks first by not making use in important matters
of arrogant or notably bold people because such men are by nature always
planning something new, and boldness joined with power is restrained
with difficulty. Much less ought you to trust astute and brooding people
such as were C. Cassius,25 Lorenzino de’ Medici,26 and in our time, Gas-
pard de Coligny, a man of little spirit but much malice, and William of
Nassau, more timid than a sheep and more fraudulent than a fox. The
bold presume enough on their bravura just as the astute have confidence
19
Reigned 879–929.
20
Probably Wenceslaus II (1271–1305), king of Bohemia (BD, 191, n.4).
21
Probably Ramiro II, king of León and Galicia (r. 931–51).
22
Andrew of Hungary, murdered by his wife Joanna of Naples in 1345.
23 24
Duke of Milan (r. 1512–15). Politics, 4, 11 (1295b–1296b).
25
Cassius instigated the plot against Julius Caesar.
26
Lorenzino murdered his cousin Alexander de’ Medici in 1537. Cassius and Lorenzino
were seen in sixteenth-century Italy as typical republican assassins.
86
Of Those who are Great because of their Courage
in the superiority of their intelligence. But no one is less suitable to trust

than the unstable and frivolous because these like reeds turn this way
and that at the least whiff of hope or fear and are the joke of the bold
and the astute. It is good not to install magistrates with jurisdiction and
power close to the supreme authority because the sweetness of command
leads men beyond the limits of the honest and the just, and if such mag-
istrates already exist, they ought quietly to be suppressed as have been
suppressed more than once the office of the Grand Constable in France
and the Grand Masters of St. James of Alcantara and Calatrava in Spain.
If it is not possible to suppress them, it will be good to weaken them and
cut back part of their authority and power, especially by shortening their
time in office because power joined with long continuance in office makes
men, having forgotten their condition, aspire not to what they ought but
to what is possible or to what they think is possible.
So I marvel that in the greater number of the kingdoms of Chris-
tendom the greater and more important offices are perpetual as are the
Constables, the Admirals, and the Marshalls. Besides these in France the
government of provinces is given to the great princes for life so that they
become masters as it were; at the least it is not in the power of the king
to remove them from government of the province without an uproar and
suspicion of some rebellion or innovation. By perpetuating the govern-
ment of the richest provinces for life in the hands of those who hold it
and by passing it from father to son, they acquire so many friends, clients,
and partisans or by virtue of the authority that their office gives them or
by the favor that they have with the king, they place so many of their
adherents or servants in the most important towns and governments of
which that they can be said to be masters. So the duchies, the counties,
the marquisates, and the other grades of office and government for life
have become hereditary.
The administration of justice ought to be indeed perpetual not in this
or that person but in more persons in a senate or parliament. The admin-
istration of the military ought not to be committed for life nor to many
persons. Not to many persons because a plurality of captains inhibits the
management of the war, and the army led by one head will always con-
quer one led by more than one head; nor for life because military power
makes men reckless, not merely bold, as that noble poet said of Achilles:
nihil non arrogat armis (he thinks everything depends upon arms).27 For
27
Horace, Art of Poetry, 122.
87
Of the Poor
this reason the Romans made all their magistracies for one year except the
censors, and the dictators, whose authority was supreme, rarely served a
year. Marius, Caesar, and Pompey by their continuation in the office and
the government of the most extensive provinces and the largest provinces
became masters in part or in full of the republic.
Finally, in the perpetuity of offices there are three disadvantages. The
first is the one already discussed; the second is that the prince knowingly
deprives himself of the ability to make use of a better subject that he will
in time discover; the last is that it is possible that the one he has provided
with this rank becomes incapable because of illness or unfit because of age
or harmful because of passion rather than beneficial, so that the troops
that he will have at hand will have little strength for the service of the
king or will create more evil than good or will be completely useless. But
if the prince ought not to bind his hands by making magistracies and
offices permanent, so he ought not to harm himself by obligating himself
by laws or statute always to change them. He should remain free to make
use of them more or less and to confirm in or relieve of office according
to the nature of the persons and the requirements that he seeks. So it was
that Caesar Augustus when he received the news of the death of Quin-
tilius Varus,28 retained in office all the prefects of provinces so that in
such an ominous and unusual situation and in such a dangerous occasion
and time, the subjects were governed by practical persons of recognized
prudence. Tiberius allowed many to grow old in the administration of
the provinces and of the armies, and Antoninus Pius, as he sought always
to have good and excellent ministers, so when he had them he loaded
them with honors and riches. But because everything movable derives
from a movable principle, the prince ought to have, besides the individ-
ual governors of the provinces, the generals of the armies, the captains of
the fortresses, and similar officials whose charges are not permanent, his
permanent council but without jurisdiction. Here will take place delib-
erations about important matters and about war and peace, here will be
preserved knowledge of the past and of the practice of managing peoples,
and all that which concerns good government both civil and military.
7 Of the Poor
Also dangerous for the public peace are those who have no interest
in it, that is, those who find themselves in great misery and poverty.
28
Varus was killed in battle in Germany in 9 bce.
88
Of the Poor
Having nothing to lose, they are easily roused at the appearance of nov-
elty, and they willingly embrace all the means at hand to raise themselves
through the ruin of others. So Livy wrote that in Greece, when war
was rumored between King Perseus and the Romans, those who were
oppressed by poverty desired that the world be turned upside down and
favored Perseus while the good men who did not want any change took
the side of the Romans.29 And Catiline, aiming to shake up the Roman
republic, made capital of those who were pitied because of their life or
because of their fortune; as Sallust says, homini potentiam quaerenti egen-
tissimus, quisque opportunissimo, cui neque sua cara, et omnia cum pretio hon-
esta videntur (to a man in search of power the most needy are the most
useful, for they have no possessions dear to them, and they think every-
thing honest has a price).30 Caesar when he aimed at the rule of his coun-
try paid off all those who because of debts or mismanagement or some
other reason had fallen into great necessity and, because they had no
reason to be content with their present state, he considered them useful
for his own plan to subvert the republic. If there were some still whose
extreme poverty he could not relieve, he said openly that they needed
a civil war, and all those who had taken away the liberty of their coun-
try made use of these people because, as Sallust says, semper in civitate,
quibus opes nullae sunt, bonis invident, malos extollunt, vetera odere, nova
exoptant, odio suarum rerum mutari omnia student (always in cities those
who have nothing envy the good, exalt the wicked, detest old institutions
and want new ones, and try to alter everything because they hate their
own condition).31
In France the great rumblings which we have heard even here have
been born of the same sort of people. Caught up in the wars between
the Most Christian [King] and the Most Catholic [King], and having
acquired infinite debts, with many falling into poverty, and their sol-
diers not having the means to live and to spend as they were accustomed,
the princes have determined to enrich themselves with the wealth of the
church which in that kingdom amounts to more than six million scudi in
income. So, using the opportunity of heresy, which they call new religion,
they took up arms and have reduced that kingdom, otherwise so flourish-
ing, to misery. The king then ought to secure himself against them, and
this in two ways: by expelling them from the state or making peace in the
29 30
Livy, History of Rome, 42.30.4–6. Sallust, Jugurthine War, 86.3.
31
Sallust, The War with Catiline, 37. 3.
89
Of the Poor
state to be in their interest. He can expel them either by sending them

to colonies as did the Spartans with the Partheniae (because fearing that
they might cause trouble, they sent them to Taranto)32 or they can send
them to war (as did the Venetians with many ruffians that filled the city,
and they got rid of them on the occasion of the war with Cyprus),33 or
they can simply expel them as did Ferdinand, king of Spain, with the
gypsies to whom he gave sixty days to leave the country.34 They will
acquire an interest if they are required to undertake something, that is, to
attend to agriculture or to crafts or to some other activity which will pro-
vide them with an income to support themselves. Amasis, king of Egypt,
issued a law that required every subject to appear and give an account of
himself to the governors of the provinces of how he lived and with what
means, and he imposed the death penalty on those who were not able
to give an account.35 In Athens the Areopagites severely punished those
slackers who did not know any trade,36 and Solon did not want a son to
be required to support his father if through his negligence the son had
not learned a trade.37 The laws of the Chinese required that a son learn
to exercise the trade of his father. From this there followed two benefits:
the first, that the trades developed in this way toward greater excellence,
and the second, that each man had the convenience of learning in his own
household a trade with which to support himself. The unemployed and
the lazy were not in any way tolerated, and even the blind and the crip-
ples work to the extent that they can, and they are not admitted to the
hospital unless they are completely helpless. Qinshi Huangdi, who gave
to the Chinese the greater part of the discipline with which China main-
tains itself, wanted women to practice the trade of their father or at least
attend to the distaff and the needle.38 The kings of the Romans, in order
to secure as much interest as possible from the people in the defense of
the Republic, saw to it that each held landed property, so that the love
of their possessions would compel them to love and defend the present
state. Lycurgus, as Nabis39 said to Quintus Flaminius, fore credidit, ut per
32
According to the myth, the Partheniae were forced to leave Sparta after revolting because
they were not granted civic rights, and went on to found the city of Taranto toward the
end of the eighth century bce; see Aristotle, Politics, 5.7 (1306b).
33 34
1570. 1499.
35
Herodotus, History, 2.177. Amasis was pharaoh in the sixth century bce.
36
The Areopagus was the supreme tribunal of Athens.
37
Plutarch, Parallel Lives, “Solon,” 22.1.
38
Qin Shi Huang was China’s first emperor; he reigned from 259–210 bce.
39
Last tyrant of Sparta, 205–192 bce.
90
Of the Poor
aequitationem fortunae ac dignitatis multi essent, qui pro Republica arma fer-
rent (believed that because of equality of fortune and dignity there were
many who would bear arms for the Republic).40
But because not everyone is able to own land or to exercise a trade, and
because for a human life they need others, the prince ought himself or
through others to provide the poor with a means to gain their livelihood.
To this end Caesar Augustus undertook much construction and encour-
aged leading figures of the city to do the same, and in this way he kept the
poor people quiet. To an engineer who proposed a way to transport huge
columns to the Campidoglio at a modest expense, Vespasian responded
that the idea greatly pleased him, and he remunerated him for it, but it
failed to provide a way to earn their living to the common people. So he
inferred that he spent willingly in order to provide a livelihood for many
which that plan would have left behind. Finally you will secure your posi-
tion with these by entrusting the Republic only into the hands of those
for whom peace and quiet count and disturbance and novelty are danger-
ous. So Quintus Flaminius, wishing to reorganize the cities of Thessaly,
made that party more powerful for whom it was useful that the Republic
be safe and tranquil.
40
Livy, History of Rome, 34.31.18.
91
Book Five
1 Of Acquired Subjects, How they Ought

to be Treated
We have discussed sufficiently, if I do not deceive myself, natural sub-
jects; it remains that we think briefly, as is our custom, about acquired
subjects. The prince ought to take great pains to see to it that acquired
subjects have an interest in his dominion and government and that they
become quasi natural subjects; otherwise, if the people have no affection
for him, his principality will be as a plant without roots. Just as every little
wind blows over a tree which is not well-rooted in the earth, so every light
occasion alienates from their lord subjects who are ill-affected. They eas-
ily shift with fortune and follow the flag of the one who conquers. From
this comes the changes and revolutions in states. The French lost Sicily
in one evening1 and in a little more time the Kingdom of Naples and
the duchy of Milan2 for no other reason than that there was no method
to give the people an interest in their government and to give them a
reason to embrace and defend it. Seeing that there was no advantage
in living under the French rather than under the Spaniards or another
people, they did not care to unsheathe the sword to their benefit. For
the same reason the kings of France and the dukes of Milan have many
1
This refers to the Sicilian Vespers of March 31, 1282. That evening at the time of Vespers
a popular revolution broke out in Palermo and spread to the whole island. Thus the House
of Anjou lost the island, which eventually was taken over by Peter III of Aragon.
2
In the course of the Italian Wars the French lost the Kingdom of Naples in 1503 and the
duchy of Milan in 1521.
92
Of Acquired Subjects, How they Ought to be Treated
times lost dominion over Genoa and, and in times somewhat more in
the past, the Latins were despoiled of the Empire of Constantinople and
the English of the extended territories that they had on the Continent
because they did not know how to win over the souls and to satisfy the
wishes of the subjects and to govern them in such a way that they had
an interest in their government. In the war that Selim waged against the
Mamelukes,3 the peoples of Syria and Egypt, fed up and disaffected by
the rule of those barbarians who were of a haughty nature and insolent
customs, not only did not come to their assistance but with great promp-
titude opened the gates for the Turks. It is necessary then to win over
the subjects and to do it in such a way that they benefit from our rule
and from fighting for it. This will be carried out by the same means that
secure benevolence and foster reputation about which we spoke above.
In particular it will help toward this end to provide them with justice,
peace, and abundance, and to foster religion, letters, and talent because
the religious, the literati, and the talented are as it were the leaders of
the others, and he who wins them over will easily win over the rest. The
religious4 hold in their hand the consciences of the people, the literati
the understanding, and the judgments of the one and the other have the
greatest authority with all, the former for their sanctity, the latter for their
teaching, the former for the reverence they inspire, the latter for the rep-
utation they have acquired, so that whatever they say or do is considered
to have been well and prudently said or done, and so worthy of being
embraced and followed. The artisans, then, excellent and skilled of every
sort, serve to delight the others, so that the prince, if he has them on his
side, will be easily loved and esteemed by all. So Charlemagne, beyond
the respect that he showed toward religion and the favor that he always
showed toward letters, displayed an incredible liberality and beneficence
toward the poor than which there is nothing more gracious nor more
effective for winning the gratitude and affection of the people nor more
celebrated and magnified by all. It helps to be merciful, provided it does
not appear to be laxity, and to show that to pardon and to grant grace
comes naturally and by choice and punishment from necessity and con-
cern for justice and the public peace. So Nero, at the beginning of his
3
Botero refers here to the war waged successfully by the Ottoman sultan Selim I, starting
in 1516, against the Mamelukes, former slaves who had ruled Egypt and Syria since the
thirteenth century.
4
‘Religious’ here are members of religious orders.
93
rule, marvelously acquired the love and the gratitude of all with his pre-
tense of mercy. When brought the sentence of the judges to be signed
by him by which they condemned a man to death, he said, “How pre-
cious it would be for me not to know how to write.”5 The certain luster
of excellent virtues helps not only to attach the subjects but even more
to enchant enemies, as is demonstrated by the continence of Alexander
and Scipio, the magnanimity of Camillus with the Faliscans, of Fabricius
with King Pyrrhus, and of Emperor Conrad with Duke Miecyslaw. This
Polish duke persecuted by Conrad sought refuge with Oderic, prince of
Bohemia, from whom he hoped for aid and favor, but he found that he
had been deceived by this thought. The Bohemian, out of thoughtless-
ness or avarice, negotiated with the emperor to hand him over into his
hands; but he, possessed of a loyal soul, detesting such perfidy, warned
Miecyslaw to beware of his host, so that admiring the goodness and virtue
of his enemy, he surrendered to him freely.6
But above all it will be of great importance to respect the pacts and
conventions made with them because there is nothing that more upsets
the souls of vassals and acquired subjects than a change in the conditions
under which they placed themselves under your rule. Nothing was of
greater assistance to Nur ed-din, king of Damascus, who drove us out
of Syria, than fidelity to his word; when the peoples saw that he did
not burden immoderately those who had surrendered to him and that
he did not fail to keep any promises that he had made to them, they gave
themselves over to him voluntarily and obeyed him faithfully.7 Important
enough also is education; this is as it were a second nature, and through
this means acquired subjects become as it were natural ones. To this end
Alexander the Great selected thirty thousand Persian youths and saw to it
that they were raised in the Macedonian style with regard to their dress,
their arms, their writing, and their customs, with intent to make use of
them in war as he did the Macedonians themselves. In the same way the
Turk through education makes the Janissaries, who were acquired sub-
jects born of Christian parents, into the most loyal soldiers that he has.
They serve as the guard of his person; they are employed in all the mat-
ters of importance where fidelity and courage are required. In doing this
5
Suetonius, Twelve Caesars, “Nero,” 12.3.
6
See Wiponis Gesta Chuonradi II. Ceteraque quae supersunt opera, ed. Harry Bresslau
(Hanover, 1878), 36 (BD, 206, n. 4).
7
Nur ed-Din (1118–74), a general of Turkish origin and emir of Aleppo from 1146, he
conquered Damascus, unified Syria, and proved to be a determined foe of the Crusaders.
94
through education the Turk secures two great benefits. He deprives dis-
affected subjects of their strength and he increases his power with their
sons. Also useful to this end are marriages of the prince himself and nat-
ural subjects with acquired subjects. Alexander the Great by taking as
his wife Roxane, a Persian woman, conciliated those barbarians incredi-
bly who in this way acquired a firm hope for a rule and government that
was peaceful and benign. Of the Capuans Livy writes that wishing to
rebel and throw in their lot with Hannibal, nothing held them back and
caused them more unease than the relationships that they had contracted
with the Romans.8 A most noble way to win over acquired subjects was
that employed by Tarquinius Priscus. Having conquered the Latins, a
most powerful people, he did not make tributaries or subjects of them
but joined them in a league and a fraternity. This was one of the princi-
pal foundations of Roman greatness; the Latins fought everywhere with
no less courage than the Romans. Tarquin the Proud renewed this league
in which he united all the Latin youth but without their own captains and
insignia, and he mingled them with the Romans, and he made of the two
fraternities one under Roman heads, and to give greater solemnity to this
arrangement he had forty-seven cities of the league construct a temple
to Jupiter Latialis on Mount Albano. Here they celebrated once a year
the Latin Feasts with all the cities, where they shared a bull which the
Romans sacrificed there; this showed that even though this was called a
league and an alliance, nevertheless the Romans were in every way supe-
rior as we have stated elsewhere.
It helps also to introduce our language in acquired territories. So the
Romans did in an excellent fashion, and so the Arabs have done in a large
part of Africa and in Spain. Five hundred years ago William of Nor-
mandy did the same in England. To introduce our language, we should
see that the laws are written in it, that the prince and officials conduct
their audiences in it, and the same for business transactions, commis-
sions, letters patent, and other such things. I will conclude with Charles
the Great who, having expelled the Lombards, took over the exarchate
and, having given it to the Roman Church, called it Romagna, so that the
people, once they had forgotten the Greeks to whom they were formerly
subject, would become attached to Rome and to the Roman pontiff.9
8
History of Rome, 23.4, 7.
9
Pepin handed over the exarchate of Ravenna to the pope in 754 in the Donation of Pepin;
Charlemagne confirmed and expanded this gift in 774.
95
Of Infidels and Heretics
2 Of Infidels and Heretics

We have now two words to say about infidel and heretic subjects. It is
necessary, first of all, to return them to their natural state,10 and to win
them over, because there is nothing that makes men more different and
contrary one to the other than the difference or diversity of faith, and
even if with them those means touched upon above are worthwhile, the
principal basis for winning them over ought to be in their conversion.
Now there are various ways to convert them. First it is necessary to have
many, good men working together who with teaching and the example
of an irreproachable life attract and lead these stray sheep to the truth.
It helps more than can be said to have schools and to support teachers
versed in the liberal arts and in every honorable exercise and entertain-
ment for the sons of these infidels. In this way they win over the parents
and the sons, the parents by the education and instruction that they give
their sons. So one reads of Sertorius that by supporting good teachers
and caring for the education of the youth, he won the deep affection of
the Portuguese. The youth were won over because in school they also
imbibed easily the faith and Christian virtues. To this end, the kings of
Portugal, and especially John III,11 founded in India colleges and sem-
inaries in which a large number of youths from every nation were edu-
cated under the discipline of the Fathers of the Society of Jesus who have
also in this way borne marvelous fruit in Germany and in the New World.
In Germany the cities where they are found have been maintained in the
Catholic faith, and they help the cities already infected with heresy. It is
hard to estimate how large a multitude of the peoples of Brazil has con-
verted, and in New Spain and Peru how much fruit has been gathered
from those already converted. Many of the latter were in the beginning
baptized by the first religious without much instruction; now with the
schools and the instruction of the young they undergo renewal as it were
in the faith and reform in their piety. But it is necessary that these teach-
ers are persons from whom one is able to hope for edification and not to
fear scandal and that beyond the necessary doctrine they have the gift of
chastity and are far from any avarice or sordidness. There is nothing that
more soils the good works and the spiritual assistance of the people than
10
“Alla naturalezza” means to return them to the state of natural subjects as opposed to
acquired subjects (BD, 209, n. 1).
11
João III (r. 1521–57).
96
Of the Refractory
sensuality and the love of material things. So it will be necessary that the
prince procure a supply of many good teachers for the instruction of the
youth and, equally, many earnest preachers who know how, with teach-
ing and with grace, to explain and make accessible the mysteries of our
holy faith. In order to attract such people to the truth it will be profitable
to concede every privilege that involves honor and comfort to those who
will convert, such as to bear arms and serve in the military, to hold office,
to be exempt from all or some taxes, and other such things that the con-
ditions of time and place will suggest. Constantine of Braganza, viceroy
of the Portuguese Indies,12 promoted incredibly the faith in those lands
by honoring and favoring the baptized and the new Christians in those
lands. We ought not to overlook the zeal of Emperor Justinian who, as
Evagrius writes,13 drew the Heruli to the faith by offering them money;
and in the same way, Emperor Leo VI14 induced many Jews to the faith.
3 Of the Refractory
Of the infidels the most foreign to the Christian faith are the
Muhammadans; the flesh, to which their sect is strongly inclined, is
repugnant to the spirit of the Gospel. By the same reason, among the
heretics the most distant from the truth are those who are disciples of
a certain Calvin. Wherever they go they bear war in place of the peace
announced to us by the angels and preached to us by Christ, and it is
extreme madness to trust them in matters of state because, as experience
has demonstrated to us, wherever they will come to power, they will cause
an uproar, take up arms, and under the name of a religion covered with
impiety and maliciousness, will carry out with fire and sword their evil
intent. As they have no reasonable doctrine nor the authority of the saints,
they will defend their sect with arms in the manner of the Turks. They
have attempted to deprive the Most Christian King of his life, not only
of his crown, and they have stirred up his patrimonial states against the
Catholic King, and they have made war on Queen Mary, chased her out
of her kingdom of Scotland, held her prisoner despite the word they had
given her, and finally put her to death against every law of humanity.15
12
Constantine of Braganza was viceroy of the Indies and governor of Goa from 1558–61.
13
Evagrius the Scholastic (536–93 ce?), Ecclesiastical History, 4.20.
14
Leo VI, the Wise, Eastern Roman emperor (r. 886–912).
15
The lines from “They have attempted” to “every law of humanity” were suppressed in
later editions.
97
How they Have to be Discouraged
With empty offerings they have enticed the Grand Turk against the
princes. Gaining a foothold under the pretext of liberty of conscience,
or of speech, or of action, or of life, they easily attract the people, who are
for the most part of a sensual nature, and lead them wherever it pleases
them more, because everywhere there are found evildoers and advocates
of novelty and upheaval, either to cover up their crimes with the ruin of
the republic or to improve their situation through a general disturbance.
Heads and standard-bearers of these people are in all the states Calvin
and his followers. Their business is to nourish sedition, foment rebel-
lion, provide food for malice and hope for the ambitious, arm the des-
perate, sack churches and ecclesiastical properties for the benefit of the
rapacious, and under the shadow of their gospel, which they proclaim
with trumpets and tambourines, to incite the people against the nobles
and subjects against their princes, and to shamelessly speak out every
evil about the Catholics, and gradually to turn all public and private mat-
ters upside down. Meanwhile they seize cities, construct fortresses, send
out privateers on the sea, and cast out from the world every manner of
peace. The best possible remedy to be used with them is, as with every
other evil, to resist beginnings, and then to employ the above-mentioned
means to convert them. But if there is no hope of returning them to the
truth and attaching them to our authority, it is necessary to make use of
the counsel given by Terrentius Varro to Hostilius who placed all hope
of keeping the Tuscans faithful and at peace in making it impossible for
them to rebel if they had the mind to do so. This can be done in three
ways: to discourage them, to weaken their forces, and to take away every
means of their uniting, because uprisings are born either of generosity of
spirit or a supply of resources or the unity of a multitude.
4 How they Have to be Discouraged

To this effect it helps to deprive them of everything that increases their
spirit and their boldness, such as the splendor of nobility and the prerog-
ative of blood, the use of horses, which is severely forbidden to Christians
under the Turk, a militia and military exercises, which were prohibited
to the Christians by Diocletian and other persecutors of the faith and by
Theodoric, king of the Goths, to the Italians. No office should be allowed
them, nor the wearing of a garment that has anything of the grave, the
noble, or the magnificent about it but rather more of the mean, the vile,
and the wretched; there is nothing that ordinarily depresses men more
98
How they Have to be Discouraged
than to dress shabbily. For this reason the Ottomans do not allow the
white turban to Christians. The Saracens took from the Persians even
their name, so that in this way they would lose even the memory of their
ancient valor and daring. William, duke of Normandy, after he acquired
the kingdom of England, in order to humble that people changed all the
officials and gave to the English new laws in the Norman language, so that
they would realize that they were subjects of another nation and with new
laws and a new language would also change their spirit and their thinking.
It will also be important to overwork these people, as Pharaoh did the
Jews, or to assign them mean tasks, as did the Jews the Gibionites and
the Romans the Calabrians, or to employ them in physical work such as
agriculture or the manual arts because agriculture leads a man to an affec-
tion for the farm and the land so that he does not raise his thoughts to
anything higher. So Cimon granted to the Greeks of other cities immu-
nity and exemption from military service so that attending to the culti-
vation of their own holdings they would grow attached to them and so
would not pay much attention to government or rule, which he assigned
to his citizens along with regular military exercises on land and sea.16
The mechanical arts bind a man to his shop on which his profit and
sustenance depends, and because the welfare of the artisans consists in
the sale of their products and their work, they are necessarily friends of
peace, which benefits the flourishing of trade and the flow of commerce.
Hence we see that those cities that are filled with artisans and merchants
love peace and quiet above all. The ancient tyrants added to the above-
mentioned methods an effeminate education for the boys as Dionysius
of Halicarnassus relates of Aristodemus, tyrant of Cumae.17 So that the
sons of those whom he had murdered would never raise their heads but
would have a totally vile and helpless spirit, he saw to it that until they
were twenty they were raised in a womanly fashion. They wore long and
loose tunics down to their feet, and their hair was similarly long and curly
and their heads garlanded with flowers. Their faces were all spread with
every tanning oil designed to make them appear more beautiful and del-
icate than they were naturally, and they associated indiscriminately with
the ladies so that their feelings and manners had something of the fem-
inine and the soft about them. With this procedure, just as Circe had
16
Cimon (510–450 bce) was an Athenian statesman and general who was a major figure in
the creation of the Athenian maritime empire after the defeat of the Persians.
17
Roman Antiquities, 7.9.3–5. Aristodemus (c. 550–490 bce) was tyrant of Cumae.
99
Whether Letters Render Men Brave under Arms
turned men into beasts, so this tyrant aimed to turn boys into as many
girls. But this was madness because wherever men are transformed into
women, it is required that the women undertake the tasks of the men and
leaving to them the needle and the distaff, they take to arms and take
their revenge against the tyrants, as happened with Aristodemus himself.
I will not omit saying that delicate and soft music makes men effeminate
and vile so that, because the Arcadians due to the harshness of the site of
their country were characterized by savage and severe habits, their elders,
in order to tame and soften them as it were, introduced music and songs
of which the softest and most delicate are those of the fifth and seventh
tone which were often used in ancient times by the Lydians and Ioni-
ans, people given over to leisure and pleasure, so that Aristotle forbade
in his republic similar songs and wanted them to make use of the Doric
harmonies of the first tone.18
5 Whether Letters Are or Are Not an Aid to Render

Men Brave under Arms
Because we have spoken of education, of which the most noble part is the
study of letters, it will not be beyond our purpose to say two words about
how they are an aid for war, so that the prince can judge whether it is
wise to allow this or not to the above-mentioned refractory subjects. Let
us suppose then that letters produce two effects very contrary to military
virtù. The first is that they occupy the mind of a man who attends to them
in such a manner that he takes pleasure in nothing else, as Archimedes
demonstrates; while Syracuse was being put to the sack by the Romans,
he stood immersed in his speculations as if nothing of this pertained to
him. The second is that they make a man melancholic, as Aristotle and
experience teach;19 this is greatly contrary to what one seeks in a military
person. Regarding the first effect, Cato was accustomed to say that the
Romans would then lose their empire when they took up Greek letters,
because when three Athenian orators came to Rome, he saw the youth
run after them racing with one another so that he persuaded the Senate
quickly to restrain them and turn them back lest the young Romans, so
attracted by the sciences, be diverted from the military. And the Goths,
thinking that letters made men unwarlike, resolved not to burn a great
18 19
Politics, 8.7 (1342b). Aristotle (or Pseudo-Aristotle), Problems, 30.1 (953a).
100
Whether Letters Render Men Brave under Arms
quantity of Greek books as they had initially intended to do. With regard
to the second effect, the French who are by nature merry and jolly (I
speak of the nobility) take no account of letters or of the literati, and
Louis XI, king of France, a prince of intelligence and of excellent judg-
ment in matters of state, wished that his son Charles know nothing of
letters other than those few words qui nescit dissimulare, nescit regnare (he
who does not know how to dissimulate does not know how to rule).20
More will be said of this opinion later.
On the other hand, the study of letters produces two effects of great
importance for military valor. One is that it sharpens prudence and judg-
ment and the other that it stimulates the desire for honor and glory. So,
to decide the question, I would say that the study of letters is nearly nec-
essary for a captain, and the reason is that they open his eyes as it were,
perfect his judgment, and provide many aides for prudence and pres-
ence of mind. In particular, they excite and stir him with their stimuli for
glory so that on the one hand he will be prudent and on the other ardent,
and prudence joined with ardor produces an excellent captain. So we
see that the premier captains that have ever existed, that is, Alexander
the Great and Julius Caesar, were no less students of the sciences than
courageous in arms. And there is no need for me to mention Hannibal,
the Scipios, the Luculli, and so many other personages who were greatly
dedicated to the study of the sciences and of the greatest valor in military
enterprises.
I have said that it is nearly necessary and greatly useful rather than
absolutely necessary, because there have been many excellent captains
who, without knowledge or letters or any teaching, have arrived at the
perfection of the military art, either through their outstanding intelli-
gence or through long experience, such as were the Manlii, the Decii,
the Marii, Diocletian, Severo, and other emperors. What sort of letters
and studies they ought to embrace has been discussed above.
With regard to the soldiers, I confess that letters are not of use for
them because the principal virtue of a soldier is prompt obedience to
the commands of his officer. Now the study of letters increases pru-
dence and caution, which pertain only to the captain, because he ought
to have judgment and eyes for all the soldiers, and they ought to be blind
20
This anecdote about Louis XI seems to have originated with Philippe de Commynes
(1447–1551) in his Mémoires.
101
How to Weaken their Power
following his lead and under his command. So we see that the Swiss,
because they are a rough nation far from any study, they are the best
soldiers, and the Germans and the Hungarians, and the Janissaries.
Emperor Julian,21 who with incredible malice applied himself to the
oppression of the church of God, perceiving that the Christians through
their study of letters were becoming clever and prudent, prohibited for
them schools or studies.
6 How to Weaken their Power

But because spirits, although vile, rise up every time they see at hand the
power and means to manifest their resentment, it is necessary to deprive
them of all power. Now their forces consist in a multitude of youth, in the
instruments of war which are partly animate such as horses and elephants
and partly inanimate which are defensive and offensive arms, military
machines for land and sea, munitions, and strongholds fortified naturally
or artificially, and the ability to obtain or make all these things which
amounts to a supply of funds. It is necessary to deprive them of all these
things, of the youth and of officers eminent for their counsel or author-
ity by drawing them close to himself. When cities surrendered to him
Caesar always wanted before anything else that their arms, their horses,
and hostages be handed over, and as hostages he required all those of any
merit, so in this way depriving the city of its vigor and its counsel. When
he wanted to undertake his campaign in Britain, Caesar took with him
the flower of the Gallic nobility; so he assured himself of their fidelity
and made use of their vigor. Emperor Heraclius,22 in order to control the
Saracens and Arabia, took four thousand of their leading men under pre-
text of having hired them. But no one has ever more cleverly assured the
loyalty of suspicious subjects than the Turk. As was mentioned above,
he deprives his Christian subjects of the vigor of their youth. They are
deprived of their arms not only by prohibiting their use but also the mate-
rial and skill for making them. Wherever there is a large population and
the material is not lacking, if there are artisans, they will make every-
thing, as was seen in the siege of Carthage. As often as the Romans had
wisely seized from the Carthaginians their arms and their warships, when
21
Emperor Julian, called the Apostate by Christians, reigned from 361–63 ce and sought to
reverse the christianization of the Roman Empire.
22
Heraclius reigned as Byzantine emperor from 610–41; he was the first emperor to con-
front Muslim expansion out of Egypt.
102
How to Weaken their Power
necessity arose, going to work with the material they had at hand, all the
many artisans made each day one hundred shields and three hundred
swords besides arrows and machines to hurl rocks. Lacking hemp, they
made use of women’s hair to make ropes and timber from their houses
to make ships. It does not promote security to leave them in fortified
places or places easily fortified. The Romans, unable to dominate the Lig-
urian Apuani23 with arms because of the harshness of the terrain which
made them fierce and rebellious beyond measure, drove them from the
mountains to the plains. The Romans wanted the Carthaginians, so often
rebellious, to leave their fatherland and the sea and withdraw to some
Mediterranean area. Pompey, in order to pacify the pirates, deported
them from coastal lands to the country. Cato had all the cities of the
Celtiberians24 demolished and Aemilius Paulus those of the Albanians.
Vitiges, king of the Goths,25 fearing a rebellion, tore down the walls of
all the cities of Spain except León and Toledo. Others have transported
similar tribes into other lands. Emperor Probus,26 having tamed Palfu-
rio, a most powerful bandit in Pamphylia and Isauria, and purged those
provinces of similar folk because it appeared that the land swarmed with
such an evil breed of men, said “it was easier to expel the robbers than
to make sure that there were none there,” and to remedy the situation,
he gave those sites to military veterans with the understanding that as
soon as their sons reached their eighteenth year they had to send them to
fight alongside the Romans so that they were introduced to the military
life before they were to a life of robbery. Similarly, when it became clear
to him that the Dacians on the far side of the Danube, who are now the
Wallachians, the Moldavians, and the Transylvanians, could not easily be
preserved in their devotion to the Roman Empire, Aurelian27 made them
move to the nearer side of the river. Charles the Great, weary of the fre-
quent rebellions of the Saxons, moved ten thousand families into what
are now the lands of the Flemings and the Brabantines, their descen-
dants. Ordinary and extraordinary taxes now claim their money in which
all human power now consists. Unfortunately, princes already know all
about this, so there is no need for me to expand on it.
23
The Apuani were a Ligurian tribe of ancient northwestern Italy.
24
The Celtiberians were a Celtic-speaking people of the Iberian Peninsula in the late pre-
Christian era.
25
King of the Ostrogoths in Italy from 536–40 ce.
26
Marcus Aurelius Probus reigned as Roman emperor from 276–82 ce.
27
Emperor Aurelian reigned from 270–75 ce.
103
How to Weaken their Union
7 How to Weaken their Union

However great the diligence in discouraging them and weakening their
power, subjects will lack neither courage nor power if they are allowed
to unite. In this case Furor arma ministrat, tamquam faces, et saxa volant
(Wrath supplies the arms when torches and rocks already fly).28
Now the way to prevent their unifying consists in two points: the first
is to eliminate their mind and will to come to an understanding and reach
an accord; the second is to frustrate their ability to do this. You destroy
their intent by fomenting suspicions and differences among them, so that
no one risks to reveal himself and trust in another; to secure this effect,
secret and trustworthy spies are very useful. In this regard there occurs
to me the method which Charles the Great used to restrain the people
of Westphalia who although already baptized lived dissolutely and under
grave suspicion of betraying the faith. He established a secret tribunal in
addition to the ordinary officials; this tribunal29 was entrusted to loyal
and sincere persons of singular prudence and virtue to whom this most
excellent prince gave the authority, without any other form of process and
as it pleased them, to put to death expeditiously whomever they found
to be a perjuror or bad Christian. And, so that these crimes could be
discovered, there were besides the tribunals spies, persons themselves
incorrupt, who moving about through the province without stirring any
suspicions, took note of what each person did and said and reported to
the tribunal which, whenever it found an accused person guilty, put him
to death right away. One saw the person hanged and dead before one
knew the crime that he had committed. This secret tribunal marvelously
curbed the instability of those people because it proceeded with so much
secrecy and severity that no one saw how it was possible to protect himself
except with a good life, and no one dared to reveal or disclose himself to
his companion.
There are various ways to prevent them from uniting, first by pre-
venting family relationships among peoples and between one house with
clients and another. The Romans did this with the Latin peoples, pro-
hibiting them from intermarrying and forming any close relationships.
28
29
This was the Judicium Occultum Westphalicum (Secret Tribunal of Westphalia) set up in
785, to condemn to death those Saxons who had not given up a number of pagan practices
(BD, 223, n. 3).
104
After conquering Macedonia, the Romans divided it into four regions

with capitals at Amphipolis, Salonica, Pella, and Pelagonia,30 with the
order that they could not establish any contacts nor contract marriages.
Soon they had to remove their leaders with any reputation either by dis-
inheriting them if they had given cause for this, because injustice never
takes deep root, or by moving them elsewhere. In order to keep the peace
in Macedonia Aemilius Paulus ordered the principal Macedonians to
move to Italy with their sons. In order to end the tumult and disorder
in Saxony, Charles the Great transported the nobility to France. Nor did
he permit them any public council, nor magistracy, nor any means of
forming an organized body. In this way the Romans completely weakened
Capua. They wanted it to remain inhabited and frequented as a large area
and as a congenial place for farmers but they did not want it to remain in
the form of a city with a senate, a council, a commune, or public govern-
ment, thinking that in this way a multitude would not be able to agitate
or create a tumult. They prohibited their assemblies. If Abdullah, prince
of the Saracens, prohibited the nocturnal vigils of the Christians, with
how much more reason do we forbid assemblies of Lutherans, Calvinists,
Turks, and Moors? Saladin, king of Damascus, after taking Jerusalem,
removed our bells, so that they cannot come together at this sign, and the
Turk did the same throughout. In truth, that is a sign, if the bells are hit
by a hammer, of an incredible effectiveness and force to call the people
to arms, as one saw in the city of Bordeaux when because of the salt tax
they murdered the governor and rebelled against King Henry.31 Because
the bond of union is language, they should be compelled to speak our
language, so that, if they speak, they will be understood, as the Catholic
King has forced the Moriscos to do. But what will we say of the large
cities which because of the least wind or rumor rage and run furiously to
arms? The sultans of Egypt, wary of the innumerable multitude of inhab-
itants of Cairo, constructed across that city many wide and deep ditches
so that it appeared to be a large district full of villages and municipalities
rather than a city because they considered that the infinite population,
restrained by the above-mentioned ditches, would not be able easily to
unite. And of the many reasons for the peaceful quiet of Venice, I believe
30
The Romans divided Macedonia into these four regions in 169 bce. Pelagonia later
became a region with its center at Heraclea. After a rebellion, the Roman province of
Macedonia was established in 146 bce (BD, 223, n. 4).
31
Bordeaux rebelled against King Henry II in 1548.
105
that one of the principal ones is the canals which cross the city and
divide it into many areas, so that the people are not able to assemble
except slowly and with great difficulty, and so in the meantime a rem-
edy is provided for troubles. To produce this effect it helps to have
citadels and colonies close to trouble spots, and garrisons within and
outside the city. For this reason the Grand Turk has such a large mil-
itary of one hundred and fifty thousand cavalry divided between Asia
and Europe into more than two hundred sanjuks32 ready to move and
get started quickly to put down any least uprising. But if none of these
things helps against the refractory, then they ought to be dispersed and
transported into other countries. So the Assyrians dispersed the Jews and
forced them into Chaldea from where Alexander the Great drove them
into Tartary (if what they say is true). Emperor Hadrian drove them into
Spain where in the year of Our Lord 698 they rebelled against Christ
because they had falsely become Christians, and against King Egica.33
They were despoiled of all their goods, dispersed with their wives and
children through all parts of Spain, and made slaves. In France King
Dagobert did the same thing.34 And if the Arabs called Almohads35 , who
began to reign in Spain at the time of Alfonso VII, did not permit any
Christian to live among them but forced them to become Muhammadans
or put them to death cruelly, why are we not able to expel from our lands
those of whose conversion and quiet we have despaired?
If they are heretics, let every incitement to heresy be taken from them,
the preachers, the books, and printing presses. Antiochus forbade the
Jews to read the Mosaic books publicly as they were accustomed to
do on the Sabbath.36 Diocletian commanded that all the sacred books
of our law be burned.37 How much more reasonably will we burn the
books of Calvin and similar disseminators of impiety and dissension?
Especially having the example of Constantine the Great who issued
an edict that, under pain of death, everyone should burn the books of
Arius.
32
An Ottoman administrative term for a district.
33
Evica was Visigothic king from 687–703. These events took place in 693.
34
Dagobert I ruled the Franks from 629–34; He was the last of the Merovingian dynasty to
wield real power.
35
The Almohads began to enter Spain in 1146; Alfonso VII, king of Castile and León from
1126–57, allied with the Amorvides, devoted the last years of his reign to fighting against
the Almohads in the south of the Peninsula.
36 37
1 Maccabees 1:56–57. 303–04 ce.
106
Take Away the Means of Uniting with Other Peoples
8 How to Take Away the Means of Uniting with

Other Peoples
From what has been said in the preceding chapter one can easily under-
stand what ought to be said in this one. Who takes from his subjects
the ability to unite among themselves will much more easily take from
them the means to unite with others because similar unions are formed
by way of family relationships, friendships, hospitality, commerce, and
secret agreements or dealings which it is necessary to prevent or cut off.
This can be done by spies in our country or in the suspect one and guards
at the ports and crossing points through which one enters or leaves our
states; this is easily done on islands and in states enclosed by sea, by
mountains, or by rivers. It will also help remove suspicious people from
neighboring places, which is what the Grand Turk did the year after the
day of Lepanto who making use of Ulug Ali38 removed the Christians
from marshy areas near the seashore of Greece, so that they could not
unite with the Latins. The first and the last Philip of Macedon39 took
such liberty in this matter that not otherwise than shepherds with their
sheep, they transported entire peoples from one place to another.40
38 39
See above, 2.6 (p. 46, n. 34). Philip II (r. 359–336 bce), Philip III (r. 323–317 bce).
40
Starting with RS 1596, Botero added another chapter here, “How to Pacify Disturbances
Already Under Way.” For this chapter, see Appendix A.
107
Book Six
1 Of Security from Foreign Enemies

So far we have discussed ways to maintain the subjects in peace and in
obedience. Now we take up the way to protect ourselves from external
causes of disturbances and of the ruin of states. We presuppose that secu-
rity consists above all in keeping enemies and dangers far from our house
because the nearness of the evil is a large part of the evil itself, than in
taking up such a position that when he does advance he does not have the
power to strike. Now he can be kept at a distance in many ways, the first
of which is the fortification of the borders and the passes with fortresses
suitably constructed.
2 Of Fortresses
Nature teaches us the art of fortification to protect ourselves; for no other
reason does it surround the brain and the heart with so many bones and
cartilages than to protect life by keeping dangers distant, and with a thou-
sand types of shells, rinds, and hard, rough bark covers the fruits and
with ears and bristles defends the wheat from the rapacity of birds. So
I do not know why some doubt whether fortresses are useful to princes
or not1 because we see that nature itself uses them. There is no empire
of such greatness or power that it does not fear or at least suspect the
inclinations of its subjects or the mind of neighboring princes. In the one
and the other case the fortresses give us security; there the engines and
1
An allusion to Machiavelli, Prince, 20, and Discourses, 2.24.
108
Of the Conditions of the Fortresses
munitions of war are kept, and you maintain as in a school and on exer-
cises a certain number of soldiers and so from within a small enclosed
area you defend a large territory and with little expense provide for
many eventualities. The Greeks, who were of such intelligence, and the
Romans, who demonstrated such good judgment in all their actions,
made much of citadels as they relied on them in Corinth,Taranto, and
Reggio; and the Romans defended their rule and their country with the
help of the citadel of the Campidoglio even though it was not on the
frontier but in the center of the state and the heart of the republic.
The events that can overtake a state are infinite, and the eventualities
of war innumerable; for all of them provision is made by the fortification
of the passes through which evils and troubles can enter. The Persians,
who have always professed confidence in the great number and quality of
their cavalry, have now experienced how useful and necessary is the use
of fortresses, because the Turk, although defeated more than once, has
gradually built fortifications in strategic locations, occupied large areas,
and finally taken the great city of Tauris2 and secured it with a large
citadel. So the Persians, because they had no fortresses, have lost the
campaign and the cities.
3 Of the Conditions of the Fortresses

But let us talk now about what fortresses ought to be. They ought to be
in necessary or at least useful locations. Necessary are those which if not
fortified leave your territory open and your state exposed to the violence
of enemies, useful are those which defend populous or rich cities or will
serve as a recourse or refuge for peoples. They ought likewise to be dis-
tant, so that they keep the enemy and the danger far from us because
while the enemy strives to take the fortresses, our country will remain
without disturbance or trouble and they can meanwhile make the nec-
essary provisions. Of such a sort is Malta with respect to Sicily and the
Kingdom,3 and Corfu with respect to Venice. And if the fortresses will
be not only far from us but in the territory itself of the enemy, they will
provide greater security. Such are Oran, Melilla, Peñen de Velez, Ceuta,
Tangier, Marzagam,4 and Arzilla5 (all strongholds of the Catholic King
2 3
Today Tabriz in northwest Iran. The Kingdom of Naples.
4
Mazagam, today El Jadida, south of Casablanca.
5
Arzilla, today Asilah, south of Tangier in Morocco.
109
Of the Conditions of the Fortresses
in Africa), with respect to Spain. Such were Rhodes, Naples, Malvoisie,6

and Famagusta.7 They ought to be few, so that they can be suitably provi-
sioned and furnish men and munitions without dispersal or diminution
of their forces. They ought to be strong, either because of their site or
their construction. And they will be such of site either because of the
roughness of the terrain or because of the benefit of water either run-
ning or stagnant. Such are Mantua and Ferrara but above all Venice,
and in Germany Strasbourg, and in the Low Countries the infinite loca-
tions of Holland and Zeeland. These two provinces I consider to be the
strongest by nature under heaven. Because of the incoming and outgo-
ing tide of the sea which engulfs a thousand places and because of the
greatest rivers which flow here and there and surround them on every
side, they are incredibly secured, and because they are so low, by break-
ing through the levies and the dykes they can be flooded and covered by
water from the sea and from the rivers. Well constructed will be those
fortresses to whom the form will give more strength than the site or the
material. They will have walls with well-conceived flanks, firm and solid
terrepleins, and wide and deep ditches. One ought to consider the terre-
plein more than the wall, and the ditch more than the one or the other.
But all these things are not enough if the fortress is not well provided
with provisions, engines, munitions, soldiers, and chiefly with an excel-
lent commander because a stronghold cannot make out of cowards and
low types brave and bold defenders. On the contrary, a good number of
excellent soldiers can fortify any place, as weak as it might be. So we see
that fortresses deemed impregnable have been taken with ease because
the princes, trusting in the site of the fortress, have not provided a suit-
able garrison. And it has happened ordinarily that the same fortresses
have been taken through the steepest and most inaccessible approach as
Mount Aornos8 and the Stone of India9 attest which were taken by the
Macedonians, Carthage taken by Scipio from the lake side,10 and Calais,
taken from the sea by Francis, duke of Guise.11 Antiochus the Great
6
I have not been able to locate Malvoisie; the word usually designates a wine.
7
This sentence was deleted in subsequent editions.
8
The citadel of Mount Aornos or Aornis in Bactria was taken by Alexander the Great in
327 bce. It has been identified as a summit in Pakistan, the Pir Sar.
9
This is the rock of Sisiméthrès, a Bactrian leader, taken by Alexander the Great; it was in
present day India (BD, 238, n. 6).
10
Scipio Africanus took Carthage in 210 bce.
11
Francis, duke of Guise, took Calais from the English in 1558.
110
Of Colonies
seized Sardis, when the famous warrior Achaeus12 was there, from the
side which was considered impregnable; when he saw birds flying safely
over the high wall, he concluded that there were no sentries there.13 On
the other hand, places weak by nature and little helped by artifice have
conducted the most glorious defenses because princes lacking confidence
in their fortresses have furnished them with reliable soldiers and captains.
In our day Eger in Hungary and the town of Malta attest to this.14 Both,
though weak due to their location because they could be easily shelled
and due to their walls because they had been constructed with little skill,
nevertheless were defended gloriously by the valor of the soldiers and the
captains which constitutes in reality the vigor of defenses. So Agesilaus
upon being asked why the city of Sparta did not have walls, pointing to
his armed citizens said, “Behold these.” Cities ought not to be fortified
by wood and rock, he added, but by the force and valor of the inhabi-
tants. But nothing helps if it is not in a location where it can be supplied
because if the attack is vigorous and the siege persistent, every fortress
will eventually fall into the hand of enemies. The fortresses that can-
not be supplied are the cemeteries of soldiers, and such was Nicosia in
Cyprus.15 For this reason the best fortresses are those that are located by
the sea because with a favorable wind they can be assisted.
4 Of Colonies
In order to hold in check enemies and warlike peoples, the Romans at
the beginning of their Empire instead of fortresses established colonies
within their borders. There, by settling a good number of Roman citizens
or Latin associates on lands won by war and taken from their enemies,
they protected themselves against unforeseen attacks. It can with merit
be argued which provides greater security, the colony or the fortress,
but without a doubt it is the colony because it includes a fortress and
not the reverse. The Romans, who understood reason of state very well,
made much greater use of colonies than of fortresses. But in our times
fortresses are much more in use than colonies because they are much
12
A Greek Macedonian nobleman and general who died in 213 bce.
13
Antiochus took Sardis, the capital of ancient Lydia, in 215 bce.
14
Botero refers to the siege of Eger in western Hungary by the Turks in 1552 and the Great
Siege of Malta by the Turks in 1565. Both became symbols of heroic resistance.
15
Nicosia fell quickly to the Ottomans in 1570 at the start of the Ottoman-Venetian War of
1570–73.
111
Of Garrisons
easier to establish and of greater utility at present. Colonies call for a great
deal of industry and prudence in founding and organizing them, and the
good that comes from them cannot be gathered so quickly because it only
matures with time. But one sees that colonies are much more secure and
of nearly perpetual utility, as Ceuta and Tangier, important Portuguese
outposts on the coast of Mauritania,16 attest; they developed into colonies
and are maintained bravely against the forces of the Sharif and Barbary.
Calais, an English colony established by Edward III in the year of our sal-
vation 1347, has become the last place that that people has lost on the con-
tinent. But you ought not to found colonies far from your state because in
this case, since you cannot easily supply them, they either remain as prey
for enemies or, accommodating to situations or to the times, they govern
themselves without respect to their origins. So acted the many colonies
developed by the Greeks and the Phoenicians in all the lands bathed by
the Mediterranean Sea. After judiciously considering this, the Romans
founded more colonies in Italy than in all the rest of their Empire, and
outside Italy they did not establish any until six hundred years after the
foundation of Rome, and the first two were Carthage in Africa and Nar-
bonne in France.
5 Of Garrisons
But after the Roman Empire, having grown marvelously, reached all three
parts of the world, the Romans did not consider colonies suitable for their
purposes because of the distance of the places and the ferocity of the peo-
ples on their borders (they were on the one side the Alemanni and on the
other the Parthians). So they kept on the banks of the Rhine, the Danube,
and the Euphrates huge armies, so that under Caesar Augustus all the
Roman garrisons amounted to the sum of forty-four legions which came
to two hundred and twenty thousand infantry apart from the cavalry.
There were then two fleets, one stationed in Ravenna and the other in
Miseno, that dominated the whole Mediterranean Sea. That of Ravenna
stood as it were ready for all that could happen in the Ionian Sea and
on the seas of the Levant while that of Miseno17 stood over as it were the
seas to the west. But in this disposition of such large armies and garrisons
16
Mauretania designates here the coast of North Africa.
17
Miseno or Misenum on the Gulf of Naples was established as the principal Roman naval
base in 27 bce.
112
Of Prevention
there was this shortcoming, that the soldiers collected in one place, easily,
either due to the art of their captains or to their own ferocity, mutinied,
greatly endangering the Empire. So it happened that when each army
called out its own general as emperor, cruel civil wars necessarily fol-
lowed. For it is not possible that a large number of soldiers united in one
body remain in place for a long time without causing trouble or rebelling,
either one against the other or all against the prince; and if the captains
are factious and eager for change, it is an easy matter to hatch their plots
and fan the fires. For this reason it is necessary either to direct them
against the enemy or to distribute them over several locations because
the division disperses their forces and lessens their spirit and ardor, and
it reduces the ability of captains and people of malicious intent to win
them over. This is perhaps the reason that the Turk, who has nearly sixty
thousand cavalry in Europe and a little fewer in Asia, has never had any
trouble. He keeps them apart, here and there, so that it never happens
that they find themselves all together, except for some campaigns, and
they do not realize their own strength and so do not rebel out of pride,
nor are they able to be easily directed or won over by officers. Each of
them resides on his timar,18 or what we would call farm, assigned to him
by the Great Lord in place of a salary, and the desire of and delight in
their fruits and comforts keeps them quiet.
6 Of Keeping the Frontiers Deserted

Some peoples, in order to make it difficult for enemies to enter their ter-
ritory (so imitating nature which has separated empires by mountains,
seas, and rivers, but also by vast deserts such as Mauretania from Guinea,
Numidia from Nubia, and Nubia from Egypt), have established desolate
areas on their borders. The Suevi19 did so in the ancient world as did
Tahmasp, king of Persia, not many years ago who, in order to keep the
Grand Turk at a distance from his state, allowed to go to ruin and left
desolate the land within a four days’ journey from his borders.
7 Of Prevention
A most noble way to keep the enemy at a distance from our house and
to secure ourselves against his assaults is to anticipate them by carrying
18
A timar was a small, temporary fief given by the sultan to soldiers.
19
The Suevi were a Germanic tribe.
113
Of Prevention
the war into his house because he who sees his own possessions in danger
easily leaves others’ in peace. And the Romans kept to this method in all
their important campaigns except in the war with the Gauls and in the
Second Punic War which they were not able to finish until they carried
their arms across the sea and over the Alps. Hannibal when he advised
Antiochus about how to conduct a war against the Romans said that it
would not turn out well unless he attacked the Romans in Italy. So I do
not understand why in our days some discuss whether it is better to await
the Turk at home or attack him on his lands. The ancients never had any
doubts about this. It was always the opinion of the great generals that it
was better to attack than to be attacked because an attack that is not com-
pletely foolhardy upsets and throws the enemy into disorder, seizes part
of his income and his lands, takes possession of his provisions or forces
him to destroy them himself, and draws to the attacker’s side those who
are discontent or dissatisfied with their government. If he conquers, he
gains much; if he loses, he risks little, especially if the campaign takes
place far away. Finally, the fortunes of war, which are endless, favor the
attacker rather than the attacked. Hannibal and Scipio, whom we can
call lights of the military art, recalled with embarrassment their fight-
ing the one against the Romans outside Italy and the other against the
Carthaginians outside Africa. The Turk has warred against Christians
not by awaiting us on his territory but by anticipating not only our inten-
tions but our thoughts so that having attacked us now in one place now
in another, without giving us time to attack him, he has seized unlimited
territory from us. But one should also take note that to attack requires
greater forces, or at least equal forces to those of the one whom you wish
to attack, greater or at least equal in number or in ability or in strategic
location. And he who does not feel himself secure, ought to anticipate by
fortifying the passes and the important locations where the enemy will
lose forces or time and give you an opportunity to gather your troops or
to bring in foreigners as happened at Malta. When the Turks besieged
Saint Elmo for the whole month of May, they lost the flower of their sol-
diers, and ours had time to unite and gather spirit to attack the enemy.20
But if you do not have the forces to forestall and do damage to your
adversary, it remains to incite some powerful enemy against him, to do
what you cannot do yourself. Genseric, king of the Vandals, having been
broken in a terrible naval battle by the patrician Basil and fearing the
20
The reference here is to the Great Siege of Malta in 1565.
114
Of Leagues with Neighbors
worst, persuaded the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths to attack the Roman
Empire. In this way he protected himself.21 But in this it is necessary
to handle oneself in such a way that you do not come out even worse,
as happened to Ludovico il Moro, who, to defend himself against the
Aragonese, became the prey of the French.22
8 Of Maintaining Factions and Plots

A certain form of prevention consists in exploiting factions that exist
in the countries of enemies or neighbors and in understandings with
councillors, barons, generals, and people of authority near the prince, so
that they dissuade him from taking up arms against us, or divert them
elsewhere and render them useless by slowing operations, or help us by
warning us of his designs, because an evil foreseen harms much less.23
But if the plots will be so bold that they arouse suspicion of rebellion
or treachery or tumult, so much the better; they will keep us completely
secure if they cause a disturbance in the country of our enemies. The
pretended queen of England24 used this method – which we should use
with enemies of the faith – with the Catholic King in Flanders and with
the Most Christian King in France. By fomenting with all her power the
evil tempers and heresies born in those countries and assisting them with
advice and money, she has kept the fire far from her house, and with the
same skill by favoring in Scotland those who were dissatisfied with Queen
Maria25 or ill-affected toward the French faction or infected with here-
sies, she has not only insured herself against that kingdom but nearly
become ruler of it. But she has taught us that non est consilium contra
Deum (there is no counsel against the Lord).26
9 Of Leagues with Neighbors

Defensive leagues contracted with cities or princes near the enemy or
jealous of his greatness are not of little moment because his fear and
21
The facts here are misleading. Genseric, king of the Vandals from 427–77 ce, surprised
and annihilated a Byzantine fleet under the command of Basiliscus (later emperor) off
Cape Bon, on the northeastern coast of Tunisia, in 468 ( BD, 245, n. 1).
22
In 1494 Ludovico il Moro, duke of Milan, induced the French to attempt to drive the
Aragonese out of Naples. This unleashed the Italian Wars that lasted until 1559.
23
A loose translation of a dictum attributed to Cato and often cited in the Middle Ages,
“Nam laevius laedit, quidquid praevidimus ante” (BD, 246, n. 2).
24 25
Elizabeth I. Mary Stuart, executed in 1587.
26
This last sentence was suppressed in most later editions.
115
Of Eloquence
suspicion that the league states unite brings it about that he has no desire
to move against any of them. In this way the Swiss gain security because,
given the defensive league among them, there is no one who has any
desire to attack the least of their villages. And the Venetians have enjoyed
a long peace under Suleiman, king of the Turks, only because that prince
knew that if he attacked them, he provided an occasion for Christian
princes, due to the common danger, to unite with one another. But we
have spoken enough about leagues elsewhere.
10 Of Eloquence
This is very valuable, also, to convince an enemy to desist from a cam-
paign. Lorenzo de’ Medici, in the greatest trouble and danger because
of the war of Sixtus IV and Ferrante of Naples against the Florentine
Republic, traveled from Florence to Naples and, conferring with the
king, knew how to speak so well and with such efficacy, that he dissolved
the league and reconciled with the Florentines.27 With the same skill
Galeazzo Visconti made Philip of Valois turn around when with a great
army he was approaching Milan.28 Alfonso of Aragon, at war with René
of Anjou over the claims that the one and the other had to the Kingdom
of Naples, was taken prisoner at Gaeta and taken to Milan by the soldiers
of Filippo Maria Visconti who was giving aid to René. There he accom-
plished with eloquence that which he probably would not have been able
to do with arms. By showing to that prince how dangerous it would be
for the state of Milan if the French acquired the kingdom and became
powerful in Italy, he drew him over to his side and obtained such assis-
tance and favor that when René was finally defeated, he remained lord of
Naples.29
Another instrument useful to draw forces to us and take them from
the enemy is to demonstrate to other princes that our danger is in any
27
In December 1479, when Sixtus IV and Ferdinand I warred against Florence, Lorenzo
de’ Medici undertook a secret trip to Naples where he convinced the king to break with
the pope. A peace was signed in February 1480. Botero draws his account of this incident
from Machiavelli’s History of Florence, 8.19 (BD, 248, n. 2).
28
Philip, future Philip IV of France, having been summoned there by the pope, was on
campaign in Italy in 1320. When he found his army encircled by the troops of the lord of
Milan, Marco Visconti, and his son Galeazzo, he negotiated with them and then returned
to France.
29
This took place in 1435; see Machiavelli, History of Florence, 5.5 (BD, 249, n. 1).
116
Of Depriving the Enemy of Food Supply
event also theirs and that the greatness of the adversary will be dangerous
for them no less than for us. The Romans used this a great deal in the
Macedonian War, to unite the Aetolians with them in a league, and in the
Aetolian War to unite with the Achaeans, and in Asia to join with diverse
princes and peoples.
11 Of those Things that Have to be Done after the

Enemy has Entered the Country
The treatment above applies to before the enemy has entered your states,
but after he will have entered, some other provisions will help which we
touched upon in the preceding books where it is discussed whether it is
suitable for a prince to engage his subjects in military exercises or not.
And in conclusion, everything possible helps that divides or weakens the
enemy either by artifice or by force.
12 Of Depriving the Enemy of Food Supply

It will also help to deprive the enemy of every means of obtaining pro-
visions, either by cutting off or tearing up the roads, as the Turks did
before the troops of King Ferdinand in the campaign of Eszék,30 or by
destroying the crops as the French diligently did when Emperor Charles
invaded Provence.31 Duke Cosimo, seeing that his state was enclosed in
such a way by nature that it was not possible to transport supplies there
except through the part that bordered on papal territory, always kept the
popes as friends and, on the other hand, so that no one entered there with
the intent of seizing the products of the country, he ordered that once the
grain had been harvested, each took his to the fortress which had been
prescribed for each district; each then took out by hand as much as he
needed, so that in the unforeseen case of war, for the enemy unable to
bring his own food supply with him and not finding any in the country,
there was only left starvation.32
30
This refers to the attempt of Emperor Ferdinand I in a campaign of 1541–43 to take back
from the Turks the city of Eszék, today Osijek in the Croatian region of Slavonia (BD,
250, n. 4).
31
The army of Emperor Charles V invaded Provence in 1524 and besieged Marseilles but
was unable to take it (BD, 250, n. 5).
32
Starting with RS 1596, another paragraph was added here.
117
Of Agreement with Enemies
13 Of Diversion
Diversion differs from prevention in this, that prevention occurs before
the enemy has come to attack us; diversion is employed after he has
attacked us, by taking the war into his own territory, so that he leaves
ours, as in prevention the war is taken into the territory of the enemy so
that he does not take it into ours. An outstanding diversion was that of
Agathocles when he was being stretched to the limit by a Carthaginian
siege of Syracuse and was not able to hold out longer. Embarking with
some of the soldiers, he passed over to Africa and from there made it so
difficult for the enemy, that they were forced to recall the troops that they
had in Sicily.33 And no less noble and bold was the case of Boniface, count
of Corsica, in the year of salvation 829. After the Saracens had attacked
Sicily and put everything there to fire and sword, the count passed over
to Africa with a good fleet, and confronting the enemy there, he was vic-
torious, so that the Saracens, because of the danger to their own lands,
were forced to leave Sicily in peace.34
14 Of Agreement with Enemies

But if the adversary is so powerful that there is no hope of defending our-
selves, it will be the duty of a wise prince to escape imminent ruin with
the least evil that is possible. In such a case one ought to consider use-
ful any agreement or treaty that can be won by money. The Florentines
have often helped themselves in this way who, by paying substantial sums
of gold, have emerged from great trials. And the Genoese with nineteen
thousand ducats made the army of Bernabo Visconti35 turn around, and
the Venetians did the same with Pippo,36 general of King Sigismund, who
put him to death forcing him to drink liquefied gold. In the same way the
Venetians have always helped themselves with the Turk, giving presents
to the vizier, paying large amounts to persons of importance close to the
Grand Signior, and giving rich gifts to the same.
33
Agathocles was tyrant of Syracuse from 316–288 bce. This event took place in 310.
34
Boniface II, marquis of Tuscany from 828–34, and prefect of Corsica, defended Corsica
and Sicily against the Saracens, taking the war over to Africa (BD, 252, n. 3).
35
Bernabò Visconti was lord of Milan from 1349–85.
36
Filippo Buondelmonte degli Scolari, called Pippo Spano (1369–1426), was an Italian cap-
tain in the service of Sigismund of Luxembourg. Pippo was considered a traitor but the
method of his death seems to have been a myth (BD, 253, n. 5).
118
Standing Above the Fray while Neighbors are at War
15 Of Seeking Protection and Submitting to Others

But if you run the danger of losing not only your state but your lib-
erty, then, yielding, you ought not to be ashamed to place yourself under
the protection or even the rule of another, provided that he has suffi-
cient power to defend you. So the Capuans submitted to the Romans
in order to escape the cruelty of the Samnites; the Genoese submitted
to the French, then to the duke of Milan; the Pisans also helped them-
selves briefly first by the patronage and then by the free rule of the Vene-
tian Republic,37 but unwisely, because the protectors, due to the distance
between the two countries and the difficulties of the passes, were not
able to defend them against their enemy, the Florentines, without much
greater expense than utility. No prince will long protect a state when that
results in more harm than utility.38
16 Of Standing Above the Fray while Neighbors

are at War
But in order to assure the peace and security of your state, nothing is
more necessary than to fortify yourself well when your neighbors are
at war because it usually happens shortly after the peace and accord of
those who were the first at war, that the storm of the war spills over to
the neighbors. After the peace between Charles II, king of Naples, and
Frederick of Aragon,39 about twenty galleys departed from Sicily and
Apulia, some Catalan, some Italian, which had served the two kings.40
Having chosen a certain Brother Ruggiero41 of the Knights Templar as
their captain, they raided the coast of Macedonia and Greece and did
unheard of damage everywhere. As their number increased, they boldly
sacked the islands of the archipelago and assaulted the cities of the terra
ferma, and they enriched themselves through the ruin of an infinite num-
ber of people; this lasted twelve years. Finally, they murdered the duke of
Athens and took possession of his state. In the same way, after the peace
37
From 1496–99.
38
There follows here a brief chapter entitled “Of the Method of Julius II” in RS 1598.
39
The Treaty of Caltabellota, in 1302.
40
These were the Almogavars, soldiers from many Iberian kingdoms who originally fought
in the early Reconquest in Spain and then later in Italy.
41
Roger de Flor, corsair and mercenary captain.
119
Standing Above the Fray while Neighbors are at War
between Filippo Maria and the Venetians,42 the captains who had served
these princes led their rival armies into the State of the church. Much
later,43 after the Venetians and Emperor Maximilian, the Spaniards and
the Gascons, who had all fought in the war had put down their arms,
they continued on with Francesco Maria44 into the state of Urbino and
tormented Pope Leo in such a way that in order to free himself, he paid
out an unlimited sum.45
42
Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, concluded peace with the Venetians at Ferrara in
1428, and it was renegotiated in 1433.
43
These events took place in 1517. More than eighty years separated the two sets of events
related here by Botero.
44
Francesco Maria della Rovere (1490–1538), a condottiere and heir to the duchy of Urbino
who had been dispossessed by Pope Leo X.
45
Botero’s discussion of the need for a prince to prepare for war in a time of peace seems to
resemble Machiavelli’s position in chap. 14 of The Prince (BD, 237, n. 1).
120
Book Seven
1 Of Forces [Resources]
Up till now we have discussed the means by which a prince can govern
his people peacefully. Now we discuss the ways by which a prince can
also expand his state. These are without a doubt the resources which I
am accustomed to call the instruments of prudence and valor. It would
take a long time to try to show in detail all those things that can be called
the resources of a prince, so that I will content myself with the principal
ones, which are people, many and of high quality, and money and food
supplies and munitions and horses and offensive and defensive arms. And
I will not delay to demonstrate how munitions and arms are to be made
and assembled because the Arsenal of Venice, which is filled with every
military instrument for sea and for land, can serve as a mirror and a book
for every wise prince. Here, in the space of a mile and one half or a little
more and surrounded by high walls, is gathered such a quantity of all the
materials and all the instruments necessary for all the needs and necessi-
ties of naval and land warfare so that he who sees it scarcely believes his
eyes. Here under large vaults are kept hundreds of galleys, some large,
some slender, made with inexplicable mastery. And they are constructed
continuously in such good order that one always sees in one day the start
and completion of a galley in every detail. Here there are vast rooms,
some filled with artillery of every sort, some with pikes, swords, and
arquebuses, others with breastplates, helmets, and shields so well made
and polished that the sight of them alone is sufficient to terrify the cow-
ards and incite to war the spirited. Elsewhere you will see large rooms,
some filled with iron and bronze, others with hemp, others with wood.
121
Is it Fitting for a Prince to Accumulate Treasure
Elsewhere iron is purified and liquefied to make cannon balls, nails, and
anchors. Elsewhere bronze is cast to make artillery. Elsewhere hemp is
worked into rope and sails and shrouds. From wood are made oars, masts,
planks and all that is needed for the navy. Finally, there you will get an
idea of the foresight necessary for a prince who wants always to be armed;
as Alfonso d’Avalos,1 marquis of Vasto, deservedly said after seeing and
considering the size and importance of a similar place, he would have
wanted the Arsenal of Venice before four good cities of Lombardy.
About provisions and horses it occurs to me to say nothing that was
not said in passing as it were about agriculture. There are then two types
of resources to which the others can be reduced, people and money; and
even if he who has people has money, we will say two words about this
latter type of resource, so that we may speak more at length of the other.2
2 Is it Fitting for a Prince to Accumulate Treasure

Nothing is worse in a prince than to make profession of accumulating
money without a worthy goal. The first reason for this is that it hinders
all the works of charity and beneficence, from which it follows neces-
sarily that the roots of subjects’ love for the prince are torn up which
are in large part the benefits that they receive from him. Also, he who
has this stimulus to accumulate treasure is compelled to burden his sub-
jects more than is customary and more than he ought. Unable to tol-
erate immoderate burdens, they then will desire a change in the state
and in the government, and not willing to tolerate them, break out in
some scandal. I add that those who give themselves over to avarice and
money, trusting immoderately in riches and treasures, often disdain all
the other means of good government with the result that they lose their
states and their treasure goes into the hands of their enemies, as hap-
pened to Sardanapalus3 who left forty million scudi to those who mur-
dered him, and to Darius4 who left eighty million to the great Alexander
1
Alfonso d’Avalos (1502–46) was a general of Emperor Charles V who served as governor
of Milan and commander of the imperial army.
2
In RS 1598 Botero added a sentence here that is important to understand his thought:
“But before going further, let us say that this expansion (agrandissement) of the state is of
two types, intensive and extensive. With the first one improves dominion (dominio), with
the second one extends it; but without the other, this is harmful instead of being useful.”
3
Sardanapalus is the name given by the Greeks to the last king of the Assyrians, Ashurban-
ipal (667–626 bce).
4
Darius III, king of Persia, who died in 331 bce.
122
Is it Fitting for a Prince to Accumulate Treasure
who defeated him and expelled him from his state, and to Perseus5 who
also left his money to those who deprived him of his kingdom. But what
noble thought, what honorable purpose can a prince have who has given
himself over completely to the art of avarice? Let Tiberius Caesar speak,
or not to go so far back, Alfonso II, king of Naples,6 who gave his pigs
to his subjects to fatten them, and if they died, made them pay him. He
purchased all the oil of Apulia and all the budding grain, and then he
resold it at the highest price that he could while forbidding anyone else
from being able to sell it until he had sold all of his. But what will we say
of the selling of offices and magistracies? Is there anything more unwor-
thy of a prince and more harmful to subjects? The greed for gold leads
princes to every crime and unworthy action and takes out of their hands
a means to virtue and to that which makes for their glory, and it hap-
pens then ordinarily that the ill-gotten wealth of princes is spent more
wrongfully by their successors. David used all due care to accumulate a
great supply of gold and silver which was the greatest that had ever been
collected;7 it amounted to one hundred and twenty million scudi. With
all this Solomon, his son, apart from that which he spent for the con-
struction of the temple, used the money so prodigally for the construc-
tion of palaces in the city and in the country, for summer and for winter,
for gardens and splendid fish-ponds, for a multitude of horses and carts,
for male and female singers, for display and delights of every sort, so that,
because the treasure left him by his father was not enough, he burdened
his people in such a way that unable to bear the infinite burdens, the
great part of them rebelled under his son.8 Now, what will they do with
so much treasure unjustly acquired? Or what fruit can one hope for from
it? Using every sort of extortion and injustice, Tiberius over many years
gathered sixty-seven million scudi, which his successor, Caligula, wasted
in one year, and this will happen ordinarily because a prince, especially
a young one, who sees a great treasure in his hands, commonly takes to
strange thoughts and passing fancies that have no end, and confident in
5
Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, conquered by Roman armies in 168 bce.
6
Alfonso II of Aragon (1448–95), duke of Calabria and son of Ferdinand I of Aragon whom
he succeeded as king of Naples from 1494–95. These lines about Alfonso are cited verbatim
from Jean Bodin, Les six livres de la république, edn. of 1583, 6.2 (BD, 262, n. 8.); see also
Jean Bodin, The Six Bookes of a Common-weale. Out of the French and Latin Copies, done
into English by Richard Knolles (London, 1606), 6.2. In this Book Seven Botero frequently
draws on Bodin’s République, edn. of 1583, 6.2, “On Treasure.”
7
Botero takes this from Bodin, République, 6.2 (BD, 262, n. 1).
8
Roboam, son of Solomon; see 1 Kings 12 and 2 Chronicles 10.
123
That it is Necessary that the Prince have Treasure
his wealth, undertakes great works with his resources, hates peace, dis-
dains friendship with his neighbors, starts wars that are neither necessary
nor useful and are often harmful for himself and his own. For this rea-
son God does not will that the king has argenti et auri immensa pondera
(immense amounts of silver and gold).9
3 That it is Necessary that the Prince have Treasure

Nevertheless, it is necessary10 for the service of peace and for the neces-
sity of war that the prince always have at hand a good sum of ready money
because to wait to raise the money necessary in times of need, and espe-
cially of war, is a difficult and dangerous matter.11 Difficult because the
clamor of the army, which interrupts commerce and trade, the cultiva-
tion of the fields, and the gathering of the harvest, also necessarily ends
the ordinary taxes and customs dues. Dangerous, because harmed and
knocked about by the licence and cruelty of the soldiers, both friendly
and hostile, and by the evils of the war, if beyond this they are harassed
and assessed for further contributions by the prince, the people will make
trouble. Therefore, it is necessary to have money ready for similar neces-
sities with which the enemy is held at a distance and the people enjoy
without disturbance the fruits of the earth and its revenues. Therefore, at
a time when war confronts us, it will not be possible easily to raise money
and to secure arms, two procedures of which I do not know which is more
difficult. So it is necessary that the money be on hand, so that there is
nothing else to do than to raise the troops. Otherwise, while consultations
are under way about how to raise the money, the quickness of the enemy
and the disruption of the war deprives us of the means to raise money and
troops. The Turk displays a marvelous speed in his campaigns because in
his preparation for them he makes use of the treasure and the money that
he has on hand to recruit the soldiers and ready the arms and make every
other provision for the campaign, and he then recovers the money spent
with the taxes that he imposes on his people. But he who does not have
funds available, while he thinks about and deliberates about the means to
9
Deuteronomy 17:7.
10
Starting with RS 1590, there is inserted here “for reputation, because the power of states
is assessed today no less from the supply of money than from the size of the territory,
and”.
11
Bodin underscored that financial reserves ought to be on hand so that the prince was not
compelled to begin a war with loans and subsidies, République, 6.2, p. 906. (BD, 264, n. 1).
124
Of Revenues
make provision for it, ordinarily loses the time needed for this business
and often the opportunity for victory. And the most frequently used way
to procure money is that which ruins kings and kingdoms, that is, the
payment of interest, and in order to pay the interest ordinary revenues
are pledged, so that it is necessary to impose extraordinary ones which
commonly then become ordinary. So one evil is remedied by a greater
one, one falls from one disorder into another, and finally the state col-
lapses and is lost.
Since therefore it is not expedient to make profession of accumulating
treasure, and it is necessary to have some treasure, what is to be done?
Virtue resides in the middle; therefore they ought to accumulate money
without making profession of it. This will be done in two ways, by keep-
ing alive all the revenues of your state while abstaining from all superflu-
ous revenues and from all unsuitable giving.
4 Of Revenues
The revenues of a prince are of two sorts: ordinary and extraordinary,
because they are drawn either from the products of the land or the results
of human labor. They are drawn from the earth in two ways because some
lands belong directly to the prince, others to the subjects. To the prince
belong patrimonial lands and those that have no other owner, to the cul-
tivation of which he ought to attend not otherwise than the good father
of a family and take from it all that the quality of the lands allows because
some are good for grain, others for pasture, others provide woods, oth-
ers other things like lakes, ponds, rivers. Furthermore, of the fruits of
the earth some come from under the earth, others from above. From
under the earth come metals and mines of gold, of silver, of tin, of iron,
of mercury, of sulphur, of alum, of salt, and besides this jewels, pre-
cious stones, and marble of infinite sorts. From above the earth come
hay, grains, beans, and beasts large and small, domestic and wild. The
benefits of the waters are of many types; they generate many animate
things to support human life, such as fish, oysters, and other such things,
and inanimate such as coral and pearls, and of uncertain nature, such
as sponges which Aristotle places in the middle between animate and
inanimate things.12 Muhammad II,13 having acquired enough land, sent
out colonies of slaves, to which he assigned each fifteen acres of land,
12 13
History of Animals, 8.3.1 (588). Mehmed II.
125
Of Revenues
two buffaloes, and seed for the first year. After twelve years he wanted
one-half of the crops and a seventh of the other half in the years follow-
ing. So he established a good perpetual income.14 From the lands that
belong directly to his subjects the prince draws money through taxes
and imposts, which when they meet the needs of the republic are licit
and just because according to reason particular goods serve the public
good without which the latter could not be maintained.15 But these taxes
ought not to be personal but real, that is, not on heads but on property;
otherwise all the burden of the taxes will fall on the poor as ordinarily
happens because the nobility unload the burden on the people and the
large cities on the countryside. But in the course of time it happens that
the poor, unable to support the weight, fall beneath it, and in the end the
nobility have to make war at their own expense and the cities pay huge
subsidies as happened in France. In Rome the whole weight of the taxes
and impositions was on the rich. But the goods of the subjects are cer-
tain or uncertain. I call certain the immovable goods and uncertain the
movable goods. Only the stable goods ought to be taxed. The attempt to
tax movable goods turned all Flanders against the duke of Alba.16 And if
you want, in case of extreme necessity, levy contributions also on mov-
able goods; I would not disapprove what they do in some cities of Ger-
many: leave it to the conscience and oath of persons. As to the products
of industry, by which I understand every type of trade and commerce,
they are taxed when entering or leaving the country. There is no sort of
income more legitimate and just than this because it is reasonable that
whoever makes a profit on what is ours or from what is ours make us
some payment. But because those who carry on commerce are either our
subjects or foreigners, it is just that the foreigners pay something more
than the subjects. The Turk also has this policy. For the goods that are
taken from Alexandria, the foreigners pay ten per cent and the subjects
five per cent. In England foreigners pay quadruple what the natives pay.
And because riches tend to find their way there where the things neces-
sary for use in everyday life more abound, the prince ought to employ all
14
Botero takes this example nearly verbatim from Bodin, République, 6.2 (BD, 266, n. 5).
15
This principle follows Bodin, République, 6.2, with the significant difference that for
Bodin these taxes may be collected in time of necessity; for Botero they may be collected
on a regular basis (BD, 267, n. 3).
16
Fernando Álvarez de Toledo (1507–82) was named governor of the Low Countries in
1568. After he introduced new taxes in 1572, a revolt broke out. He had to surrender to
the insurgents the northern provinces, and he was recalled to Spain in 1573.
126
Of Aid from the Church
diligence to encourage his subjects to the cultivation of the land and to

practice trades of every type, about which we will speak more fully in its
place.
5 Of Loans
But if revenues are not adequate to the needs, the prince can borrow from
wealthy subjects, either at interest, which he ought not to do except in
extreme cases since interest is the ruin of states, or without interest which
will not be difficult if the prince keeps his word and pays his debts on time
without serious harm to his creditors.17 Henry II, king of France, when
he wanted to rebuild his army after its defeat by the imperials at San
Quentin, summoned the three estates of his kingdom and, through the
mouth of the cardinal of Lorraine asked them to find a thousand persons
throughout the state who would each lend him a thousand scudi with-
out interest.18 This he easily obtained, and with the three million of gold
which he accumulated he renewed the war and made important acquisi-
tions. So without oppressing the people who were already worn out by
previous contributions, he found a way to undertake glorious campaigns.
He had learned earlier that to borrow money at interest gained nothing
but the collapse of revenues and the loss of credit. He left in fact such
great debts that the crown of France still feels their weight.
6 Of Aid from the Church

The goods of the church ought to be a last resort on which it is not right
to lay hands without permission of the Supreme Pontiff and with neces-
sity on the part of the republic. The authority of the pope justifies the
prince before God and necessity justifies him also with the people, and if
either one or the other is lacking, it is almost impossible that matters go
well, of which I would be able to adduce many examples but I leave that
behind in order not to offend anyone. However, I do not want to omit
saying that King Manuel of Portugal19 was a most fortunate prince in his
17
Interestingly, Botero does not discuss interest from the perspective of the church’s prohi-
bition. See also “usury.”
18
After the defeat at San Quentin in August 1557, Henry II summoned the Estates-General
to Paris the following winter, to obtain the subsidies necessary to continue the war.
19
Manuel I, king of Portugal from 1495–1521, supported the voyages of Vasco da Gama and
Pedro Alvarez Cabral.
127
Of Extraordinary Income
undertakings in Africa and in India because in the one and in the other
he made incredible acquisitions, and he increased, one can say, the gold
and silver along with the expenses. There came to him then the desire,
at the suggestion of others, to take a large sum of money from the eccle-
siastical state, and he obtained the permission of Pope Leo. When this
became known in Portugal, it caused infinite grumbling, so that the king,
not under any necessity and seeing a change in spirit, agreed to cede the
grace that he had obtained to the clergy, and they in turn, to show him
their affection, made him a gift of one hundred and fifty thousand scudi.
After this, from then on his enterprises and his reputation continually
declined.
Now aid comes from the church in two ways, either from the sale of
part of its lands or from part of the income of the lands. The sale of
immovable goods, as has happened more than once in France,20 is like
taking a hatchet to one’s legs and cutting one’s muscles. Beyond that, the
permission of the pope is carried out in such an ill fashion that twice that
is alienated than was authorized by the bull, and it appears that a sacrifice
is made to God through a diminishment of the income of the church.21
Making use of a part of the income is more tolerable for the clergy and
often necessary for the republic. This has been seen in the late wars in
France of which the clergy has in great part paid the expenses with more
than twenty million scudi contributed to the king, and in Spain where
the clergy has for many years supported sixty armed galleys and paid out
more than double this amount.22
7 Of Extraordinary Income
We have been talking about the ordinary income beyond which the
princes have some other extraordinary sources of income, some from
20
An allusion to the surrender of church lands during the reigns of Charles IX (1560–74)
and Henry III (1574–89), in order to provide funds to meet foreign and domestic crises,
especially campaigns against the Huguenots.
21
Pius V, Gregory XIII, and Sixtus V all issued bulls authorizing and justifying the alien-
ation of church lands in France. The sale of these lands then surpassed by a great deal
what the papal bulls had anticipated (this was especially the case at the time of the coming
to the throne of Henry III in 1574) (BD, 271, n. 4).
22
Starting with RS 1590, Botero added here: “But I confess to never having seen nor read
that anything of significance has ever been accomplished through the subsidies given by
the church. In addition, it appears that campaigns undertaken with church funds have
been regularly failing, and even if they have sometimes been successful, little fruit has
been gathered from the victory.”
128
How it is Necessary to Conserve the Surplus
their own people, others from foreigners. From their people they have
regalian rights,23 confiscations, condemnations, gifts. From foreigners
they have tribute, pensions, honors, and other similar things, all of which
they ought to spend and invest as if they were ordinary income.24 Who
will manage his income in this way will necessarily lay by a certain part
which he ought to deposit in his treasury for cases of necessity.
8 Of Abstention from Inappropriate Expenses and

from Giving out of Vanity
Inappropriate expenses are those which have no apparent purpose for the
public good, bring no benefit nor security to the state, no grandeur nor
reputation to the king. These are infinite because vanity has no limits.
Because we have spoken about this elsewhere,25 we will move on. But
there is nothing more necessary than the regulation of gifts which ought
not to be made except to people of merit and with moderation. If they are
made without previous merit, those who do merit are offended, and this
has overturned some states of Christendom. If moderation is not prac-
ticed, the font of this beneficence soon dries up so that the prince often
passes over from profuse giving to extortion. Nero in the fourteen years
that he reigned made gifts of fifty million scudi. Galba, his successor,
issued an edict revoking all the gifts made by him and leaving to those
who had received them only the tenth part. And Nero, after giving away
such a great amount of gold and silver, lacking material for his prodigal-
ity, turned to assassinations, and Caligula did the same.26
9 How it is Necessary to Conserve the Surplus

But because it is difficult for a prince to protect himself from the impor-
tunities of flatterers, favorites, and other similar types of people if he has
money on hand, it is necessary to find a way that makes it difficult to
23
The temporary regale allowed the French king to collect the income of vacant bishoprics.
24
Starting with RS 1598, Botero inserted here: “And the power of a prince ought not to be
evaluated so much from his ordinary income as much as from the ease with which he can
obtain money through extraordinary means. Of this the clearest sign is that most princes
have sold or pledged or in another way alienated the ordinary revenues and support them-
selves with extraordinary aids.”
25
This probably refers to Botero’s Del dispregio del mondo libri cinque (Milan, 1584) (BD,
273, n. 2).
26
Botero treated this topic earlier in 1.22 (p. 33), using the same examples.
129
Of a Numerous Population
lay hands on the money, a precaution that the ancients also took in dif-
ferent ways. After the expenses of the government had been paid, Cae-
sar Augustus lent the money that remained at interest and with security,
and Antoninus Pius in a similar fashion at five per cent, and Alexan-
der Severus did the same. But no prince ought to follow the example
of lending at interest, not only because this is not a matter for a prince
but because it contravenes reason and the precepts of the church. When
lending freely27 he obtains two good results. First, he secures safeguards
for his money by taking security for it. Second, he puts the subject under
obligation to him, and he gives him the opportunity to enrich himself
which in the long run benefits the prince. The Romans, when they were
free, accumulated the public treasure in large portions of gold similar
to bricks. The kings of Morocco formed their treasure into a great ball
of gold which they placed on the dome of their Great Mosque. Today
princes wall up or bury or store in cases of iron their riches and their
treasure which William, duke of Mantua, jokingly called great devils.
And this suffices about money.28
10 Of People
We come now to true resources which consist in people because all other
resources are reduced to them. Whoever has people in abundance, has
also all other things in abundance to which man’s intelligence and indus-
try extends as will appear in the course of our treatise. So from here on
we will use indiscriminately now the term people now the term resources.
Now with regard to people, there are two types of resources to consider,
the number and the valor.
11 Of a Numerous Population
First, it is necessary to have enough people because, as Servius Tullius29
said, for a city that aspires to great undertakings nothing is of greater
need than a numerous multitude of citizens with which it is able confi-
dently to prevail in military contests, because the few, due to the fury of
27
That is, without interest.
28
In RS 1590 Botero inserted a long chapter here, “In the Accumulation of Wealth One
Ought Not to Continue ad Infinitum.” This chapter is found below in an appendix.
29
Servius Tullius was, traditionally, the sixth king of Rome, who reigned roughly from 578–
535 bce.
130
an epidemic or due to some misfortune, are easily ruined, as happened

to the Spartans who, broken once by the Thebans at Leutra30 by the
death of 1,700 citizens, lost their hegemony in Greece. The Thebans and
Athenians, defeated in a battle with King Philip, collapsed altogether.
On the other hand the Romans conquered the world with valor but no
less with the infinite number of their troops. These were so many that
at the same time they could carry on a war in many locations far from
one another: in Italy, in Spain, in Sardinia, in Sicily, in Macedonia, and
they did not lose their spirit because of one or of many defeats; they
even increased with the defeats of the army and they multiplied with
their losses. Cineas called them a Lernean Hydra.31 And King Pyrrhus32
after conquering the Romans in a great battle and seeing that they had
swiftly rebuilt a new and powerful army, was so dismayed in such a way
that, despairing of being able to conquer with arms, he set about to treat
for peace but in vain. Without a doubt their numbers gave the Romans
the victory over the Carthaginians because the number of the dead was
undoubtedly greater on the part of the Romans than on their enemies;
in the First Punic War the Romans lost seven hundred quinqueremes33
and the Carthaginians five hundred. In the second more Romans died at
the Battle of Cannae than Carthaginians in the whole war.34 No one will
deny that in the wars with Pyrrhus, with Numantia,35 with Viriathus,36
Athenion,37 at the time of the social wars, with Sertorius, with Spar-
tacus, and with many others, more Romans died than did their ene-
mies, and yet they conquered because of their inexhaustible numbers.
The Arabs, the Saracens, the Tartars, and in our time Mahmud, king
of the Massagetae,38 the scourge of India, and the Turks have always
30
The Battle of Leuctra in Boeotia in 371 bce.
31
Cineas, a Thessalonian by origin, was a minister of King Pyrrhus. He was sent to Rome in
279 bce after the Battle of Heraclea, to negotiate peace. The hydra of Lerna was a monster
with many heads that reconstituted themselves as soon as they had been cut off.
32
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus (r. 306–302, 297–272 bce).
33
The quinquereme, developed from the trireme, was an ancient galley with five rows of
oars on each side; its precise structure is disputed.
34
The most plausible figure for the number of Roman deaths at the Battle of Cannae is
50,000 (BD, 283, n. 1).
35
Numantia was a village in northern Spain around which coalesced opposition to the
Romans; the war lasted from 153–133 bce.
36
Viriathus was the leader of the Lusitanian resistance to Rome in the western part of the
Iberian Peninsula. He died in 139 bce.
37
Athenion led a slave revolt in Sicily that was suppressed in 101 bce.
38
Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030) was the most prominent ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire
that included parts of today’s Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
131
undertaken the greatest campaigns more with a great mass of men rather
than with valor.
I add that whoever abounds in men also has plenty of money because
with a multitude of people tributes increase and these enrich the sum in
the treasury. Neither Italy nor France have gold or silver mines, and yet
they abound in one and the other metal above every other province of
Europe for no other reason than the inestimable number of their inhab-
itants who bring in money by commerce and trade from the ends of the
earth. Where there are many people it is necessary that the land be well
cultivated (so that Suidae writes that in his time France was cultivated
more by the multitude of their men than by their skill)39 , and from the
earth is drawn the foodstuffs necessary for life and the material of the
artisans. Now the abundance of goods and variety of products enriches
both individuals and the public. If Spain is considered a sterile province,
this is not because of a lack of land but because of the scarcity of the
inhabitants; the land is favorable and most suited to the production of all
that belongs to civil life, and if it were cultivated, there would be enough
to support an infinite number of people as was the case in ancient times
when it supported the great armies of the Carthaginians and the Romans
besides their own peoples. And there was no province that for a longer
time and with greater energy tormented the Roman armies, and soon
after they were defeated and torn to pieces, they reinvigorated them-
selves and assembled greater armies. But not to speak of ancient events
any longer, it is held for certain that the king of Granada, in the war that
he waged against King Ferdinand40 had under his flag fifty thousand cav-
alry of which there are not so many today in all Spain and Portugal taken
together not because the nature and quality of the land has changed or
the air altered, but because the number of inhabitants has diminished and
the cultivation of the land has declined. The inhabitants are less than in
the ancient world, first, because of the wars in which the Moors took
possession of Spain; in this, in addition to the captives sent to Barbary
and the dispersal of the others, there died in the space of three months
seven hundred thousand persons. There followed then the war in which
39
Suidas indicates a Byzantine encyclopedia of the tenth century published in Milan in 1499
in Latin with the title Suidae Lexicon Graecom. Botero probably read there the passage
cited here from the Geography of Strabo, the Greek geographer and historian (64 bce to
24 ce) (BD, 283, n. 7). Starting in RS 1590, “Strabo” replaced “Suidae” in the text.
40
Ferdinand I, the Great, king of León (r. 1037–65), who united León with Castile and
Navarre.
132
for seven hundred years the Spaniards fought with the Moors and finally
drove them out of Spain. During this period there died subsequently
an infinite number from one side and then from the other, and so many
cities and counties were deserted. As soon as they saw themselves free
of this war, they turned their arms to campaigns in Africa, in Naples,
in Milan, and in the New World, and ultimately to the recovery of the
Low Countries, and in all these campaigns countless died by the sword
and from privation, and an incredible number continually moved to these
countries, to live, to do business, and to man garrisons.
I add to the things already mentioned the edicts of King Ferdinand,
which were imitated afterwards by King Manuel of Portugal, which
expelled from Spain 124,000 Jewish families; it is estimated that this
came to eight hundred thousand persons.41 This led Bajazet,42 king
of the Turks, considering the matter superficially, to say that he won-
dered about the prudence of King Ferdinand who deprived himself of
that which enlarged and enriched his states so greatly, that is, peo-
ple. So he gladly received the Jews expelled from Spain in Rhodes, in
Salonika, in Constantinople, Santa Maura,43 and elsewhere. Agricul-
ture then declined in the same province because this nation, inclined by
nature to the profession of arms and to haughtiness, took up voluntar-
ily the military career and the profession of arms from which they drew
honor and profit. Not only are the Spaniards negligent in the cultivation
of the land but also in the manual arts so that there is no province more
lacking in artisans and industries. Wool, silk and other materials are for
the most part exported, and that which remains is processed for the most
part by Italians as are the fields and vines worked by the French.
41
In 1492 Ferdinand II, the Catholic, of Aragon and his wife, Isabella of Castile, signed the
decree expelling the Jews from Spain. Manuel I of Portugal followed with a similar decree
in 1496.
42
Sultan Bajazet II (1447–1512) in 1492 took in the Jews expelled from Spain and even sent
ships to transport them.
43
Santa Maura is an island off the west coast of Greece, also called Lefkada.
133
Book Eight
1 Two Ways to Increase People and Resources

People and resources grow in two ways: by increasing one’s own and
drawing to oneself that of others. You increase your own through agri-
culture, the crafts, favoring the education of children, colonies. You draw
to yourself by winning over your enemies, by ruining neighboring cities,
by the granting of citizenship, with friendship, with alliances, by the hir-
ing of soldiers, by ties of kinship, and by other similar methods which we
will briefly discuss successively as we proceed.
2 Of Agriculture
Agriculture is the foundation of all growth, and we call agriculture every
activity that has to do with the land and makes use of it in some way;
the early kings of Rome were most astute and diligent in this, especially
Ancus Martius.1 Denis, king of Portugal,2 called the farmers the sinews
of the republic. Isabella, queen of Castile, was accustomed to say that in
order for Spain to abound in everything, it would be necessary to give all
to the Fathers of St. Benedict because they took marvelous care of their
lands.
Therefore the prince ought to favor and promote agriculture and show
that he takes account of those who understand how to improve and make
fertile their lands and whose farms are extremely well cultivated. It is
his duty to direct and get started all that pertains to the public good
1
The legendary fourth king of Rome, who reigned from 642–617 bce.
2
King of Portugal (r. 1279–1325), called “the Farmer.”
134
Of Agriculture
of the country: to drain swamps, to uproot and prepare for cultivation

useless or excessively wooded areas, and to aid and support those who
undertake similar works. So Masinissa, king of Africa,3 brought it about
that Numidia and the Mediterranean shores of Barbary, which had previ-
ously been uncultivated and deserted, became with diligence most fertile
and productive of every good, and Tacitus writes of Tiberius Caesar that
with every effort and care, not sparing any money or labor, he remedied
the infertility of the land.4 And because the causes of generation and
abundance are humidity and heat, it is also the duty of the prince, aiding
nature, to channel rivers or lakes through the countryside; in this sense
one cannot sufficiently praise the ancient rulers of Milan who, by opening
one canal from the Ticino and another from the Adda, enriched beyond
belief that most fortunate territory.5 The poets relate that Hercules in a
duel with the River Achelous6 broke off one of its horns. With this they
wanted to hide the historical truth, namely, that Hercules altered the bed
and diverted the course of the river because it greatly damaged the fields,
and the poets called the mouths of the rivers horns. So it is the responsi-
bility of the prince to take measures against such problems and, finally, to
keep alive all the ways to make his land abundant and fruitful in all that
for which he knows it to be suitable. And if neither plants nor seeds are
found in his state, it will be his responsibility to bring them in from else-
where. So the Romans brought cherries and peaches from the furthest
parts of Asia, and gradually other fruits too. One sees that in Portugal
ginger brought from India does very well, and I remember having eaten
ginger grown in Paris. And what I have said of trees and fruits should
also be understood of animals.
And it ought not to be permitted that lands be uselessly employed
either for parks, of which England is full to the great laments of the peo-
ple who as a result endure not minor shortages of grain, or for other
such things. Nor should one be frightened off by the expense that the
greater part of the aforementioned works require because either they can
be performed in the winter by slaves or by galley-slaves if there are any;
or if there are none, those can be employed in such works who otherwise
would merit the galleys or death, just as the Romans assigned similar men
to extract metal or cut marble. If these are not found, there will never be
3 4
Masinissa (238–148 bce) was the first king of Numidia. Tacitus, Annals, 4.6.
5
Ticino is an Italian-speaking area of southern Switzerland dotted with lakes, and the Adda
is a river in north Italy, a tributary of the Po.
6
Achelous, a river in western Greece, and also the river god.
135
Of Agriculture
lacking gypsies and vagabonds without any purpose whom it would be

better to employ in the service of public utility than to allow them to go
about begging. In China, an excellently regulated province, begging is
not permitted. All are employed to the extent that their ability allows:
the blind, if they have of themselves no means to live, are employed turn-
ing mills by hand; the maimed, as much as they are able, to do some-
thing else. Only those are allowed to enter the public hospitals who are
altogether helpless. The Romans were accustomed to have similar works
undertaken by soldiers when they had nothing else to do as is seen in
the Marian canals in Provence7 and the Drusine canals in Guelders,8
and the Via Emilia and Cassia. Caesar Augustus, seeing how the canals
that carried the waters of the Nile into the fields were obstructed and
plugged up, had them dredged and redirected by his army. The Swiss
facing similar needs made use of the work of the communes, employing
it to dam up a river or to level a mountain or to divert a torrent or to for-
tify a road so that the communities themselves carried out great projects
in a short time. Besides this, the prince also ought to have the goal that
money not leave his country without necessity. If in his state there are
cases of necessity, even if they require expenditures, it is an expendi-
ture that remains in the country or over time returns to the fisc through
taxes or customs. This is not the case once the money has left, because
it is lost as well as the gain that might have been earned from it. Many
places in Italy that were earlier deserted have now been under cultiva-
tion for some years, such as the Pontine marshes which not only covered
a large stretch of land without use, from which are now drawn unlim-
ited benefits, but also infected the air in such a way that Rome became
unhealthy. Outstanding also are the improvements made by the Venetians
in the Polasina near Rovigo9 and by the duke of Ferrara in the valleys of
Comacchio10 which produce grain sufficient for a great city. And it would
be possible to do the same in many parts if the princes would attend to it
and would not be such lovers of the present benefit that they neglect the
future.
7
At the mouth of the Rhône River, south of Arles, the Romans under Caius Marius (157–
86 bce) dug a canal, called the Marian ditches (le fosse Mariane) to facilitate the provi-
sioning of troops by sea.
8
Drusus (38–9 bce) built canals in Guelders in the Netherlands to facilitate the passage
between the sea and the Rhine River.
9
This is a region south of the Venetian territory on the Terra Ferma and north of Ferrara.
10
Southeast of Ferrara.
136
Of Industry
3 Of Industry11
There is nothing more important to make a city grow and to fill it with
inhabitants and an abundance of wealth than the industry of its peo-
ple and the number of its crafts, some of which are necessary, others
congenial for civic life, others desirable for display and decoration, oth-
ers for refinement and the entertainment of indolent persons. From this
comes an influx of money and of people who work, who trade the prod-
ucts of the work, or who supply material to the workers, who buy, sell,
transport from one place to another the artful products of man’s intelli-
gence and skill. Selim I, emperor of the Turks, in order to populate and
ennoble Constantinople, transported several thousand excellent crafts-
men from the royal city of Tauris and then from great Cairo. Nor did
the Poles wrongly understand this point, when they elected Henry, duke
of Anjou,12 their king; among the things that they wanted from him was
that he bring to Poland one hundred families of artisans.
And because art competes with nature someone will ask me which of
the two contributes more to enlarge and populate a place, the fertility
of the land or the industry of man. The industry, without a doubt, first
because the things produced by the artful hand of man are much more
and of much greater value than the things produced by nature because
nature provides the material and the subject but the subtlety and art of
man provides the unspeakable variety of the forms. Wool is a simple and
raw fruit of nature. How many beautiful things and what a great variety
and multiformity does art make of it? How many and how great the prof-
its does his industry reap who cards, warps, weaves, dyes, cuts, sews, and
forms it in a thousand ways and transports it from one place to another?
Silk is a simple product of nature; what a variety of beautiful cloth does
art make of it? It makes the excrement of a vile worm to be esteemed by
princes, valued by queens, and finally everyone wants to be held in honor
because of it. Furthermore, a much greater number of people live from
industry than from rents as is attested by many cities in Italy, especially
Florence, Genoa, Venice of whose grandeur and magnificence there is
not space to speak. Perhaps two-thirds of the inhabitants here support
themselves by their work with wool and silk. But who does not see this
11
This chapter was initially a part of Magnificence of Cities; Botero moved it here and left
only a reference to it in the earlier work.
12
Henry was elected king of Poland in 1571; he gave up this office in 1573 to return to
France to become king there as Henry III.
137
Of Industry
with every material? The revenues that are drawn from the iron mines
are not very large but from the profits that derive from the processing
and the trade of this iron an infinite number of people live, those who
excavate it, those who purify it, those who cast it, those who sell it retail
or wholesale, those who manufacture from it engines of war, defensive
and offensive arms, innumerable tools for use in agriculture, architec-
ture, and every craft, for daily needs and the innumerable necessities
of life which require iron no less than bread. He who would compare
the revenues that the owner draws from the iron mines with the bene-
fits that the artisans and merchants take from it through their industry,
and which also incredibly enrich princes through taxes, would find that
industry surpasses nature by far. Compare marble with the statues, the
colossi, the columns, the friezes, and the infinite works that are made
from it; compare the timbers with the galleys, the galleons, the ships,
and the vessels of infinite types for war, for merchandise, for pleasure,
with the statues, with the furniture of the house, and with other things
without number that are made with the plane, the chisel, and the lathe;
compare the coloring matter with the painting and the price of the for-
mer with the value of the latter and you will understand how much more
valuable is the work than the material (Zeuxis,13 a most excellent painter,
considered his works nothing because, he said generously, they could not
be bought for any price), and how many more people live by means of
the crafts than from the immediate benefit of nature. And so great is
the resource of industry that there is not a silver mine nor a gold mine
in New Spain or in Peru that ought to be put on the same level with
it, and the tax from the commerce of Milan is of greater value to the
Catholic King than the mines of Potosì14 or Jalisco. Italy is a province
where there is no mine of importance, neither of gold or silver, just as
France also has none; nevertheless, both the one and the other abound
magnificently in money and in treasure, thanks to industry. Flanders also
has no veins of metal, and nevertheless, so long as it was at peace, because
of the many, varied, and marvelous objects that were fashioned there with
skill and inestimable ingenuity it did not envy the mines of Hungary or
Transylvania, and there was no country in Europe more splendid, more
abundant, or more populated, nor an area of Europe or in the world
13
Zeuxis of Heraclea (464–398 bce).
14
Starting with RS 1596, the mines of Zacatecas in Mexico replaced Potosí in Bolivia.
138
Of Industry
where there were so many cities, so great, and so often visited by foreign-
ers so that, rightly, because of the incomparable treasures that Emperor
Charles took from there, some people called those lands the Indies of His
Majesty. Nature imposes its forms on prime matter, and human indus-
try creates on the natural composite an infinite variety of artificial forms
because nature is to the craftsman what prime matter is to the natural
agent.15
Therefore the prince who wants to populate his city16 ought to
introduce there every sort of industry and craft by bringing in out-
standing craftsmen from other countries, providing them with accom-
modations and suitable comfort while taking account of their attractive
talents, encouraging creativity and works that have something singu-
lar or rare about them, and rewarding perfection and excellence. But
above all it is necessary not to allow raw materials to be taken out of
your state, not wool, nor silk, nor wood, nor metals, nor any other such
thing because with the materials the craftsmen will also depart. A much
greater number of people live from the sale of finished materials than
from raw materials, and the income of princes is by far richer from the
export of finished products than of raw materials, for example, of vel-
vet more than silk, of serge more than wool, of linen cloth rather than
flax, of ropes rather than hemp. Having understood this in recent years,
the kings of France and England have prohibited the export of wool
from their states, and the Catholic King has done the same. But these
ordinances have not been able to be fully carried out so fast because
these provinces, abounding as they do in the most delicate wool, do not
have an adequate number of workmen to process it all; and although
the aforementioned princes without a doubt would have done this
because the profit and the tax for the finished wool is much more than
that from the raw wool, nevertheless it also helps to populate the coun-
try because many more people live from the finished wool than from
the raw wool, and from this comes the wealth and greatness of the king
because the great number of people is that which makes the land fertile
and which, by hand and by skill, gives a thousand forms to the natural
material.
15
Here Botero uses the language of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas to describe the relation-
ship between human activity and nature.
16
In RS 1590 alone Botero replaced “city” here with “state.”
139
Of Matrimony and the Education of Children
4 Of Matrimony and the Education of Children

The ancient legislators, unaware of a higher virtue,17 attempted to mul-
tiply their citizens by favoring marriage in an extraordinary fashion.
Lycurgus ordered that he who had not taken a wife be expelled from
public spectacles and in the middle of the winter be led naked through
the squares. And if he was old, he did not want the young people to honor
him as they did the others of that age. To encourage this matrimony, he
ordained that wives be taken without a dowry and that more account be
taken of their virtue than of their property. Solon also determined like-
wise; he did not want dowries to be given in money, so that it did not
appear as if the women were bought, but with clothing and vases of lit-
tle value as takes place today in Hungary and in nearly all Africa and
Asia. And to encourage men to generate offspring legitimately, he did
not want bastards to have any obligations to their fathers. Philip II, king
of Macedon,18 when preparing for war against Rome, ordered that all
males take wives and procreate sons, so that he would have enough sol-
diers. The Romans also attended greatly to the same as is attested by the
celebrated speech of Q. Metellus when he was censor;19 in it he exhorted
all those who were able to take wives and beget children. Caesar Augus-
tus enthusiastically recommended this speech in an edict. So that every
man would readily place his neck under the yoke of matrimony, they pro-
vided the poor with farms because those who have no property and live
from day to day either do not want to have children or consider them
less desirable. So that even if without the union of man and woman the
human race is not able to multiply, yet the multitude of conjugal unions
is not the only cause of its multiplication. Beyond this the care to raise
them and the resources to support them are necessary without which
they either die prematurely or survive useless and of little benefit to the
country.
France has always been heavily populated and filled with people.
Strabo gives the reason when he says that French women were the best
for natural fecundity and for the care that they gave to raising children.20
Do we not see that the care of man in multiplying lettuces and cabbages
17
The phrase “unaware of a higher virtue (non avendo cognizione di pìu alta virtù)” was
deleted in RS 1598. It may have originally been inserted to affirm the value of virginity
and celibacy.
18
This should be Philip V of Macedon (r. 221–179 bce).
19 20
In 102 bce. Strabo, Geography, 4.1.2.
140
Of Matrimony and the Education of Children
can do more than the fecundity of nature can with nettles and other
weeds? And that although wolves and bears generate more offspring in
one birth than sheep and that comparatively more lambs are killed than
young wolves or bear cubs, nevertheless there are more lambs than wolves
for no other reason than that man takes care to raise and pasture the lambs
but persecutes and wages war on wolves? The Turks and the Moors have
each many wives, and the Christians, apart from the infinite multitude
who make a pleasing sacrifice to God of their chastity, do not take more
than one, and yet Christendom is proportionately much more inhabited
than Turkey. The north has always been more populous than the south-
ern regions; from there came so many peoples that trampled upon the
Roman Empire, and while the men were without a doubt more chaste
there than here, the southerners took more women and the northerners
scarcely one. From what does this result if not from the difficulty of rear-
ing children that follows from numerous marriages and wives, and the
comfort that follows from one wife and fewer marriages? The love of a
husband for many women is not so fixed nor ardent as toward one alone,
and as a result the affection for the children is never so great and intense;
it dissipates and disperses in many directions, nor does it take care or give
thought to the education of the children, and if care is taken, there is not
the means to raise so many. How does it help Cairo to be a city so pop-
ulous if every seventh year the plague carries away so many thousands?
Or how does its concourse of people benefit Constantinople if every third
year the contagion depopulates it and, as it were, turns it into a desert?
From where come the plague and the disease if not from the small and
uncomfortable dwellings, from the uncleanliness and dirt of the living
conditions, from the little order and government in keeping the city clean
and the air purified and from other similar causes? Given these difficul-
ties to rear children, even if an infinite number are born, there are few,
relatively, who survive or become men worth something. For no other
reason did the human race, which, propagated from one man and one
woman, arrive three thousand years ago at no less a multitude than that
which one sees today and has not continued multiplying proportionately,
and the cities, begun with few inhabitants and then grown up to a cer-
tain number, do not pass beyond that. Rome began with three thousand,
arrived then at four hundred and fifty thousand of military age and did
not pass beyond this even though one might have reasonably expected
that as it had increased from three thousand to four hundred and fifty
thousand, it would still gradually increase infinitely. So Venice, Naples,
141
Of Colonies
and Milan do not exceed two hundred thousand persons, nor do other
cities pass a certain number; this results from the difficulty of raising
and nurturing a greater multitude of people in one place either because
the land about it is unable to provide such a large supply of provisions,
nor are the neighboring countries able to supply it, either because of
the sterility of the land or the difficulty of transportation. So that if two
things are required for the propagation of peoples, generation and educa-
tion, even if the number of marriages perhaps helps the first, it prevents
certainly the second. Thus I think that even if all the male and female
religious were married, there would not be a greater number of Chris-
tians than there now is; and the dissolution and license introduced by
Luther in Germany and by Calvin has not in any way helped to increase
the number of people because, beyond the fact that impiety does not ever
take root and grow, even if the number of conjugal unions has increased,
the resources for raising and feeding the children have not.
It is not enough therefore that the prince encourage marriage and
child-bearing if he does not provide assistance for the education and sup-
port of the offspring with beneficence toward the poor, aiding the needy,
relieving those who do not have the means to marry off their daughters or
to establish their sons or to maintain themselves and their family, giving
something to do to those who are able to work, supporting with kind-
ness those who are not able to do so. In this Emperor Alexander Severus
was so loving that, raising at his own expense some poor young men and
women, he called them Mamei and Mamaei after his mother, Mamaea.
5 Of Colonies
The Romans also increased their numbers with colonies, and rightly so
because, as plants flourish beyond the nurseries where they were sown
more than if they remained within them and as bees propagate when
in swarms they leave the hives where if they remained they would die
either of want or contagion, so many who if they remained in their coun-
try, would perish or would not establish a household nor leave children
because of poverty or some other reason, would do both the one and the
other if sent into colonies and provided with a dwelling and land. So
Alba21 sent out in many directions thirty colonies that called themselves
21
Alba Longa was an ancient mythical kingdom located in Latium in central Italy that ante-
dated the founding of Rome.
142
Of the Means Taken by the Romans
Latins; the Romans called on them many times and with their forces
fought major wars. The Portuguese and the Castilians, following their
example, have also founded diverse colonies, the former in Madeira, the
Cape Verde Islands, Brazil, and India, the latter in the islands of the New
World, in New Spain and in Peru, and ultimately in the Philippines. It
is true that in this enterprise the one and the other followed rather the
necessity of their own campaigns rather than the plan and example of
the Romans because colonies are of little use to the country if they are
established in very remote lands and from which assistance is not to be
expected nor significant support. The Romans did not found any colonies
outside Italy for the space of seven hundred years; they then established
one in Africa, Carthage, and another in France, Narbonne, which could
be said to be near because they were maritime colonies, and the Romans
had dominion of the sea. In addition, they sent to the colonies the most
base and vile people who were as it were the waste and the most troubled
people of the city. But the Portuguese and the Spaniards have not sent
and do not send him who is superfluous in his country but he who would
aid his country and, perhaps, be necessary for it, and they take no exces-
sive or corrupt blood but part of the most sound and genuine, so that the
provinces grow weak and quite feeble. They could imitate the Romans
by making use in their colonies not only of those of the Spanish nation
but also of conquered subjects, naturalized, because the Romans besides
the Roman colonies also established the Latins in the less important
places.
6 Of Ways to Grow Rich at the Expense of Others

It requires no less judgment and prudence to draw to yourself and make
your own what belongs to another, justly, than to increase your own; in
this as in every other matter, the Romans demonstrated an inestimable
wisdom. It would take a long time to explain their methods one by one,
so that we will be content to point them out briefly.
7 Of the Means Taken by the Romans

The Romans increased their own possessions at the expense of others,
first, by attaching to themselves their conquered enemies, the Albans, the
Sabines, and many other peoples, then, by destroying neighboring cities
and so compelling their inhabitants to make their way to Rome. Besides
143
Of the Means Taken by the Romans
this, they granted Roman citizenship especially to innumerable persons

of valor and of excellent qualities and in common to entire cities. Servius
Tullius and Sempronius Gracchus granted it also to manumitted slaves.
They also grew by joining to them many peoples and kings, some with the
title of associates,22 as with the Latin peoples, some with that of friends,
as with the kings of Egypt and Asia, the Massilians,23 and others, and
this name of friend or associate the Roman people gave to well-deserving
cities and princes. They also took advantage of protection; so they took
possession of Capua by defending it against the Samnites and of the peo-
ple of Messina by defending them against Hiero24 and the Carthaginians.
In this way the Turk has grown incredibly; having made himself protec-
tor of the Kurds, of the Tartars of Precop,25 and sometimes also of the
Georgians, he has made use of their forces no less than of his own. This
type of protection of others is well enough known to the princes of our
time. Henry II of France made use of it cunningly when after assum-
ing the protection of the Empire against Emperor Charles V, he made
himself cunningly lord of the three great cities, Metz, Toul, and Verdun.
The kings of Poland have acquired Livonia in the same manner. The
Romans also grew rich from the benefits and favors they made to princes;
Attalus, king of Asia,26 and then later Nicomedes, king of Bithynia,27
moved by their marks of affection and by the benefits that they had
received, made them their heirs when they died as did other kings. In this
way the Genoese received Pera from the Emperor Michael Paleologus,28
and Francesco Gattilusio29 Mytilene from the Emperor John, the Vene-
tians Veglia from Giovanni Bano,30 Francesco Sforza Savona from
22 23
Compagni. Citizens of Massilia (Marseilles).
24
Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse (r. c. 270–215 bce).
25
This was a name given to the Tartars of the Crimea.
26
Attalus I, king of Pergamon, today Bergama in Turkey (r. 241–197 bce). Asia here is Asia
Minor.
27
Nicomedes IV, king of Bithynia (r. 94–74 bce).
28
This took place in 1267 after the Genoese assisted him in the reconquest of Constantino-
ple. The city of Pera rests on the peninsula of the same name that reaches out into the
Bosporus from the European area of Istanbul.
29
Francesco Gattilusio II, an aristocrat of Genoa and a corsair, received the island of Myti-
lene from Emperor John V Palaeologus in 1355 in gratitude for the aid that he gave him
for the recovery of his throne (BD, 304, n. 7).
30
Veglia is an island off the coast of Dalmatia. The Venetians took it from the Hungar-
ian captain Giovanni Bano (Jan Horváth), count of Zara, who died in 1391 (BD, 304,
nn. 8–9).
144
Of the Purchase of States
Louis XI for assistance that he had given him.31 Emperor Frederick III
gave Modena and Reggio to Borso d’Este for the courtesies that he had
shown him in Ferrara,32 and Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma, in the
end received the most important citadel of Piacenza from the Catholic
King for the infinite services that he had performed for His Majesty in
the war and government of the Low Countries.
8 Of the Purchase of States

There is no way to enrich yourself at the expense of another that is more
advantageous than this because you purchase that which cannot be paid
for with money, and there is no commerce more worthy of a prince. So
Clement VI purchased Avignon from Giovanna I, queen of Naples, with
that which she owed to the church for back taxes.33 Attendolo Sforza
bought Cotignola from Pope John XXIII for forty thousand ducats.34
Philip of Valois purchased Dauphiné from Prince Humbert for forty
thousand florins (and what a state is that?35 ), and the duchy of Berry for
sixty thousand.36 Charles V acquired the county of Auxerre for thirty-
one thousand golden francs.37 But no people has enriched itself more by
way of purchase than the Florentines just as there has never been a repub-
lic with more ready cash. They purchased the city of Arezzo from the
lord of Cosse for forty thousand golden florins,38 Livorno from Tomaso
31
Louis XI, king of France (r. 1461–83), ceded Savona to Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan,
in 1464.
32
Emperor Frederick III bestowed on Borso d’Este, marquis of Ferrara, the title of duke of
Modena and Reggio in 1452 (BD, 305, n. 1).
33
The Kingdom of Naples was a fief of the church, and this is why it owed the church
taxes. Giovanna I, queen of Naples from 1343–82, was also countess of Provence, and it
was under this title that she sold the lordship of Avignon to Pope Clement VI in 1348
(BD, 305, n. 5).
34
Muzio Attendolo, called Sforza (1369–1424), was a condottiere. He obtained as a fief from
the anti-pope John XXIII the village of his birthplace, Cotignola, between Imola and
Ravenna, for 14,000 ducats. His son, Francesco Sforza, married the daughter of Filippo
Maria Visconti, and so acquired the duchy of Milan (BD, 305, n. 6).
35
According to BD, 306, n. 1, this should be an exclamation point rather than a question
mark; so there is a printing error in the text.
36
Humbert II of Savoy sold Dauphiné, a territory of the Empire, to Philip VI, king of
France, in 1349 (BD, 305, n. 7).
37
Charles V, king of France, purchased the county of Auxerre from John IV of Chalons in
1371.
38
Enguerrand de Coucy, a condottiere in the service of the Angevins, sold the town to the
Florentines in 1384 (BD, 306, n. 4).
145
Of Enlistment
Fregoso for one hundred and twenty thousand ducats,39 Cortona from
Ladislaus, king of Naples,40 and Pisa from Gabriel Maria Visconti.41
9 Of Enlistment42
Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti43 was accustomed to say that there was no
more noble commerce in the world than to acquire and to attract to one’s
service outstanding men, so that he did not spare money to attract out-
standing men of every nation to his employment. Now this takes place
in many ways. The most ordinary is to recruit foreign soldiers to serve
in war. But besides this men are also brought into a country to popu-
late it (as Leo IV induced Corsicans to live in the Borgo, named by him
the Leonine City),44 or to cultivate it (as John II of Portugal45 brought
in some German farmers), or to enrich it with their art and labors (as
has been done most skillfully by Cosimo and Francesco, grand dukes
of Tuscany)46 or to earn money from the raw materials that exceed our
needs. But so that we are able to have sufficient raw materials and finished
products, the prince ought to see to it that raw material does not leave
the state, not wool, not silk, not iron, not tin, nor any other such thing,
because if the material leaves the kingdom, so also do the skills that work
with it, and as a result the support of many thousands of men who would
live from it. So therefore he ought to make every effort that the material
that originates in his country is finished and artificially transformed in
various ways by his subjects and so sold to foreigners because many more
people will be supported and more benefits will result, both public and
private, as I have demonstrated at greater length above.47
39
Tommaso Fregoso was doge of Genoa for many years between 1415 and 1442 (BD, 306,
n. 5).
40
Ladislaus of Naples sold Arezzo to Florence in 1411 for 60,000 golden florins (BD, 306,
n. 6).
41
The Florentines made the purchase in 1411 for 60,000 golden florins but were only able
to take possession the following year (BD, 306, n. 7).
42
The word here is “condotta.” Starting with RS 1596, the words “des Gens” were added
to this title. The first meaning of “condotta” here is the contract by which a prince or a
city hires a mercenary captain and his troops, but the meaning here is extended to take in
other types of foreigners (BD, 306, n. 8).
43
Duke of Milan (r. 1385–1402).
44
Leo IV, pope from 847–55, fortified a quarter next to the Vatican which came to be called
the Leonine city.
45 46
Reigned 1477–95. Cosimo I reigned 1537–74, and Francesco 1574–87.
47
The passage here from “But so that we are able” to the end of the chapter was deleted
from subsequent editions, presumably because it was redundant after what was said in
chap. 3, “On Industry.”
146
Of Alliances of Kinship
10 Of States Taken as Pledges

States are also acquired when they are taken as pledges for money that has
been loaned; such pledges, because it rarely happens that they are paid
off, are considered by princes to be their property. The imperial elec-
tors sold to Emperor Charles IV48 their votes to make his son Wences-
laus king of the Romans49 for one hundred thousand florins apiece; and
because he did not have so much money at hand, they took as a pledge
sixteen cities of the Empire which they held permanently and their suc-
cessors retained. Louis X,50 king of France, received the county of Rous-
sillon from King John of Aragon for four hundred thousand scudi which
Charles VIII returned to the Catholic King for nothing; similarly, the
Florentines received in pledge from Eugene IV51 Borgo San Sepolcro for
twenty-five thousand scudi, and John III, king of Portugal, received the
Molucca Islands from Emperor Charles V for three hundred and fifty
thousand scudi.52
11 Of Alliances of Kinship
Kinship and marriages also help greatly to grow rich at the expense of
others; through them princes draw upon us and acquire for themselves
rights and claims of importance. So Tarquin the Proud notably increased
his resources when he gave his daughter to Octavius Mamilius, a man
of great authority among the Latins. And we read that Pyrrhus took
many wives in order to become powerful. The Carthaginians, in order
to detach Syphax53 from his friendship with the Romans, gave him as
wife Sophonisba, daughter of their citizen Hasdrubal. The Venetians in
a similar way set foot on the island of Cyprus.54 Filippo Maria Visconti
recovered the state, which three captains of his father had divided among
48
Charles of Luxembourg, emperor from 1355–78.
49
Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, was king of the Romans from 1378–1400.
50
In reality it was Louis XI who in 1462 received Roussillon as a pledge from John II of
Aragon.
51
Pope from 1431–47.
52
This transaction took place at the Treaty of Zaragoza of 1529. The funds that he obtained
enabled Charles V to finance his war against France and the League of Cognac (BD, 308,
n. 3).
53
King of an ancient Numidian tribe of the later third century bce.
54
This is an allusion to Caterina Cornaro, whom the Venetian authorities selected as wife of
the king of Cyprus in 1468; upon the death of her husband she became queen of Cyprus
and in 1489 abdicated in favor of the Venetian Republic (BD, 309, n. 6).
147
Of Alliances
themselves, with the four hundred thousand scudi that came to him as
the dowry from Beatrice da Tenda.55 In this way the crown of England
had already acquired Aquitaine and that of France Brittany. But no house
has ever arrived at such greatness and power by way of women as the
House of Austria. By a continuous chain of felicitous events Maximil-
ian acquired the Low Countries through Maria, the daughter of Charles,
the last duke of Burgundy; Philip, his son, received Spain and its depen-
dencies as dowry with his marriage to Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and
Isabella, to which states Charles, his son, succeeded; and in our times
Philip, the most worthy son of Charles, has inherited Portugal and its
dependencies, which are greatly extensive, through Isabella, his mother.
And because this way to increase is most just and most peaceful, it ought
also to be considered above all the other ways durable and secure.
12 Of Adoption
Another category of kinship is adoption, of which Joanna II, queen
of Naples, made use against her enemies, and the Angevins and the
Aragonese acquired rights over that most noble and most rich kingdom.
Only with the French, through the Salic Law (which excludes from the
crown of France all women) whose origin has never been known, does
this manner of increase by way of kinship have no place.
13 Of the Method Used by the Poles56

The Poles have greatly increased their rule and their power by elect-
ing lords of other countries whose lands have been incorporated into
the crown of Poland. So, to leave aside other examples, after electing the
Grand Duke of Lithuania of the house of Jagiellon their king, they finally
made that province a member of their imperium.57
14 Of Alliances
Power is also increased by the resources of others through alliances which
usually make a prince stronger and more courageous because there are
55
Beatrice was a wealthy Italian noblewoman, a widow. She was executed by Filippo Maria
for alleged adultery in 1418.
56
In the following editions this chapter was placed at the end of this book.
57
Casimir IV Jagiellon became Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1440 and was elected king of
Poland in 1447 where he reigned until 1492.
148
Of Alliances
many things that he is not able and does not dare to do that he will under-
take in concert with others because the alliance increases the satisfaction
in success and diminishes the harm in failure. Now alliances are of dif-
ferent types: perpetual and temporary, offensive and defensive, and both
offensive and defensive. In some alliances the allies are of an equal condi-
tion, in others one is superior to the others. The Romans were superior
in their alliances with the Latins; they made the plans and the decisions
for the campaigns, they appointed the generals and all the other officials
of importance, and finally they managed the wars and enjoyed the fruit
of the victories, so that the Latins were nothing but the servants of the
Romans, and if they were also companions, they were so only in the labors
and the danger of the war, without sharing at all in the glory or the acqui-
sitions or the rule. In this, truly, the Romans showed admirable judgment
because under the name of league and association they acquired with
common resources the rule of the world for themselves alone; when the
Latins wanted to reverse this, they had against them the forces of the
Romans, the peoples subject to them, and the princes who were their
friends and colleagues. Alliances including a dominant ally are those in
which one contributes more to the common undertaking and participates
more in the fruits of the victory than the other, and in these and in similar
alliances one need not place much confidence because princes ordinarily
are not moved by anything other than interest, and they do not recog-
nize either a friend or an enemy apart from the benefit for which they
hope or from the evil that they fear, and alliances only last as long as
the benefits to the allies last. Now because the interest of many princes
in one enterprise cannot be equal, it is not credible that the allies will
move forward with equal spirit and readiness, without which equality
the alliance will not venture anything of moment. And if as in a clock
one hand or one counter-weight malfunctions it upsets the harmony
of its operation, so also in alliances one partner who fails upsets the
whole body of the alliance. This can be seen in the alliances contracted
under Paul III and Pius V between the Catholic King and the Vene-
tians against the Turk which although entered into with great enthusiasm
and with a still greater victory, nevertheless yielded no progress because
the interests of the princes were not equal;58 Spain did not consider the
58
The reference here is to the Holy League, at the initiative of Pius V, among Spain, Venice,
and other states in early 1571. They defeated the Turks at the great Battle of Lepanto on
October 7, 1571, but there was no effective follow-up to this victory. Early in the 1530s
Pope Paul III had encouraged alliances against the Turks.
149
Of Alliances
campaigns to the east of much importance, while they were of great ben-
efit to the Venetians, and the campaigns in Africa did not count for much
with the Venetians, while they were necessary for Spain. Hence since
the Venetians feared the forces that the Turk had in the Levant and the
Spaniards the nearness of Algiers, they were not able to move forward
together with equal enthusiasm because of the diversity of their inter-
ests, and the pope remained in the middle having provided funds without
obtaining any benefit. It follows that only in two ways can an alliance be
formed against the Turks with some hope of success: one would be for all
the princes that border on the Turk to move against him at the same time
and that each attack him, for his part, not with limited forces but with all
his power; in this case the interest of all would be equal; the other would
be more noble: if more princes together, without any other interest than
the honor of God and the exaltation of the church, attacked as one more
places, as happened in those heroic times when many princes of Ger-
many, of Flanders, of France, and of Italy, some selling, some pledging
their states, brought together more than four hundred thousand persons
and after defeating the Turks at Nicaea, the Persians at Antioch, and the
Saracens in Jerusalem,59 conquered the whole East and recovered the
whole Holy Land. It is notable that in such a great campaign no king
or emperor took part, and even if the kings of France and England and
the emperors Conrad and Frederick60 later went there not to acquire but
to retain what had been acquired, they nevertheless did not accomplish
anything worthwhile.
But returning to our topic, we conclude that alliances will then add
to power whenever the interests of the parties are equal but whenever
there is no equality of interests, we ought to hold it for certain that assis-
tance from the alliance will fail. And so universally alliances are so much
the better the greater is their stability and firmness, and so perpetual
alliances are better than temporary ones, the offensive and the defensive
together better than the offensive or defensive alone, and equality of the
allies better than inequality. It is true that these (I speak of the equal
ones), such as are found among the Swiss, are useful enough for defense
but of no efficacy for offense, because in defense the danger for one easily
stirs the others because of proximity, and fear of evil stirs more than the
59
The conquest of Jerusalem took place on July 15, 1099.
60
Conrad III Hohenstaufen, emperor from 1138–52, took part in the Second Crusade. Fred-
erick II led the Sixth Crusade and was crowned king of Jerusalem in 1229.
150
The Sultans of Egypt and the Portuguese
hope of benefits. But on the offensive the fruit of victory has to be shared
with all and so is not able to stir each partner so effectively, and is of little
value. So although the Swiss have noteworthy opportunities to acquire
rich states, they nevertheless have never done anything worthy of note
and are content with a mercenary militia, at the service of this or that
prince, which well rewards individuals with spoils obtained in war and
with pensions which they draw in peace, but the public becomes weaker
in this way because of the innumerable multitude of soldiers who die as a
result of wars and because of the interests and dependencies with which
the colonels and captains remain obligated to foreign princes.
15 Of Commerce, and Whether it is Suitable for a

King to Engage in it
The most common way to grow rich from that which belongs to others is
commerce, but because it is suitable for private men instead of princes, it
will not be beyond our purpose to see in what case it is good for the prince
to engage in it. We say, then, that in three cases trade is not unsuitable
for a prince, even a great one. The first is when the means of private
persons are not sufficient to maintain the trade, either because of exces-
sive expense or the opposition of enemies or for some other cause. So the
kings of Portugal have with great fleets acquired and with glorious victo-
ries have maintained commerce and trade with Ethiopia and India, and
no campaign is unsuitable for a king in which resources are sought for the
king. The second case is when the trade is of such importance that a pri-
vate person would acquire with it excessive riches. As the Venetians send
out great galleys of the republic for trade in spices which are purchased
in Alexandria and sold then in England, in Flanders, and in other such
places, through which the public grows rich beyond measure, it is not
unfitting to acquire justly the riches worthy of a king. The third case is
when the commerce is undertaken for the public welfare and well-being.
So great princes at the time of extreme shortages and needs of their sub-
jects buy foreign grain and resell it to the great benefit of their subjects.
16 Of the Method Employed by the Sultans of Egypt

and by the Portuguese
The sultans of Egypt, for the conservation of their state, were accus-
tomed to purchase young men of military age and appearance especially
151
Of the Method Used by the Turks
of the Circassian nation61 and then after making them practice with arms
and with the handling of horses made use of them in the army, after giv-
ing them their liberty, and with these troops they ruled for more than
three hundred years Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and Cyrenaica, a usage, as far
as I can conjecture, employed much earlier by the Parthians because we
read that in their army of fifty thousand men sent against Mark Antony
there were only four hundred and fifty free men.62 Cleomenes, king of
Sparta, when he needed soldiers offered liberty to slaves at fifty scudi per
head and so he acquired two benefits, men and money. Omar, a follower
of Muhammad, by promising liberty to slaves drew an infinite number
to himself.63 The Portuguese, because of the need that they had for men,
every year send their caravels filled with goods to the ports of Guinea;
there in exchange for their merchandise they take many thousands of
slaves whom they transport to work on the sugar plantations and to cul-
tivate the lands on the islands of St. Thomas and Cape Verde, and in
Brazil, and they sell them to the Castilians who make use of them in
the same way on the island of Hispaniola and in other places. The same
shortage of men is the reason why men worthy of death are condemned
to the galleys, to the quarrying of marble, to the extraction of metals, and
to other similar labors.
17 Of the Method Used by the Chinese

The Greeks and the Romans, in order to draw some benefit from enemies
captured in war, enslaved them and employed them to work the land and
for other activities. But the Chinese do not kill them, nor hold them for
ransom, nor chain them, nor determine them finally for anything other
than to serve in war on distant frontiers far from their homeland, and in
Chinese garb except that, in order to differentiate them from others, they
wear red birettas which in China are worn only by infamous persons as
it were or as a sign of ignorance.
18 Of the Method Used by the Turks

The Grand Turk multiplies troops and resources, among other ways, by
the reception and shelter that he gives to men of every sect, provided
61
Circassia is a region of the North Caucasus along the shore of the Black Sea, the homeland
of the Circassian nation. These were the Mamelukes.
62
Mark Antony led campaigns against the Parthians from 36–33 bce.
63
Omar I, 581–c. 644, caliph, second successor of the Prophet.
152
Of the Method Used by the Turks
that they serve him faithfully in war. These constitute that brave band of
cavalry called the Mutiferiaghi64 among which there usually are not a few
Christians drawn there by the desperation of their situation, by anger, by
foolish ambition, or by some other diabolical cause.
64
It is not clear who these are.
153
Book Nine
1 Of the Ways to Increase Resources

Up to now we have demonstrated the ways to increase resources exten-
sively. We now speak of the ways which ought to be employed to increase
them intensively, which are all those which increase valor. It is not ade-
quate to have many soldiers; it is necessary beyond this to reinforce their
valor because a few troops of valor are worth more than a multitude
of cowardly and base men, as the victories of the Greeks and Romans
attest who ordinarily with a smaller number of troops have bested enemy
armies; the multitude has everywhere yielded to valor.
2 Whether a Prince Ought to Train his Own Subjects

for War or Not
Before we go further it is necessary to decide this question much debated
especially among the French: whether it is good for a prince to train and
make use of his own subjects or foreigners in military campaigns.
Some princes by birth have made use not of all the people indiffer-
ently but only of the nobility; so in great part do the Poles, the Per-
sians, and the French proceed. But because the nobles do not serve as
foot soldiers, these nations always have had formidable cavalry but weak
infantry. Because they hold suspect the virtù and valor which usually pre-
vail among the nobility, tyrants who in order to stabilize the state have
put to death and banished the nobility while giving their authority to
the people, have sometimes trusted the latter. The Turk has placed his
forces in the hands of acquired subjects who have been naturalized by
154
Whether a Prince Train his Subjects for War
education. He has selected more muscular and agile youths whom they
call Azamoglioni1 and having taken them from the homes and bosoms
of their parents in their adolescence, he distributes them throughout
Turkey where, raised in the laws and customs of the Muslims, they
become Turks without being aware of it, and they know no other father
than the great lord at whose expense they live nor any other country than
that from which their wages and their benefits come.
In order to decide this controversy we presuppose that the principal
foundation of a dominion is its independence and its standing on its own.
Now independence is of two sorts. The one excludes all supremacy and
superiority, and in this sense the pope, the emperor, the kings of France,
of England, and of Poland are independent princes. The other indepen-
dence excludes the need of help and support from others; in this sense
those are independent who have resources either superior or equal to
their enemies or rivals. Of these two forms of independence, the sec-
ond is the more important because the former is as it were accidental
and external, the latter substantial and intrinsic; the former makes me an
absolute and supreme lord, the latter that I am powerful and have suf-
ficient resources for the preservation of my state, and that I am truly a
great prince and not a king.2 Now I will not be able to be independent
in this second sense without my own troops because a foreign militia, no
matter that it is obligated to me, will depend more upon its own inter-
ests than upon yours and so abandon you in your need, corrupted by
enemies (as the Celtiberi,3 first suborned by the Romans abandoned the
Carthaginians, and then suborned by the Carthaginians abandoned the
Romans), now delayed (as were the Swiss in great times of necessity for
the French, as happened more than once), now called home because of
the dangers to their own country (as the Grisons threatened by Gian
Giacomo de’ Medici abandoned the service of King Francis in his great
need).4 It is not beyond our intention to consider that these mercenary
1
This word is made up of two Turkish words, adjiam “stranger” and oglou “child”
(BD, 318, n. 2).
2
The phrase “and not a king” was changed to “and not a king of Yvetot” in RS 1590 and
RS 1596, and in RS 1598 the whole phrase was suppressed. Yvetot was a small lordship
in central France whose lord bore the title of “king” from the early fifteenth to the mid-
sixteenth century (BD, 318, n. 4).
3
An ancient Celtic people of northern Spain.
4
In order to defend the Valtelline against the incursions of the condottiere Gian Giacomo
de’ Medici, the Grison troops abandoned the siege of Pavia in 1525, thus weakening Fran-
cis I (BD, 319, nn. 1–2).
155
troops, like merchants or shopkeepers of little credit, sell their services

full of infinite defects, a thousand wages paid for dead or non-existent
soldiers and troops hired at a favorable price because they are of so lit-
tle value and poorly conditioned. Mutinies are an ordinary occurrence
when they are not paid on time, and these endanger the states and stir
disorder among the princes. This happened to the Carthaginians after
the First Punic War, and the same befell Monsignor Lautrec at the Bat-
tle of Bicocca.5 You do well if they do not assassinate you or betray
you to your enemies (as they did Ludovico Sforza to the French near
Novara),6 or if, seeing themselves the stronger, they do not turn their
arms against you (as did the Angles, when summoned by the Britons
against the Scots and Picts, after they had chased these away, turn their
arms at the end against those who had hired them). What will we say
of the fall of the Roman Empire? Did it not come from foreign militias?
The emperors made use of various nations in their wars, both civil and
foreign (as Hadrian of the Alani,7 Alexander of the Osrohenians,8 Probus
of the Bastarnae,9 Spaniards, and Gauls, and Valerian of the Goths and
others of other tribes). So these peoples having learned the practices of
the Roman army and of other countries, became tyrants of the emper-
ors and of the Empire so that its principal captains were barbarians:
Stilicho, Uldin, Sarus, Rufinus, Castinus, Boniface, and Aetius,10 and a
good number of them were made emperors, entered into the heart of the
Empire, trampled down Italy, took Rome, and transformed the provinces
into kingdoms. The Franks occupied Gaul, the Burgundians the lands
of the Sequani,11 the Vandals Aquitaine, Spain, and Africa, the Suevi12
and Alani Brittany, the Ostrogoths Macedonia and Thrace, the Slavs
5
Odet de Foix, lord of Lautrec and Marshal of France, was defeated at Bicocca in 1522.
6
In 1500.
7
The Alani were a nomadic, pastoral people who inhabited the steppe plains northeast of
the Black Sea.
8
The Osrohenians inhabited an area of Mesopotamia whose capital was Edessa.
9
The Basternae were a Germanic tribe that originated in present-day Poland and then
migrated to the northern Balkans.
10
These were all generals of the late Roman Empire.
11
The Sequani, a Celtic people, occupied the lands between the Saône, the Rhône, and the
Rhine rivers in the first century bce. Their capital was at modern Besançon.
12
The Suevi consisted of a number of Germanic tribes that came down from the area of the
Baltic Sea and the Elbe River and threatened the Roman borders on the Rhine and the
Danube.
156
Dalmatia, the Saracens Asia, Africa, and Spain. Radagaisus,13 Alaric,14

Attila,15 Genseric,16 Beorgor,17 Theodoric,18 one after the other sacked
and oppressed Italy. For what reason was the empire of the East lost if
not because the Emperor Caloyannis19 recruited twelve thousand Turks
against his enemies, and then retained six thousand at his side and let
the others go. These, having become familiar with the area, seduced by
the fertility of the country, excited by the ease of the enterprise, the inca-
pacity of the princes, the discord of the barons, and the weakness of the
forces, induced their lord Amurat20 to cross the strait with sixty thousand
soldiers. So, occupying gradually this or that city, finally Muhammad21
with the conquest of Constantinople overthrew the Empire of the
East.
These troubles following upon the use of foreign troops were the rea-
son why Charles VIII, king of France, after liberating his kingdom from
the English, in order to better defend it, put together an army of five
thousand infantry. But Louis XI dismissed whoever had committed a
number of murders or robberies, and he made use of Swiss in their place;
Francis I, then, having seen the danger to France because of the need
that it had for foreign help which in various ways was delayed, weak-
ened, rendered useless, or entirely held up because of the tricks of the
enemy, established in 1534 an army of fifty thousand infantry divided
into seven legions; but after nearly disintegrating, it was revived by King
Henry in 1556, but with little fruit because of the little order and poor
administration.
But someone will say that whoever makes use of his own subjects in
war and exercises them in arms will never be a peaceful lord of his state
because the use of arms makes a man haughty, impudent, confident, who
13
Radagaisus, an Ostrogoth chief, invaded Italy in 405, devastating Emilia and Tuscany. He
was defeated by Stilicon in 406 at Fiesole.
14
Alaric, Visigothic king from 395–410, sacked Rome in 410.
15
Attila, king of the Huns, after marching through Gaul threatened Rome in 452 but was
convinced by Pope Leo I to spare the city.
16
Genseric, a Vandal king, created a Vandal kingdom in North Africa with its capital at
Carthage. From there he pillaged Rome in 455.
17
Beorgor, a king of the Alani, invaded Italy and was killed near modern Bergamo in 464.
18
Theodoric the Great (454–526), an Ostrogothic king and an ally of the Eastern Emperor
Zeno, founded a kingdom in Italy whose capital was Ravenna.
19
Caloyannis was a name given to John V, Byzantine emperor from 1341–91.
20
Sultan Murad II who besieged Constantinople in 1422.
21
Mehmed II, the Conqueror, took Constantinople in 1453.
157
promises himself everything from the sword: jura negat sibi nata, nihil non
arrogat armis (he denies that the laws were made for him; there is noth-
ing that he does not take for himself by force of arms).22 This is what we
see to have happened in Flanders and in France where the people inured
to war and bloodied by the long conflict, after peace was made with the
foreigners, turned their arms against their country, against their natural
king, against religion, against God. But in human affairs and especially
in the handling and governing of the people, we are not able to avoid
all the pitfalls; it is the duty of the wise king to avoid the greatest and
most dangerous. Now of all the evils to which a state can be subjected,
the greatest is dependence on the troops of others, and the state that
makes use of foreign military as its principal strength finds itself in this
situation. And with this evil come all those disorders that we have men-
tioned above that are so great and of such importance that those which
can be adduced in comparison with them by the contrary party are lit-
tle more than nothing.23 But let us say also that the lack of confidence
in his subjects follows from weakness of spirit and of judgment, so that
all prudent kings with great diligence trained their peoples in the use of
arms. Romulus left to foreigners the other crafts as vile and unworthy of
a courageous and well-born man; he did not allow the Romans anything
other than agriculture and the military; nor do we read that they revolted
for a space of two hundred and forty years nor did they ever riot. Rather,
they fought at their own expense with obedience and incredible readi-
ness because their orders were good and the administration was in the
hands of those who understood and attended to it. Alexander the Great
exempted the Macedonians from every imposition except military ser-
vice. Hiero, king of Syracuse, celebrated in Roman history, wanting to
stabilize his rule in the state, acting quickly got rid of foreign soldiers by
having them torn to pieces, and having chosen his own he formed them
22
Horace, Art of Poetry, 122.
23
RS 1598 adds the following here: “But let us add another argument greater still. There is
nothing more prejudicial to states than the introduction of foreign customs because they
bring with them changes in the state and the ruin of the republic; now there is no way by
which these enter with greater impetus than through foreign armies. The Roman Empire
attests to this but still more intensely does France because the heresy, which has ruined
such a flourishing and powerful state, was introduced by the Swiss and German legions
brought in first by Francis and then by his son Henry. This is shown by the multitude
of lords, captains, and French soldiers who suddenly after the death of Henry showed
themselves to be supporters of impiety, having drunk it in from the conversation and
example of the foreigners.”
158
Of the Selection of Soldiers
into a brave and faithful army with which he maintained himself honor-
ably in the state as long as he lived. But what of the lords of Venice, His
Most Serene Majesty of Savoy, the grand duke of Tuscany; does each not
have a good army which he keeps alive and in continual exercises? But it
is agreed that they have never rebelled nor caused an uproar or sacked
the countryside, or blocked the roads, or attacked lands, or disturbed the
public peace or engaged in any other bad conduct. These are not defects
of our militia but of discipline and administration.
We conclude therefore that it is necessary for a prince to train his own
subjects in the use of arms so that his own troops are the substance of his
forces and foreigners accessories. Livy teaches this when he recounts the
fall of the two Scipios: Cavendum semper romanis ducibus erit, exemplaque
haec vere pro documentis habenda, ne ita externis credant auxiliis, ut non plus
sui roboris suarum proprie virium in castris habeant (The Roman generals
ought always be on their guard, while keeping in mind this exemplary
warning, not to trust foreign auxiliary forces to the point that they accept
in their encampment a number greater than their own forces). But to
maintain subjects prepared for war in time of peace, severity of discipline
will help as well as prompt payment of those who serve. There will never
lack Turks and Moors and Saracens against whom it is always possible
to take up arms justly. But a matter to be clearly understood is to have
a number of galleys on which those who do not know how to remain at
peace would be able to ship out and give vent to their youth and bravery
against true enemies. This will serve as a remedy and a diversion for their
peccant humors.
3 Of the Selection of Soldiers

Now the first way to make your soldiers bold and courageous will be
recruitment, that is to say, in their selection. Because not all are suitable
in spirit nor physically prepared to endure the labors and the hardship
of military service, to endure cold and heat, sun and moon, hunger and
thirst, nor to spend entire days without rest and nights without sleep, to
wade across rapid torrents, to jump over ditches, to climb walls, to accept
duels as did the young David, to face up to unforeseen attacks, to stand
up to the fury of fire, the storm of a cannonade, volleys of shot, clouds
of lime, of burning oil, of Greek fire, nor to risk one’s life nor to chal-
lenge death in a thousand ways. So you ought not to trust in every one,
because the cowards, in the manner of scabrous sheep, will also depress
159
Of the Selection of Soldiers
the bold, and on the other hand the brave when united together grow in
spirit and in force. To this end God ordered the captains of the Jews that
before leading the army into battle they stand before it and address those
under arms: Quis est homo formidolosus et corde pavido? Vadat et revertatus
in domum suam ne pavere faciat corda fratrum suorum, sicut ipse timore pert-
erritus est (Is there a man here fearful and of a timid heart? Let him go
and return to his home, lest he make the hearts of his brothers to tremble
as he himself is terrified by fear).24 And because the love of spouses, of
the houses they have built, of the vines planted anew, and of other similar
delights and comforts is accustomed to hold men back from the dan-
gers of war and to make them friends more of life than of honor, do not
ever wish that these men be placed on the military rolls. Taking this into
consideration Judas Maccabeus, although he faced an army of an infinite
number of idolaters with a very small force, nonetheless dixit qui aedifi-
cabant domos, et sponsabant uxores, et plantabat vineas, et formidolosis, ut
rediret unusquisque in domum suam (told those who had built homes, and
married spouses, and planted vineyards, and were fearful, each to return
to his own home).25 The great captains have always counted more on
the quality rather than the numbers of the soldiers. Alexander the Great
subjected the whole East with thirty thousand infantry and four thou-
sand cavalry. Hannibal setting out on the campaign of Italy and Rome,
sent home seven thousand Spaniards in whom he had perceived signs of
timidity, thinking that these troops would harm rather than help. Count
Alberico da Cunio26 restored to a degree the reputation of Italian troops,
hitherto considered nearly infamous, when with an army of select sol-
diers that he called the League of Saint George he drove the English,
the Bretons, and other ultramontane barbarians out of Italy which they
had for a long time torn up and knocked about. It is known that George
Castriotes27 in so many battles with the Turks never had under his flag
more than six thousand cavalry and three thousand ready infantry. With
these he recovered and defended his small state and achieved glorious
victories over Murad II and Mehmed II, Turkish princes. In our own
24 25
Deuteronomy 20:8. 1 Maccabees 3:56.
26
Alberico da Barbiano (1344–1409), count of Barbiano, Cunio, Lugo, and Zagonarra, a
condottiere in the service of the Visconti, of Pope Urban VI, and the Angevins of Naples,
created in 1378 an Italian mercenary force that defeated the Breton mercenary force of
the anti-pope Clement VII on April 30, 1379.
27
George Castriotes, called Skanderbeg (1405–68), head of the Albanian Janissaries, turned
against his Muslim masters and held off the Ottoman forces. He became a hero of Alba-
nian independence (BD, 326, n. 2).
160
Of Arms
times we know how much light and glory Giovanni de’ Medici28 brought
to the Italian military with the extremely accurate selection he made of
his soldiers. In the selection it would be desirable that all the soldiers
were ambidextrous, as Plato wanted,29 that is, that they make use of the
left hand no less than the right, which he thought could be achieved by
long exercise. But let us leave the consideration of this to others as well
as of what nation and stature, of what practice and physiognomy soldiers
ought to be chosen, because these matters are treated differently by dif-
ferent authors.
4 Of Arms
Valor increases with the quality of the arms, defensive as well as offen-
sive. So the poets have made up tales that the gods fashioned the arms
for the great personages celebrated by them; and our authors of romances
imagine enchanted and magic shields and breastplates in order to show
that forces grow with the value of the instruments that they use; and
because the horse is one of these instruments, they attribute also to their
heroes miraculous steeds. It helps in the first place to have defensive arms
because it is necessary to presuppose that the soldier who does not feel
himself equipped and protected by a breastplate and a coat of mail will
place hope for survival more in his legs than in his arms and will think
more of flight than of combat; it is also true of horses that those who
are caparisoned are more spirited than those who are led to war naked.
The Roman infantry fought fully armed when the military art flourished;
but setting aside gradually the exercises which with daily practice less-
ened the weight, the arms began to seem to be too heavy, so that they
asked permission from Emperor Gratian to set aside their breastplates
and then their helmets, so that when it came to fighting hand-to-hand
with the Goths they were easily overcome. Defensive weapons ought to
be well-tempered because this provides greater security, and besides this
light and flexible, light so that they are not too heavy and so an encum-
brance for the soldiers. As Tacitus recounts, in the war with Sacrovir the
enemy carried such heavy arms that they were as it were immobile so that
the Romans employed axes and hatchets to break them up as if they were
28
Giovanni of the Black Bands (1498–1526), of a cadet branch of the Medici, served first as
head of a papal army for Pope Leo X (Medici) and then for the French and the emperor
in the Italian Wars.
29
Laws, 7 (794e–795d).
161
Of Arms
knocking down a wall;30 others used pitchforks and other instruments

to throw these so clumsily armed men to the ground. These arms also
have to be flexible, so that they can be easily handled and turned and are
not an impediment or entanglement. For this reason David refused the
arms offered him by Saul because they appeared to place him in a sack
where he would have lost his agility and dexterity;31 and in this respect
the much longer German corselets are better than the Italian so that the
German arms himself more quickly than the Italian and without the aid
of others. [Defensive arms] finally ought to be of good form and propor-
tionate to persons, so that Livy wrote that their long but narrow shields
did not cover well the large and broad bodies of the Gauls, and so they
remained exposed to the blows of the Romans.32 But it is not my inten-
tion to describe here what form the helmets, corselets and other forms of
defensive weapons ought to have; it is enough to point out and take into
consideration the qualities that suit them. It is the prince’s business to see
which are those that his people use and, if necessary, to heed men who
understand how to improve them; the Romans, for example, although of
spirit and of singular judgment, did not refuse out of pride to take over
the form of arms of the Samnites.
The offensive [weapons] are better the lighter and more finished they
are and the more effective that they are at long range. They ought to be
light so that they tire the soldier less and can be fired or thrown more
often; well finished so that they can be used for a longer time; effective
from long range so that they do so much the more harm to the enemy
before he attacks us because, firing from afar, you can fire the arquebus
three times, for example, in the same time that the enemy, who is not so
far away, will only fire twice. So you will be ahead by a third, so that it
will seem that you have three thousand arquebusiers and he two thou-
sand even if there be two thousand on each side. So Vegetius wrote that
the Martiobarbuli, soldiers whom Diocletian and Maximian called Jovian
and Herculean, brought many glorious victories to the Roman emperors
because with accurate darts they struck men and horses priusquam non
modo ad manum, sed ad jactum potuerit perveniri (not only before they
were hand-to-hand but before they were even in range of missiles).33
30
Tacitus, Annals, 4:18; Sacrovir was a barbarian chief who led a revolt against Tiberius in
21 ce.
31 32
1 Samuel 17:38–39. History of Rome, 38.21.
33
Vegetius, Concerning Military Affairs, 1.17. The reference is to balls or darts of iron
(BD, 329, nn. 3–4).
162
Of the Ornaments of Arms
Awareness of this led to the large arquebuses which without a doubt have
brought an infinite number of victories to the Catholic King in the Low
Countries. And the Reiter34 who each carried four or six short arquebuses
were never an important factor because of the shortness of the range of
their weapons, and they were struck and killed by longer arquebuses with
greater range; moreover, Francis, duke of Guise, routed and put to flight
many of them with lances at Renty.35 But enough of this.
5 Of the Ornaments of Arms

At this point we can discuss whether it is good to concede to the sol-
diers the use of gilded arms or of arms adorned with silver or in another
way richly adorned, and there are examples and reasons that render each
option probable. Sertorius and Caesar wanted their soldiers to bear arms
with gold and silver decoration and wear coats stately and remarkable for
the variety and beauty of the colors. On the other hand Hannibal dis-
dained the richness of the arms and the uniforms in the army of Anti-
ochus, considering them to be more apt to stimulate the avarice and
cupidity of the enemy rather than to fight and injure them. Mithridates,
having experienced that his armies with the gilded and adorned arms
had been routed by the Romans, set aside then, belatedly, the display and
adornments and reduced his army to steel and iron. But we conclude
that all those things should be permitted the soldiers that make them
spirited and brave and more fearsome and terrible to the enemy, which
without a doubt includes the beauty and magnificence of their arms. For
this there have always been in use helmets, crests, and diverse inven-
tions to wear on the head, to make taller and to make persons larger than
ordinary, both the infantry and the cavalry. And if Hannibal said that
the adornments and richness of the arms incite the avarice and cupid-
ity of the enemy, Caesar, no less a captain than Hannibal, thought that
the beauty and splendor of arms made his soldiers more tenacious and
proud. Milites, says Suetonius, habebat tam cultos, ut argento et auro poli-
tis armis ornaret, simul et ad speciem et quo tenaciores in proelio essent, metu
damni (He had his soldiers so well equipped that he endowed them with
arms shining with gold and silver, both as ornament and to make them
34
The Reiter were German mercenary cavalry; in fact, they carried pistols rather than
arquebuses (BD, 330, n. 1).
35
Francis (1519–63), the second duke of Guise, defeated the imperialists at Renty on August
13, 1554.
163
Of Order
more tenacious of their arms in battle, for fear of losing them).36 But
perhaps it would be good not to allow gold and silver indifferently in
the armaments of all but only to veterans or to those who had been
present in many battles or singled out by some memorable deed. So we
read that Alexander the Great did not give silvered arms to his most
valorous soldiers, who were thus called “Argyrispides,”37 until they had
conquered the Persians and dominated the East. Nevertheless I would
not want a general to stand on display, so as not to give an example
of it to the others, and with this to lead the captains and all the army
into debt and misery, something that happened in one place that I do
not want to name, because the general ought to allow but not introduce
display.
6 Of Order
As the value of a fortress consists more in its form than in its material,
so the fortress of an army is found first in its order rather than in its
number or in anything else; hence the church is called terrible in the
manner of a well-ordered army. I call order the way that soldiers line
up and are situated in battle, which is of such importance that victory
depends in great part on it because as long as the order stands firm the
army cannot be routed, and it is said to be a rout every time that the
order breaks down and is shattered. Two peoples have been most glori-
ous because of the greatness of their campaigns and the victories that they
have won: the Macedonians and the Romans. The Macedonians domi-
nated the East with the phalanx, the Romans the whole world with the
legion. These were two forms of military order nearly insuperable but the
legion was much better conceived and ordered than the phalanx because
the phalanx, all of one piece and of an entire body that consisted of a
great number of soldiers who with their lances (or sarissae as they called
them) intertwined like a thick hedge, did not have agility in their move-
ment; when locked together they were not able to move, when not locked
together they were worth nothing. So it was good only on flat terrain
because in areas that were not level it necessarily came apart and broke
up as in the battle between Aemilius Paulus and King Perseus.38 But the
legion as one body of many members (because there were three types
36 37
The Twelve Caesars, “Julius,” 67.3. From the Greek, “having a silver shield.”
38
The Battle of Pydna in Greece in 168 bce. Perseus was the king of Macedonia.
164
Of Order
of soldiers: princes, hastati, and triarii,39 divided into cohorts, and the
cohorts into centuries, and the centuries into contubernia or maniples40 )
was more flexible and more agile and as a result more suitable for every
situation in war and so produced the known effects. Livy writes of the
Celtiberians that in critical points of battle they formed a type of wedge
quo tantum valent genere pugnae, ut quacumque parte perculere impetu suo,
sustineri nequaeunt (which is so effective that it is impossible to resist its
shock wherever they charge the enemy).41 Syphax, a powerful king of
Numidia, equal to the Carthaginians in wealth and in size of population,
was vastly inferior to them in the ordering of his infantry because he had
no skill nor any formation to draw up and arrange his troops. For this rea-
son he asked the Romans, with whom he was on a friendly basis, that they
give him several centurions who would instruct his people how to follow
the standards, to march, to keep formation, and so on. Having obtained
this, he was conscious right away of the result of the order of battle. In a
clash of arms with the Carthaginians he emerged the victor in a great bat-
tle. Experience has shown that the Italian military does not have a good
reputation because of a lack of order, and there is no wise captain to whom
to entrust Italian soldiers in a campaign against the Germans and the
Swiss. And the Venetians can testify to this; because they have no other
infantry but Italians, they have been defeated as many times as they have
confronted ultramontane armies, at Rovereto,42 at Caravaggio,43 and at
Vialà.44 The Germans and the Swiss uphold their reputation as good
soldiers only by virtue of their battle formations because when it comes
to shrewdness, to vigor of soul, to diligence, to agility they yield by a large
margin to the Italians, as do the French and the Spaniards as is seen in
all the individual combat between Italian soldiers and those of the above-
mentioned nations, on foot as well as on horseback, at Trani, Quarata,
Asti, Siena, and elsewhere. Nevertheless, they lose in the large-scale
battles only because in them the ultramontanes conquer through their
battle formation which has no place in individual combat.
39
Soldiers of the first line, soldiers armed with javelins, veteran soldiers who made up the
third line, respectively.
40 41
Groups who shared the same tent. History of Rome, 40.40.3.
42
The Venetians were defeated at Rovereto south of Trent in 1487 by the troops of Count
Sigismund of Tyrol.
43
In 1448 by the troops of the short-lived Ambrosian Republic of Milan led by the condot-
tiere Francesco Forza (Sforza), later duke of Milan.
44
More commonly known as the Battle of Agnadello where the French defeated the Vene-
tians in 1509.
165
Of Recourse to God
7 Of the Justice of the Cause

The justice of a cause greatly animates courage because a firm hope
always accompanies him who is in the right and strengthens his spirit
because spes addita suscitat iras (hope added awakens angers),45 and anger
sharpens courage. He whom justice accompanies prosecutes his cause
with spirit and exposes himself with greater security to dangers; in addi-
tion, subjects serve their prince promptly and support him with their
property. I add that he who combats an injustice acts with greater indig-
nation and vehemence than he who commits one; on the other hand,
he who acts unjustly is not able not to know for certain that God opposes
him, and this opinion is enough to unnerve the soldiers and deprive them
of spirit and force. Therefore, the prince and the captain ought to see to
it that their soldiers consider the war to be just. This they will do by
making just demands of the enemy by way of ambassadors or fetiales46
(which the Romans used with solemnity) and rejecting unjust ones, by
calling upon God to witness that they did not make war lightly, nor out
of ambition, nor to misuse the life and blood of their own without reason
but for the defense of religion, the preservation of the state, and for their
honor. Caesar observed this in an outstanding fashion during the civil
wars; in the midst of the din of arms he never abandoned negotiations
for peace, sent various ambassadors, proposed diverse agreements, and
finally used every artifice to demonstrate that he was a lover of peace
even if he was desirous of war, so that when Pompey and the others
rejected every accord, anger and the desire for vengeance increased in his
soldiers.
8 Of Recourse to God
But there is nothing that so reanimates the soldiers and stimulates their
hope and ardor in a more lively fashion than recourse to His Divine
Majesty. Plato advises us to implore heavenly favor not only at the start
of major and difficult enterprises but also of easy and light ones, so that
the best end follows upon a good start.47 So much the more does this
45
46
These were priests whose function was to declare war and preside over the negotiation of
treaties and agreements.
47
Timaeus, 27c.
166
Of Recourse to God
hold in military campaigns, which are the most dangerous and the most
important beyond all the others, the defense of fortresses, the siege of
enemy cities, and battles in the open field, and in all other military oper-
ations. Onasander, following the doctrine of his master Plato, did not
want the army to leave the country without cleansing itself with a solemn
sacrifice.48 The Romans did not undertake any enterprise without first
attending to the auspices. David did not go to war nor take up any matter
of importance without first inquiring religiously for the divine will. Con-
stantine the Great in the war against the Persians always carried with him
a tabernacle in the form of a church where Mass was celebrated, and each
legion had its own mobile temple where the deacons and priests resided
so that they were called “field Masses.” He also made use of the Cross as
a standard and pledge of victory. All the histories affirm that the victories
of the two Constantines resulted more from their prayer than from their
armed forces.
This recourse to God produces many good effects. One is that it
acquires divine protection, and si Deus pro nobis, quis contra nos? (if God
is with us, who can be against us?).49 The second is that it gives us con-
fidence and near certainty of victory which revives and reanimates the
spirits wonderfully. Thirdly it nearly assures the happiness of the next
life which also renders the armies incredibly bold because there is noth-
ing that more comforts and more rouses man’s spirit in danger of life and
in every military action where death has such a large part than the hope of
a heavenly life. Now so that this recourse is made as is suitable and with
the result that is desired, it is necessary that the general provide the army
with religious persons who by preaching, by exhorting, by confessing,
and by helping the soldiers in every manner, individually and in com-
mon, keep them continually alert and intent, free them from their sins,
and fill them with the grace of God. If so many young virgins conquered
in this way the madness of tyrants, the monstrosity of executioners, the
violence of torments, and the opposition of the Roman Empire, what will
be difficult for soldiers under the protection of God and in the grace of
His Divine Majesty? Certainly for no other reason have the Catholics
completely conquered the Huguenots in France and in Flanders in so
48
Onasander Platonico was a Greek philosopher of the first century bce; Botero cites here
the Italian translation of his Strategikos, Dell’ottimo capitano e del suo officio (Venice, 1546),
fols. 24–25v (BD, 335, n. 3).
49
Romans 8:31.
167
Of Keeping Soldiers Far from their Home
many battles and at such a disadvantage if not because they have fought
for the truth, the others for a lie, they with the hope of God’s protection,
the others with a desperate spirit, they armed with the holy sacraments
of the church and of Christ, the others charmed by Calvin and other
ministers of impiety. And among the Catholics those have fought with
greater courage in the aforementioned provinces against the Huguenots
and at Malta and Lepanto against the Turks who have gone with a better
disposed spirit and more united with God.
9 Of Keeping Soldiers Far from their Home

Next, it increases the courage of soldiers to lead them far from their
homeland, and the reason is that distance removes the ease of flight to
which the nearness of home often leads, and the affections for parents,
children, wives, friends are not so strong from a distance as from nearby.
From this it follows that in the defense of cities it is necessary not to trust
landowners because respect for parents, love of children, jealous attach-
ment to their wives, concern for their property, and similar passions bind
their hands as it were and confuse their judgment. But when they find
themselves in foreign lands where they do not have parents nor wealth
and see enemies all about them, they are forced to take heart and to fight.
Hannibal well understood this because, when intending to pass over into
Italy and so first to secure Spain and Africa, he stationed Africans for
the defense of Spain and Spaniards for the defense of Africa. He consid-
ered that the one and the other would do better away from home than
at home, and this is the reason why the Italian soldier is of little use in
Italy and is highly regarded outside Italy. The Portuguese have shown
little excellence in their own country and in neighboring places but they
have performed outstandingly in India, where they have a small num-
ber of soldiers, despite the Mamelukes, the Turks, the Persians who are
known to be excellent at arms, and the most powerful kings of India, and
have seized rule over the ocean and the very rich states of Ormuz, Diu,
Goa, Malacca, and Molucca,50 because when they found themselves so
far from home and from any assistance, they fought desperately. And the
feats of the Spaniards in the New World ought to be attributed to the
same cause (after God).
50
The Portuguese established control over Ormuz in 1514, founded a factory in Diu in
1535, occupied Goa in 1510 and Malacca from 1511–1641, and began to trade with the
Moluccas (not Molucca) in 1511.
168
Of Discipline
10 Of Discipline
Discipline is the nerve of an army, and I call discipline the art of mak-
ing a good soldier, and I call a soldier good who obeys with valor. One
inculcates this in them first by removing the occasions and enticements
of corruption and luxury. Forms of corruption are wine, baths, women,
boys, sleep, delights, and excessive ease, which as Livy writes enervated
the army of Hannibal at Capua.51 And to quarter his soldiers in such an
opulent city filled with delights was considered a greater mistake of such
a great captain than not to have led his army immediately on to Rome
after his great victory at Cannae because the latter was to postpone vic-
tory whereas the former was to deprive himself of the forces necessary to
conquer.
But let us talk more in detail of the various forms of military corrup-
tion. Types of corruption then are precious objects and delicate furni-
ture; Pescennius Niger52 learning that some of his soldiers were drink-
ing from silver cups, prohibited in the camp every use of similar vessels.
Another form of corruption is the use of beasts of burden by individ-
ual soldiers; for this reason Scipio Minor53 in the campaign of Carthage
made his soldiers sell them all so that they had either to get rid of so much
baggage or carry the weight themselves, and Metellus in the Jugurthine
War prohibited that any soldier who had a charge in the army have a ser-
vant or a horse to carry anything. Corruptions are also the delicacies and
sweets that Metellus also banned so that all those who were in the camp
to sell anything other than necessary foods had to leave. And in the cam-
paign of Numantia, Scipio also ordered under grave penalty that all those
who were not soldiers clear out of the camp, along with their charms,
without delay and not return for any other business except to sell provi-
sions. When a young man completely perfumed came before him to thank
him for the grant of a prefecture, Vespasian gave him a brusque look and
said, “I would have wanted you rather not to have stunk with oil,” and
revoked his patent. A similar account is given of Andreas Gritti when he
was a commander of Venetian forces.54 A young man came before him
51
History of Rome, 7.38.
52
Pescennius Niger (140–94 ce) was a pretender to the imperial office who was defeated by
Septimius Severus at Issus in 194.
53
185–129 bce, called the Second Scipio; he was the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus.
54
Andrea Gritti served as commander of the Venetian forces in the war of the League of
Cambrai and was then doge of Venice from 1523 until his death in1538.
169
Of Discipline
dressed up and smelling of amber and musk who asked for a position in
the war that was in progress at the time. He responded that he choose
one of two things if he wanted to serve: the oar or the hoe, so implying
that he considered him good for nothing other than a rower or a sap-
per. Corruption is to plunder and to commit evil deeds in the homes
of friends, a matter in which Emperor Aurelian was extremely severe.
When a foot-soldier was found with the wife of his host, he was tied by
his feet to the peak of two trees forcefully bound together the one to the
other. When the bonds were relaxed, he was torn into two pieces. He also
wrote to a military tribune that if he valued his life, he would watch the
hands of his soldiers that they did not touch the hair of another and that
they thought to become rich with booty from their enemies not from the
tears of their friends. But most dangerous for soldiers is leisure because
if they have nothing else to do, they mutiny and do much evil, as the sol-
diers of Scipio in Spain attest where after finishing the war against the
Carthaginians, they began to live licentiously, to plunder the territory of
friends, to scorn the authority of the captains, and finally having put to
flight their own tribunes, created new officers. So it is necessary to pre-
scribe exercises for them, to lead them from one place to another, to have
them dig trenches and ditches, to channel rivers, and to undertake similar
tasks. M. Aemilius,55 in order to take away their leisure, had the soldiers
pave the road from Piacenza to Rimini, Caius Flaminius,56 from Bologna
to Arezzo. Mario had them build the ditches that were named after him,
the Marian and Drusine dykes in the Low Countries. Augustus Caesar
after creating Egypt a province, in order to make the land more fertile
and suitable for agriculture, had his soldiers clean out the ditches into
which the Nile flowed which had been blocked with age.57 Hadrian kept
his soldiers in continual exercises, and so that they felt the work to be less
a burden, he always went first walking fully armed up to twenty miles a
day and contenting himself with the same minimal rest and eating the
same as the privates. Emperor Probus, making use of the work of his sol-
diers, built many bridges and colonnades and temples and other public
buildings of importance. Because he wanted the Romans to be separated
55
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, a consul of the second century bce, oversaw the completion of
the Via Aemilia in 187 bce (BD, 341, n. 1).
56
Caius Flaminius Nepos, a tribune of the people in 232 bce and later a censor, lengthened
the military road toward Rimini named after him, the Via Flaminia (BD, 341, n. 2).
57
Here Botero repeats what he had written above in 8.2 (p. 136); it was deleted here in
subsequent editions.
170
Of Discipline
from the Britons, Severus employed the army to raise a wall from one sea
to the other precisely in that area where the River Tweed and the Cheviot
Hills divide England from Scotland.58
But because our nature desires pleasure and is not able to tolerate labor
without the seasoning of enjoyment, and so soldiers commonly engage in
gambling which often results in serious incidents, it is necessary some-
times to provide them with pleasant exercises. Sforza da Cotignola59 did
not allow his soldiers to play at dice or cards or in other such ways,
and to steer them away from these he engaged them in contests use-
ful for war, wrestling, pole-vaulting, running, jumping, and so imitat-
ing Valerius Corvinu60 and Papirius Cursor61 who also used these meth-
ods to exercise and entertain the soldiers. No less was this the case with
Emperor Aurelian who did not allow a day to pass without some physi-
cal exercise because in this way he acquired strength and agility. These
games were most useful in that they taught a man something that he
could turn to his advantage in military actions of which it will not be
irrelevant to provide an example. Among their games the Romans were
accustomed to play this one. Fifty or more young men after having with
various scuffling staged a certain mock battle came together in a square
formation with shields over their heads closely united in such way that
two of them, who remained outside the formation, climbed lightly on top
of it (because this roof of shields declined a little, the first standing on
their feet, the next bending over from hand to hand and the last kneeling
on the ground) as if they walked over a solid roof, now all threatening and
coming to blows, now running from one side to the other, others playing
military games.62
The usefulness of this exercise was recognized in the Second Macedo-
nian War. The Roman soldiers when they besieged Heraclea approached
the city on a roof formed in this way. Then at an equal height with the
58
It was Hadrian who built Hadrian’s Wall, starting in 122 ce in the north of England near
the border with the Scots; Severus had it repaired after attacks at the end of the century.
It is the River Tyne, not the Tweed.
59
Sforza (1369–1424), a condottiere, was born at Cotignola near Ravenna. His son Francesco
later inherited through marriage the duchy of Milan.
60
A Roman politician and military leader of the third century bce who took Sicily during
the First Punic War.
61
360–305 bce, many times consul, dictator in 324 bce, and reputed to be the finest warrior
of his generation.
62
This passage is a free translation of Livy, History of Rome, 44.9, where it is associated with
his description of the siege of Heraclea. The last clause does not seem to make sense (BD,
343, n. 1).
171
Of Reward
enemy they easily drove them from the walls, jumped over them, and
seized that place. To this effect it will help to exercise them in vari-
ous types of mock battle, of the attack and defense of bridges, of ports,
of fords, of the shores of rivers, of narrows, of barriers, of ditches, of
trenches, in skirmishes, in individual combat (but without danger of
death) or of more soldiers, on foot or on horseback, in wading across
rivers, in breaking lances, in sword play, in firing the arquebus, in trans-
port of artillery from one place to another, in ascent or descent, through
flat country or over mountains. It goes without saying what a profitable
exercise it is to have them practice following the standard, turning with-
out disorder to the right or to the left or wherever the occasion and the
need can require, beginning or meeting a charge or other similar move-
ments which soldiers execute, all the while enjoying themselves, with a
view to anticipating the actions and true instances of war, and they will
grow in valor of soul through the boldness which they will acquire and
in valor of body through the agility which they will gain. As Vegetius
says, Sciendum est, in pugna usum amplius prodesse quam vires (It should
be known that in battle practice is of more benefit than strength).63 And
besides this, they will remain healthy, cheerful, and quiet.
11 Of Reward
But the two principal pillars of discipline are reward and punishment.
The former serves to impel to the good, the latter to punish the bad; the
former works for noble and generous spirits, the latter for the low and
rebellious; the former serves as a prod, the latter as a brake. Now rewards
are either honors or benefits, and honors are of two types because some
are given to the dead and others to the living. Statues and tombs are
erected for the dead and funeral orations are given in their praise. Alexan-
der the Great had the most magnificent marble statues erected for the
soldiers who lost their lives in the battle fought at the River Granicus.64
The first person among the Romans to be honored with a funeral ora-
tion was Brutus who died in the war against the Tarquins, and the same
custom was introduced in the city of Athens where those were praised
from the tribune who died in the Battle of Marathon and later in the
battles of Artemisium and Salamis. But the most worthy speech was
that given by Pericles in praise of the citizens who died in the war of
63 64
Concerning Military Matters, 2.23. His great victory over the Persians in 334 bce.
172
Of Reward
Samos.65 The Romans differed from the Greeks in this: in Athens those
only were publicly praised who lost their lives in war; in Rome citizens
were also honored in this fashion, and women, not only men. Lycurgus
did not want his citizens to practice otherwise in their study of eloquence
than in the praise of those who died courageously for their country and
in the blame of those who fled battle because of cowardice. Besides this
the Romans bore the bodies of illustrious personages with great pomp
to the rostrum where the nearest relative celebrated their virtues with
a magnificent oration; once the funeral services were over they placed a
wax effigy of the deceased in the most dignified part of the house in a
small, richly adorned room. Afterwards these effigies were carried in the
funerals of the deceased members of the House; they were covered with
a toga praetexta66 if they were consuls, of purple if censors, of gold if they
had received a triumph, and they were carried on a superbly adorned cart
with hatchets, fasces, and other standards of offices and magistracies that
they had held; they were then set on the rostrum in seats of ivory, than
which, according to Polybius,67 one could not present to the youth a spec-
tacle more beautiful and more efficacious to incite them to every honor-
able enterprise. The dead were also honored with public sepulchers; the
first one to receive this type of honor was Valerius Publicola.68 The Spar-
tans did not allow a title to be placed on any sepulcher except for those
who died in combat. Don John of Austria after the glorious Battle of Lep-
anto had erected in Messina a monument filled with the arms of those
who had died with great nobility, and he had a generous eulogy inscribed
at its bottom. In addition, he had a magnificent Mass sung for their souls,
and he had performed other offices of Christian piety in which he and the
flower of his captains participated.
Even if every honor that is shown to the dead is an incitement to the
living, nevertheless the same rewards of praise and statues are also given
to the living. With regard to praise, the kings of Sparta before attacking
in battle sacrificed to the Muses to signify the glorious memory that their
own would acquire if they bore themselves courageously. Nor was this
held in any less esteem by the Romans; after the battle was over and the
victory won, the consuls and other captains were accustomed to praise in
65
This war was fought between Athens and Samos in 440–439 bce.
66
A toga praetexta was off-white in color with a purple border that indicated that the wearer
was a senator or other magistrate such as an aedile or consul (“The Roman Toga,” Ancient
History Encyclopedia, www.ancient.eu/article/48, accessed October 31, 2015).
67 68
Histories, 6.53.10. He was a consul several times between 514 and 509 bce.
173
Of Reward
the presence of the whole army those who had carried themselves with
great courage. So Scipio after the conquest of Cartagena69 praised the
courage and ardor of his soldiers whom neither the furious sorties of the
enemy nor the height of the wall nor the depth of the moat nor the incline
of the citadel could frighten but who with an indomitable spirit overcame
every difficulty and broke down every obstacle. And the same Scipio, in
the battles of Africa, more than once commended publicly Laelius and
Masinissa70 for their gallantry against the Carthaginians and Syphax.
Also honored with statues were the noble actions of the living which
among the ancients were made of marble or bronze, on horseback or on
foot, armed or unarmed; the Romans erected a bronze statue to Clelia71
(not to mention others)who fled the camp of King Porsenna by swimming
the Tiber to return to Rome. A great honor were the crowns that were
given for saving the life of a citizen, which were called civil crowns, as
well as the mural and flowered crowns which were given to the first man
who jumped onto the walls of a city or into the trenches of a camp under
attack; these were considered the highest honors that could be obtained
in war even if, because they were made of couch-grass or oak leaves, they
were of no monetary value. Hence Caesar Augustus, a most judicious
prince, in order to preserve their credit and reputation, bestowed them
very rarely and with much greater difficulty than the necklaces and other
items of gold and silver that were usually given to those who had shown
great courage in battle. At the time of the taking of Cartagena when Sci-
pio wanted to give the mural crown to the first soldier on the wall of
the city, a controversy arose between the soldiers on land and the sailors
that resulted from so much competition and ambition, that the captain,
in order to cut short the dangerous strife and scandal, had to bestow two
crowns, one to Q. Trebellius, an infantryman, and another to Digitius,
a marine. Similar strife broke out between Spaniards and Italians in the
taking of Düren72 when two soldiers, one a Spaniard and the other an
69
This refers not to Carthage in North Africa but to the city on the Mediterranean coast of
Spain, Cartegena, later named by the Romans New Carthage (BD, 346, n. 1).
70
Gaius Laelius (235–160 bce) was a Roman general and politician, and a friend of Scipio,
who fought in the Second Punic War; Masinissa (238–148 bce) was king of Numidia who
in the same war fought first on the side of the Carthaginians and then on that of the
Romans.
71
Clelia was a legendary young girl who was handed over to the Etruscan king Porsenna and
swam the Tiber to return to Rome.
72
A town in the Rhineland which Charles V took from William of Cleves, an ally of Francis
I of France, in 1543.
174
Of Reward
Italian, each claimed that the reward was his. Truly this most beautiful
type of reward, which is purely honorary without any utility, is worth
being restored, to the glory of the army and of courageous soldiers. And
even if sometimes after a great battle some are created knights, a purely
honorary reward, knights are also created in time of peace who have never
seen a naked sword and who are made only gentlemen; hence soldiers
who are not of noble blood remain deprived of this sort of incentive to
virtù. It was also a great honor to bear the rich spoils [spolia opima] to
the temple of Jupiter, and such spoils were those that the captain of the
Romans took from the captain of the enemy, and in the whole period of
the Roman republic not more than three men had this honor; they were
Romulus, Cornelius Cossus,73 and Marcus Marcellus.74 Caesar Augustus
honored the military with many creations; he wanted thirty captains to
receive triumphs, and he awarded the decorations of a triumph to a much
greater number.
Much to our point would be that the prince take care to have written
down accurately the wars and campaigns prosecuted by him or under his
auspices, because in this way not only would his own virtù come to be
celebrated but that of all his captains and also of individual soldiers who
with some memorable gallantry distinguished themselves. This would be
a great incitement to the others because, if so much is made of a tomb
with a brief script in a chapel, how much greater recognition would any-
one receive in being celebrated in an excellently written history which
would be circulated throughout the world and read by all? In this respect
truly have the Castilians greatly failed because having accomplished so
many things most worthy of memory, crossed so many seas, discovered
so many islands and continents, subjected so many countries, acquired
finally a New World, they have not seen to it that their undertakings,
which surpass by far those of the Greeks and Alexander the Great, have
been chronicled by persons who know how to do so. In this as in some
other matters the Portuguese have ventured much more than the Castil-
ians because they have had a good number who, in Portuguese and in
Latin, have shone light on their great deeds. Recently Father Giovanni
Pietro Maffei75 of the Company of Jesus has recounted them with such
73
A Roman politician and general of the fifth century bce.
74
Marcus Claudius Marcellus (268–208 bce) was consul five times and an important mili-
tary leader.
75
Giovanni Pietro Maffei, SJ (1536–1603), long a professor of rhetoric at the Roman Col-
lege, wrote a number of books on early Jesuit history, including Historiarum indicarum
175
Of Reward
elegance of phrase, greatness of concepts, and gracefulness of style that

he is not able to be worthily praised by any person less eloquent than
himself. But this intent to recount the undertakings of his own in order
to spur them on to virtù characterizes no prince more than the Grand
Masters of the military orders of Saint Lazarus, Saint John, and Saint
Stephen because the knights of each order, because they are not many, can
each expect to merit this reward for their efforts, and because they are all
nobles they will value this award at its proper worth.76 But to write histo-
ries is an affair of the prince (because others are not able to know fully the
causes and successes of campaigns and their circumstances) and of those
supported by him and with his authority, his favor, and his money; oth-
erwise nothing of value results. Understanding this well, Charlemagne
provided every advantage to the persons he chose to compose histories,
and he gave orders that they should recount all the memorable deeds of
those nations subject to him.
But to return to our topic, the ancients used also some other rewards
that joined the honorable with the useful, such as crowns of gold, neck-
laces, equestrian trappings, possessions, cattle, slaves, the doubling of
wages or of the ration of wheat, the promotion from a lower grade to
a higher grade than which nothing can be more effective to stir valor;
and the Romans used this remarkably well because in the legions all the
military ranks in which honor and great utility were joined were given
to those who merited them more, so that Vegetius wrote that the mili-
tary spirit of the legions declined when ambition determined the rewards
of virtù and favor the promotions owed to courage.77 Christian princes
have an excellent means to reward in this way with the multitude of
commendams78 and priories of the military religious orders, and espe-
cially the Catholic King who, besides the properties of the Order of St.
John, possesses in Spain all the income of the Orders of Saint James,
of Alcantara, of Calatrava, and of Montera of which he is, by apostolic
libri XVI (Florence, 1588) which recounted the Portuguese conquests and the Jesuit mis-
sions in Asia.
76
The Knights of St. John (or Hospitallers) and the Knights of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem
both dated from the Crusades. The Knights of St. Stephen were founded by Cosimo de’
Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in 1561 to fight the Ottoman Turks.
77
Concerning Military Affairs, 2.3.
78
The tenure of a benefice held initially until the appointment of a regular incumbent but
later held permanently by the incumbent.
176
Of Reward
concession, the Grand Master.79 All these properties that were dis-
tributed as awards for virtù and in remuneration for services performed
in the wars against the infidels have been the chief cause of the many
brave deeds of the Spaniards against the Moors, and as now they have
chased the Moors out of Spain so they would be adequate to subject those
in Africa if they were employed for this purpose. Truly the Knights of
Saint John merit the highest praise because they have never abandoned
their campaign against the infidels but have always given the greatest
example of their courage and have greatly served the Christian repub-
lic. They follow in the footsteps of the Knights of Saint Stephen so that
their name strikes greater horror in the Turks and the Moors than entire
armies, and they are every day either blessed by so many Christians who
have been liberated from the most cruel servitude of the Turks and the
Moors or they are awaited by so many thousands of poor Christians who
find themselves in such miserable servitude, with their feet chained, in
Algiers or Tunis. And what work is more pious, what campaign more
Christian than the liberation of captives? Or what captivity can be imag-
ined to be more unhappy or hard than that in which bodies are most
cruelly tormented and souls so dangerously tempted?
But of the greatest importance is that the soldier be confident that even
if in war he is maimed or disabled, the prince will not abandon him but
will provide him with proper treatment and a livelihood. Most soldiers
avoid the dangers of war not so much because of the fear of death (which
generally causes little pain and no hardship) but because of the disabili-
ties and casualties that are likely to happen because of wounds and other
mishaps. This fear disappears with the assurance of the good will of the
prince who will provide for him, care for him, and show him respect;
this not only helps to inspire those who at present serve in the war but
it also encourages and inspires others to endure the same troubles and
to run the same risks. Without a doubt, when he sees his fellow citizens
and companions returned from war, though wounded and bruised, to be
favored and settled by the prince, who of a proud and brave spirit does
not feel himself moved by a certain desire to do something himself?80
79
The first three of these orders all dated from the twelfth century and were founded to aid
in the Reconquest; the last named dated from 1317.
80
In later texts this sentence reads “Who is there of such a cowardly and vile spirit (codardo
e vile instead of fiero e bravo) who seeing his fellow citizens and companions return from
the war, although wounded and bruised, to be favored and settled by the prince does not
feel his spirit moved by a certain desire also to do something himself?”
177
Of Punishment
But if, on the other hand, those returned from war, beyond their wounds
and weaknesses will also have been abandoned by the king, afflicted by
poverty, and consumed by misery, who will ever be either so foolish or
so bold that he does not feel his heart frozen over and his spirit lacking?
The Romans well understood this; they assigned to the soldiers who had
served the republic well excellent properties as well as other things and,
not to add other examples, it suffices to mention the decree in favor of
the soldiers of the first Scipio to whom were given two days81 of land for
each year of military service. But if the prince is liberal not only with the
soldiers in their misfortunes but also assures them that should they die
in his service, he will take care of their wives, children, sisters, and other
relatives, there is nothing more effective to make them run through fire
and face missiles and death itself.
12 Of Punishment
In governing reward is useful but punishment is necessary because virtue
is its own reward and has no need of external stimulus, but vice and
wickedness if they are not restrained by the fear of punishment turn
everything upside down. For this reason among others legislators and the
founders of republics have always attended more to punish and to repress
crimes than to reward virtuous actions. In war then if you do not reward
those who carry themselves well, you will not be loved; but if you do not
punish the guilty, you will not be obeyed, and nothing can be worse than
this when it comes to military matters. For this reason all well-known
captains have been severe and with various penalties and punishments
have partly maintained, partly reformed military discipline. Not to men-
tion the Manlii, the Cursori, and others, Caesar Augustus, a great lover of
peace, was so severe with the soldiers that not only did he sometimes dec-
imate the companies that had turned their backs to the enemy and given
up their position, but he also fed them with barley rather than grain,
and Tiberius, wanting to get the army back on its feet, renewed all the
types of ancient penalties and punishments that were in use at the time
of the old Romans. Now, military punishments were of two sorts: some
brought shame and dishonor, others also pain and loss. Public rebukes
and reproaches of cowardice resulted in shame, and these were directed
81
A “day” (giornata) of land was land that could be covered in one day’s journey.
178
Of Punishment
at individuals and also to a whole army. Livy writes that M. Marcellus82

after the flight of his soldiers directed such an acerbic and terrible address
to his soldiers that with the vehemence of his words and the harshness
of his rebuke he did not afflict them less than did the enemies with their
wounds and their attack; and to increase their shame he commanded that
to those who in the battle had lost their standards barley was to be given
instead of grain, and he made their captains stand without their belts
and with a bare sword in their hand. Sempronius Gracchus83 made those
soldiers eat standing who had shown little courage. In Sparta those who
by fleeing had saved themselves were not able to give or to take wives;
they were forced to wear certain multi-colored cloaks, their beards partly
shaven and partly long, and it was allowed to everyone to strike or abuse
them. The Romans were very severe toward those who fled a skirmish
and let themselves be taken prisoner out of cowardice. Those who fled
the Battle of Cannae were condemned to serve outside of Italy until the
war ended, and they were not able, whatever act of courage that they per-
formed, to receive any military honor. It was a great shame and infamy
to be banned from camp (which Caesar did with some insolent centuri-
ons in the war of Africa) and to deprive standard-bearers and captains of
their office and rank; but of no less loss than of great shame was the pro-
hibition that those who had fallen into the hands of the enemy because of
cowardice be redeemed or rescued; this the Romans applied to those who
were captured by the Carthaginians because of ineptitude. Nor was there
ever any people that less esteemed captured citizens than the Romans,
so that they never considered recovering through exchange those who
remained in the hands of the Carthaginians. But a terrible thing was the
decimation by which they put to death one out of every ten who had
behaved badly because in this case even if only one suffered harm, fear
and danger made the blood of all freeze. Because some Spaniards had sur-
rendered in a cowardly fashion to the French, the Great Captain permit-
ted that the other soldiers tear them to pieces, so that, with this example,
no one would think to escape but to fight, and so would despair of finding
safety through cowardice with friends, not only with the enemy. On this
point it does not seem good to omit the dictum of the Lacedaemonian
82
Marcus Claudius Marcellus (268–208 bce), general, hero of the Second Punic War, and
five times consul. See Livy, History of Rome, 27.13.
83
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was the father of the Gracchi brothers and twice consul,
in 177 and 163 bce.
179
Of the License Given to the Janissaries
Clearchus84 that a soldier ought to have a greater fear of his captain than
of the enemy.
13 Of Emulation
Valor also increases through methods that nourish emulation and com-
petition. Lycurgus introduced emulation in his republic as an incitement
to virtue, because a man, naturally jealous of his own excellence, cannot
bear that others surpass and put their foot down before his, especially
in honorable ventures; and this effect is most vehement in soldiers, as in
those who are governed more by passion than by reason. So the Romans
nourished emulation, both with the diversity of nations (because in their
armies they made use not only of their citizens but of the Latin peoples
also and of auxiliaries, all of which competed), and with the difference
of the soldiers in the legions (because there were the principes, the has-
tati, and the trarii), and if the first two yielded, the weight of the battle
remained with the trarii who to outdo the others and to have all the honor
of the victory, surpassed themselves. The captains then using their skill,
arranged emulation and competition between nation and nation, between
cavalry and infantry, between one wing and another, between one legion
and another. After scaring his whole army with the fame of the strength
and the courage of the Germans, Caesar said that if the others did not
want to follow, he would go into the battle alone with the tenth legion; so
he stirred such emulation and such ardor in the others that they offered
to compete with him. In our time experience has shown that the perfect
army is not the one that is not made up of diverse nations, because the
contest is that which makes each nation employ all its strength and more
than that in order to have the honor of the victory, so that if there is only
one nation in the field, it languishes and does not perform worthy deeds.
14 Of the License Given to the Janissaries

The Turks make the Janissaries ferocious and brave, allowing them an
extreme liberty, even license, which they grant to them, because it is per-
mitted them to raise their hand and to strike, to affront and to displease
anyone without ever being punished; from this there arises a boldness, as
84
Spartan general of the fifth century bce.
180
Of Labor
they think, and a great heart. But they deceive themselves because bold-
ness comes only from a knowledge of one’s own strength, and strength
is not known where there is no opposition because to overcome one who
does not fight back is no great matter. Also, artillery does not have as great
an effect on the sea as it does on land because the ships and the galleys
are never as stable and solid as the walls, and they resist less. Now the
Janissaries who are used to striking this man or that without any opposi-
tion would become much more rapidly cowards than courageous in mili-
tary campaigns where they encountered resistance and opposition, unless
something other than the license of which we have spoken helped them.
Because if their boldness increases when they assault and strike whoever
it seems good to them without him being able to show resentment or to
return the blows nor even to oppose or avenge himself, without a doubt
that will fail them wherever they meet with adversity or resistance, so
that the license given them makes them more quickly overbearing and
impertinent rather than spirited and brave.
15 Of Labor
To wear out the soldiers has two good effects: first, it hardens and
strengthens them, accustoms and inures them to the hardships of war, so
that some valiant captains have been in this regard nearly inflexible with
the soldiers. Papirius Cursor worked his infantry and cavalry incredibly
hard and, once asked by his knights that by virtue of past services he spare
them a part of their effort: “I am content,” he said, “that when you dis-
mount you do not caress the backs of your horses as you are accustomed
to do.” The other effect of tiring them out is to make them desire battle in
order to end the labor. In the Cimbrian War85 Marius spent a great part
of his time putting his soldiers through various exercises; he led them
now to one place now to another, and he made them among other things
dig a wide and deep ditch where a branch of the Rhône River flowed.
Finally, he kept them so fatigued that to get relief from it they wanted
to come to hand-to-hand fighting with the barbarians. Similarly Sulla, so
that his soldiers would want a battle, kept them three days in continual
and hard exercises, making the River Cephissus86 change its course and
85
This war was fought between the Roman Republic and the Cimbrian and Teutonic Ger-
manic tribes migrating down from the Jutland Peninsula, 113–101 bce.
86
A river in Boeotia in Greece.
181
Placing Soldiers before the Necessity of Fighting
digging large ditches, so that, exhausted, they cried out in a loud voice
for battle.
16 Of Determination
A certain deliberate determination is of no little moment because it
removes and cuts off every other plan or thought in the captains and
soldiers apart from fighting, and it directs and disposes all equally to
the campaign. Francis I, king of France, having determined absolutely
to pass over into Italy, turning to his barons, said, “I have determined to
cross the mountains personally without delay. Whoever will persuade me
to the contrary, not only will not be listened to by me but he will annoy
me greatly. Let each one of you attend to carrying out what is committed
to you and what pertains to your office.”87 With these words he enflamed
and determined for each one that the deliberation of the king was the
deliberation of all. We read of Aratus, general of the Sicyonians,88 that
although a good captain in other respects, he had this one shortcoming,
that every time that he ought to have entered into battle he was not able
to make a decision and so held back; there is not anything worse than
this in the commander of an army, not only because he himself was pre-
vented from acting but his soldiers languished and lost their spirit and
their bravado. It is not beyond our intention here to mention what Aemil-
ius Paulus said to his soldiers at the start of the Macedonian War because
with this he cut short every other thought than to conduct themselves
well in the campaign. So he told them not to try to understand nor to
intervene in the councils of war but to leave in the breast of their gen-
eral all that they ought to do, and as good soldiers to attend only to three
things: to keep their body strong and agile, to have their arms polished
and sharp, and to eat in an orderly way, so that they could respond to
every sign of the captain.
17 Of Placing the Soldiers before the Necessity

of Fighting
Grand and incomparable is the force of necessity and when it is joined
with virtù, it increases courage infinitely, so that some captains have
87
It is a question here not of Francis’s first invasion of Italy in 1515 but his return in 1524
(BD, 356, n. 3).
88
Aratus (271–213 bce) was a statesman and general of the ancient Greek city-state of
Sicyon and a leader in the Achaean League.
182
Placing Soldiers before the Necessity of Fighting
sought every means to place their soldiers under the necessity to conduct
themselves well. Hannibal led his soldiers into the middle of Italy so that
they would not hope in anything other than courage, so that exhorting
them to fight, he said Nihil nobis relictum est, nisi quod armis vindicaver-
imus. Illis timidis et ignavis licet esse, qui receptum habent, quos suus ager, sua
terra per tuta ac pacata itinera fugientes accipient; vobis necesse est fortibus
viris esse et omnibus inter victoriam mortemque certa desperatione abruptis,
aut vincere aut, si fortuna dubitabit, in praelio potius quam in fuga mortem
oppetere (Nothing is left to us now but what we can conquer by force of
arms. Those who have a place of refuge or a farm or property of their
own as a retreat to receive them after a safe and peaceful journey, they
can afford to be frightened and cowardly. But you must bear yourselves
bravely and, since there is no possible middle way between victory and
death, you must either conquer or – if fortune is unfavorable – perish,
in battle rather than in flight).89 Cato the Elder, wanting to confront the
army of the Spaniards, led his army far from the sea and from the armada
that had transported them and placed them in the middle of the enemy:
Nusquam nisi in virtute spes est, he said, et ego sedulo, ne esset, feci; inter cas-
tra nostra et nos medii hostes, ab tergo hostium ager est; quod pulcherrimum,
idem tutissimum est, in virtute spem positam habere (Your only hope now is
in your courage, and I have brought this about on purpose; the enemy is
between us and our camp, and to our rear the territory is hostile. Nothing
is more beautiful and at the same time safer than to have to put all your
trust in your own courage).90 When he was deliberating about attacking
the Cimbrians near the city of Aix, Mario pitched camp in an elevated
and comfortable location but without a drop of water and seeing his sol-
diers complaining that they would die of thirst, a situation which he had
purposely brought about in order to incite them more to feats of arms,
he showed them a river in the distance which ran near the camp of the
enemy, and he said: “Whoever has thirst will have to purchase that water
with blood.” In a situation no less evocative of courage, William, duke
of Normandy, having crossed over to England in order to acquire that
kingdom, burned the fleet that had brought them there. Hernán Cortés
did the same thing after he arrived at Vera Cruz for the campaign of
New Spain. Attilius Regulus and Metellus Celiber placed their soldiers
in situations of violent necessity. In the Samnite War when the Romans
turned their backs to the enemy and fled toward their encampment,
89 90
Livy, History of Rome, 21.44.7–8. Ibid., 34.14.3–4.
183
Of Binding Soldiers by Oath or Execration
Attilius flew there with a section of the cavalry, took a position before
the gates with a drawn sword in his hand, reproached them with cow-
ardice and flight, bitterly abused them, and at the end said that he did
not intend to allow anyone to enter unless he was victorious, and so they
had to choose between fighting him or the enemy, with the result that
they recovered their spirit because of their shame, turned back against
the enemy, and conquered them. During the siege of Contrebia when five
companies had abandoned their position,91 Metellus immediately com-
manded that they recover it, and he commanded that those who had fled
be put to death. The fear of their own accomplished more than did the
fear of the enemy, and shame won out over the fear of danger so that they
returned to the battle and recovered their position. It was with regard
to this situation that the Roman senate issued the magnanimous decree
that prisoners ought not to be redeemed. With such a law the senators
compelled the soldiers to fight and conquer or to die honorably because
if they lost, there remained for them no hope of rescue. We will add here
an order of Aemilius Paulus to make the sentries more vigilant and alert.
When he arrived at the head of the army, he ordered that soldiers serve
as sentries without a shield so that they would be lighter and be more
on alert because they had no hope to defend themselves in case of an
assault.
18 Of Binding Soldiers by Oath or Execration

Some captains who have been unable to compel themselves and their sol-
diers to fight by burning fleets and other such measures have sought to
bind themselves and armies through oaths or terrible incantations. This
the Acarnanians did when they saw the very powerful and fierce Aeto-
lians attacking them.92 They sent their wives, their children, and all those
over sixty to secure places of refuge. All the others then swore and bound
themselves, in the most strict way possible, to die first before returning
home if they were not victorious. When the enemy realized this, they
abandoned their campaign. When soldiers insistently asked the consul
Marcus Fabius to lead them out against the Etruscans who had abused
91
Contrebia was a Celtiberian city in the valley of the Ebro River in Spain; the Romans with
Metellus as consul conquered it in 143 bce.
92
Aetolia was a region in central Greece that organized the Aetolian League of city-states.
These events took place in the early Hellenistic period.
184
Of Binding Soldiers by Oath or Execration
them, he made them swear that they would not return if they did not
come back as victors, as they did. But it should be noted that in these
cases one should see to it that oaths and other forms of obligation be
undertaken voluntarily, cheerfully, and readily by the soldiers; if they are
forced and violent, they encumber the spirit and confuse and perplex it
so that there results an effect contrary to that which was desired. This
happened with the Samnites who were constrained by their captain to
swear on an altar one by one (and centurions were there with a naked
sword) to die before fleeing and to consider as an enemy any of their own
who might flee. They remained so dumbfounded and confused that they
enabled Lucius Papirius to gain a most glorious victory. From the begin-
ning Roman soldiers gathered together in tens or hundreds and swore
that they would not flee nor abandon their post except to capture arms
or to wound an enemy or to save a comrade; this most beautiful custom,
which was purely voluntary, was changed to a legal obligation during the
consulate of Lucius Paulus and Marcus Varrone, whose soldiers however
fought ineffectively. It is of great importance that the obligation be spon-
taneous, not compelled, and that it proceed from a cheerful heart, not
from a rigid commandment. In a stranger way Hasdrubal, captain of the
Carthaginians, wanted to compel his own soldiers to fight. He cruelly tore
out the eyes of some of the Romans whom he had taken captive and cut
off the nose, the ears, and other members of others; afterward he nailed
all these mutilated parts to a wall in order to persuade the Carthagini-
ans that they ought to be resolved to die fighting rather than to remain
prisoners of the Romans. But he greatly deceived himself in that they
became fearful rather than bold, and they sought not to expose them-
selves to the danger of such torments by fighting but to save themselves
by flight. But if the soldiers cheerfully and of their own will swear or
in another way commit themselves to stand firm and courageously, they
will undoubtedly increase their courage, as happened in the city of Eger.
It can serve as an example of incomparable courage for all those who
find themselves in similar situations, and so it will not extend beyond our
purpose to commemorate here what happened. Eger is a city of Hungary
where neither the location nor the walls are strong because the site is
overseen by several high places and the walls were constructed in an old
style. Mohamet Pasha besieged the city in 156293 with an army of sixty
93
This Ottoman siege of Eger took place in 1552, not 1562 (BD, 361, n. 2).
185
Of Familiarity with the Enemy
thousand Turks and shelled it heavily with fifty cannons. Inside were two
thousand Hungarians who with inestimable courage defended it against
thirteen vigorous assaults of the enemy, and to increase their courage still
more, it is said that while awaiting an assault, they swore under pain of
death that no one among them would speak of an accord nor of surren-
der under conditions nor of any response to the enemy other than with
arquebuses and cannons and, should it come to a long siege, rather to die
of hunger than to place themselves in the hands of such a cruel and impi-
ous enemy. They ordered furthermore that the troops unfit to fight con-
tinually reinforce the shelters and trenches, fortify the walls, construct
new bastions and earthworks, rebuild collapsed and other weak sections.
To prevent treachery they prohibited that more than three people gather
together in the city, and finally ordered that no one think about anything
else than to defend the homeland or to die. In addition they ordained that
all provisions, public or private, should be distributed equally to each one
and that the more delicate foods be set aside for those wounded in bat-
tle. Finally, if the Lord God had supported their just cause, that all the
spoils of the enemy would be placed in one space, so that after the victory
they would be shared equally by each. It is also said that after the Pasha
had made them many offers if they surrendered, they only responded
by setting on the walls a funeral coffin covered in black between two
lances showing by this sign that they would come out only if they were
dead.
19 Of Familiarity with the Enemy

Soldiers disheartened sometimes by a misfortune that they have under-
gone or by a useless rumor of the strength of the enemy are reinvigorated
and refreshed by the experience that they have had of their own strength
either in skirmishes or in some other way. Julius Caesar perceived this
perceptively but more notable was the foresight of Marius. The Romans
were terrified by the routs that they had received from the Cimbrians,
a most ferocious people, so that it seemed to them that they had to fight
with giants and with an insuperable tribe. In order to undeceive them and
to show them that the Cimbrians were men like others, Marius engaged
the soldiers for several days before confronting them with the enemy.
During these days he accustomed their ears to the language of the bar-
barians and their eyes to their features so that finally the fear disappeared
from their breasts.
186
Of Forestalling the Enemy
20 Of Exploiting your Advantage

It is of great importance to know and to exploit that in which you have an
advantage over your enemy. The Carthaginians were many times defeated
in Africa by Marcus Regulus because they did not know where their
forces were superior to the enemy. Meanwhile there came from Greece
with some mercenary soldiers Xanthippus the Lacedaemonian, a very
brave knight and of great intelligence. When he understood how and
where the Carthaginians had been conquered, he began to say openly that
the defeats they had suffered were due not to the ability of the Romans
but to their own unwise tactics because although they were superior in
cavalry and elephants, they had fought not in level areas where the cav-
alry have a great advantage but over hills and slopes where the infantry
and so the Romans had the advantage; so having changed the type of war
and transferred it from hills to level areas, he won a complete victory for
the Carthaginians. In the Second Punic War Hannibal, realizing that he
was superior to the Romans in cavalry, sought to confront them in the
open field and there he remained the victor as many times as the Romans
boldly engaged him. But Fabius Maximus, aware of the disadvantage,
never left the mountains and rough terrain. The Turks have been victo-
rious in so many battles with the Christians for no other reason than their
advantage (common to them and to nearly all the barbarians) in cavalry;
as they abounded in an almost infinite multitude of horses, they never
doubted their victory when they fought on open land. In addition, with-
out fighting us apart from cutting off the roads, seizing and hindering
our provisions, upsetting our order with improvised attacks, wearying
us with constant raids and skirmishes, and finally encircling us on every
side, they have opposed and conquered us. Now there is nothing that
adds greater boldness than to see oneself superior to the enemy in some
way, and so a good captain ought to seek the advantage and exploit it.
21 Of Forestalling the Enemy

To attack rather than to wait to be attacked increases the ardor of the
soldiers. This is true in every case but it is necessary when you are clearly
inferior in numbers and you are forced to fight, because to attack not only
heartens your own troops but frightens and confounds the enemy, leads
them to fear ambushes and a greater force, and causes disorder among
them. I would be able to give many examples of this but one of Julius
187
Caesar Increased the Spirit of his Soldiers
Caesar will suffice. Crossing the Hellespont on a small galley, he met

Cassius, captain of the contrary faction, with ten galleys; not only did he
not flee, which would have been in vain, but by heading directly toward
him he frightened him in such a manner that he yielded.
22 Of Stratagems
94
Astuteness and artifice add notably to courage because military
stratagems are not only licit but bring great praise to a captain. Lysander
the Lacedaemonian was a person of great sagacity who made use of arti-
fice no less than force. When he was reproached for this, he was accus-
tomed to say that when one was not able to put on the skin of a lion, he
ought to wear that of the fox.95 E. Carbone said that when he had to deal
with the lion and the fox that nested in the soul of Sulla, he feared the
fox much more than the lion. But the deceit ought to be only military. In
this Lysander greatly sinned because he claimed to be no less deceitful
with the pacts that he entered than cunning with the war parties. But
with regard to stratagems the Carthaginian Hannibal was outstanding.
He never attacked, one can say, nor did he engage in a skirmish without
assisting force with artifice and arms with intelligence. So he exploited
marvelously the quality of the country and the nature of the site, the val-
leys, the woods, the forests, the sun and the wind, and every opportunity
of time and place or other circumstance. And there is nothing that wins
more credit and reputation for a captain and that renders the soldiers
more well-disposed and confident. Without a doubt it is necessary that
the captain be perspicacious in these matters and quick-minded so that,
even if he himself does not want to prevail by virtue of a licit and com-
mendable deceit, he is able to foresee and avoid one.
23 Of the Particular Way that Caesar Increased the

Spirit of his Soldiers
Caesar, in order to increase the spirit of his soldiers, made use of a sin-
gular and wonderful method. He not only did not diminish the reputa-
tion of the enemy forces but increased and magnified them as much as
94
The word here, astuzia (and its adjective astuto), was used frequently in the political liter-
ature of the time. It was morally ambivalent, often depending on the writer; it could mean
acceptable astuteness or artfulness or on the other hand unacceptable cunning and deceit.
95
See Machiavelli, Prince, chap. 18.
188
Caesar Increased the Spirit of his Soldiers
possible. Realizing that the news of the coming of King Juba96 with a
large army created great terror among his soldiers, he summoned them
together and told them to know for certain that the king came to them
all at once with one hundred thousand cavalry, three hundred elephants,
and a huge number of infantry. He did this so that his men, disposed not
to be terrified by such a great multitude of the enemy, would consider
their true number to be negligible and scorn them.97
96
King of the Numidians.
97
Several paragraphs were added to this chapter in subsequent editions.
189
Book Ten
1 Of the Captain
In this part I will be even more brief than I am accustomed to be because
Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma, represents today to the world such
a clear and living example of the perfect commander of an army that he
is able to serve better than many precepts and even books. Managing the
army under a most merciful and most just king1 in the service of the
church and of God he has conquered and dominated, in the manner of
Fabius or Marcellus,2 rebellion and heresy, overcome the difficulties of
the sites and nature of locations, conquered unconquerable places, van-
quished invincible peoples; and not to speak of another, there is no virtue
of a captain, no military skill, no gallantry, no courage that he did not
demonstrate in the siege of the incomparable city of Antwerp.3
To stir up the courage of the soldiers then depends in great part on
the prudence and leadership of the captain who makes use of the above-
mentioned means and of others which will be addressed in due time. It
is a common opinion that it is much better to have a good captain with
a poor army than a good army with a poor captain. The reason is that a
good captain can also make a poor army into a good one with discipline
and other means, but how can a good army make a general without judg-
ment and experience into a perceptive and excellent one? So Homer said
that an army of stags led by a lion was better than an army of lions led by
1
Philip II of Spain.
2
These two consuls in the Second Punic War were called, respectively, “the shield” and
“the sword” of Rome, the defense and the offense.
3
This famous siege took place from July 1584 to August 1585.
190
Of Good Fortune
a stag.4 When Alexander the Great learned that forty thousand persons
were to be found on an inaccessible mountain in an impregnable location
but that the captain was cowardly and base, he assured himself of vic-
tory because, as he quickly confided, the worthlessness of the comman-
der would open the road and the door, as happened. The Numantines
had many times routed the Romans who were led by various officers but
after the campaign was entrusted to Scipio, the contrary happened so that
the Numantines5 when asked by their elders how they had lost courage so
quickly that they turned their backs toward those whom they had so often
put to flight, they responded that the sheep remained the same but the
shepherd had been changed. Proceeding to the war in Spain and wishing
to highlight the certainty that he had of victory, Caesar said that he went
against an army without a captain. And to be sure many campaigns are
brought to an end, many difficulties overcome, many wars ended, many
victories gained more by the art and courage of the head than of the rest
of the army. And it would be superfluous to mention Themistocles who
saved Athens with his remarkable counsel, Epaminondas6 who with his
gallantry lit up Thebes which had previously been of little account, Xan-
thippus who with his singular shrewdness reanimated the Carthaginians
who had so many times been torn to pieces by the Romans, Fabius Max-
imus who with his delaying tactics secured Rome, and others.
2 Of the Ways that the Captain can Make his

Soldiers Spirited
Even if all these above-mentioned means to increase courage depend, in
whole or in part, on the captain, yet we consider now some that consist
not in management but in his person itself.
3 Of Good Fortune
The first thing with which a captain inspires his soldiers is his good for-
tune, and this is nothing other than the concurrence of the divine power
4
This saying is not found in Homer; it is usually attributed to Iphicrates, an Athenian gen-
eral of the fourth century bce, or to Plutarch (BD, 372, n. 1).
5
The inhabitants of Numantia in Spain resisted the Romans for twenty years before the city
was taken and destroyed in 133 bce after a long and brutal siege.
6
Theban general and statesman (c. 410–362 bce) who broke the dominance of Sparta among
the Greek city-states.
191
Of Good Fortune
with which His Majesty accompanies those who have been elected as
ministers of his justice or as executors of his divine will. Such was Joshua
at whose prayer he stopped the sun and lengthened the day,7 and Cyrus,
whom he called his servant even though he was a gentile,8 and Alexan-
der the Great to whom he gave the passage of the Pamphylian Sea,9 and
Genghis, king of the Tartars, the passage of the Indian Sea, and Attila
and Tamburlane who were called the scourges of God, and many others
whom it pleased him to favor with many and varied victories. But here
we ought to note that the good fortune in wars is not always given to the
captain but to the prince whom God favors by means of his members.
Dux fortis in armis Caesareis Labienus erat, nunc transfuga vilis (Labienus
was a brave leader in the army of Caesar but now he is a base fugitive).10
Renzo da Ceri was a most fortunate captain while he served the Vene-
tians but most unfortunate under King Francis and Pope Clement.11
Andrea Doria did nothing memorable under the auspices of the same
King Francis and in the campaign of Sardinia experienced such an
adverse fate (if it behooves a Christian to use such a term). Under Charles
V he accomplished great things. And so with others God shows some-
times that he favors not the captain but the prince. Sometimes, how-
ever, the intention of the captain is so good that God rewards him even
if the prince does not please him and is afflicted and punished in another
way. So His Majesty prospered the campaigns of Narses12 against the
Goths but did not permit that Emperor Justinian I, whose minister he
was, enjoy a peaceful dominion over Italy because he raised up the Lom-
bards who occupied most of it. Sometimes God denied success to the
prince and to the captain because of the sins of the people; so he per-
mitted the bitter death of King Josiah.13 But if God is pleased with the
prince and the captain, and the sins of the people do not hinder good
fortune, then one cannot doubt victories and triumphs, and if this happy
outcome is not always the companion of virtue because God also pros-
pers Gentiles, Turks, and Moors against bad Christians, nevertheless it
7 8
Joshua 10:12–14. Isaiah 44:28.
9
Now the Gulf of Antalya, in southern Turkey. Alexander passed through it on his way to
conquer Persia.
10
Quoted from memory from Lucan, On the Civil War, 5.345–46 (BD, 374, n. 3). Labienus
was a leading officer under Julius Caesar who later went over to Pompey.
11
Renzo degli Anguillara (c. 1475–1536), a condottiere in the service of the pope, was lent
to the Venetians in 1510 early in his career (BD, 374, n. 4).
12
Lived 478–573 ce, one of the generals of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I.
13
2 Kings 23:25–29.
192
Of Courage and Example
ordinarily happens so. So we see Charles V in Germany, Francis, duke of

Guise, and Henry and Charles, his sons, and Alexander, duke of Parma,
with few troops obtain glorious victories in wars undertaken by them
for the faith. On the other hand, Louis de Condé, Gaspard de Coligny,
Casimir, count palatine of the Rhine,14 and William of Nassau and the
others who have led armies in favor of impiety and rebellion have been
beaten and defeated and killed, conforming to what is written, impii de
terra perdentur (the impious will be lost from the earth).15
But let us return to our proposition. When therefore the soldier sees
good fortune in the campaigns and designs of a captain, he follows his
banners without fear and does great things; he promises himself certain
victory and considers every difficulty to be negligible.
4 Of Courage and Example

The courage and example of the captain is also effective because it
extends and spreads to the whole army, so that we read of Marius that
in his fresher and more hardy youth he performed great deeds because
he entered upon campaigns accompanied by courage and bravura, but in
his old age lacking the heat in his blood and his vigor of spirit, he did
not accomplish anything worthy of his old reputation as is seen in the
Social War.16 This courage was outstanding in Alexander the Great; he
had nothing else of a great captain except for a marvelous greatness of
spirit and of heart joined to an equal good fortune. Seleucus17 in the final
battle with King Demetrius, seeing his own soldiers fleeing, dismounted
from his horse, took his helmet from his head so that he would be recog-
nized and jumped in among the first line; with this action he revived their
virtù and conquered. We read that Caesar sometimes pushing forward
restrained and stopped the army which had turned to flee, so that more
than once the standard-bearers kept their standards in hand. Among
Christians princes and captains George Castriotes18 deserves high praise
who in a thousand encounters with the Turks was always the first in the
14
Johann Casimir, while serving as administrator of the Palatinate from 1583–92, re-
established Calvinism there.
15
Proverbs 2:22.
16
The Social War, 91–89 bce, was fought between Rome and other cities of Italy.
17
Seleucus I Nicator (359–281 bce) founded the Seleucid kingdom.
18
Also known as Skanderbeg (1403–68), an Albanian hero who converted from Islam to
Christianity.
193
Of the Ways to Indicate Certainty of Victory
fight; it is estimated that in various battles he killed with his own hand
two thousand Turks. But I do not say that the general, and much less so
if he is the prince, ought to throw himself into the midst of dangers; his
task is not to fight but to order, to govern, and to stand over the com-
batants. But he ought always to show spirit and heart and readiness, and
in cases of necessity to confront dangers, in order to prevent flight or
to enliven the soldiers who are tired, slow, or frightened, or for another
similar necessity. And he ought to do this with the greatest care possible
because the welfare of the army depends on his life.
5 Of Cheerfulness
Not of little importance is a certain cheerfulness and liveliness of coun-
tenance which keeps the soldiers cheerful and in good spirits which
depends for the most part on the demeanor of their commander and,
if they do not go gladly and fiercely into battle, they will not accom-
plish anything worthwhile. This is what happened to the Germans under
the marquis of Vasto at the Battle of Cerisole.19 In this regard among
the Romans Papirius Cursor and Scipio Africanus excelled; Livy writes
that there was never seen a captain more cheerful than Papirius in that
memorable battle when he conquered the Samnites and Scipio when he
defeated Hannibal and the Carthaginians in a feat of arms.20
6 Of the Ways to Indicate Certainty of Victory21

To the above-mentioned cheerfulness is joined a certain certainty of vic-
tory which keeps the soldiers cheerful and is indicated in several ways.
On the day before the Battle of Cannae, before the clash of arms Hanni-
bal withdrew to a hill elevated a little to see the Roman army; his friend
Gisco, having seen the great number of men, because the Romans up
to that time had never accumulated such a great force, remained nearly
terrified, so that turning to Hannibal he said that the number of the
enemy was astonishing. “But you do not understand,” Hannibal replied,
“a much greater wonder: that in so great a number of men as that you
see and that seems to be wondered at by you, there is not one who is
19
Alfonso d’Avalos, marquis of Vasto, commanded the imperial army when they were
defeated by the French in 1544 at Cérésole in the Piedmont region of Italy.
20
History of Rome, 10.40, 30.32.
21
This chapter was included in the previous book starting with RS 1596.
194
Of Alertness
called Gisco.” With such words he caused those standing around to laugh
because seeing their general joking at such a time and taking little account
of the future battle, their heart and their daring grew wonderfully. In
Africa when some men were brought before him who had been sent by
the Carthaginians to spy on his army and their preparedness, Scipio, who
according to the custom of war ought to have had them killed, had them
led around to see everything in detail and then sent them back. By this
act he increased the spirit of his own men and stirred fear in the enemy.
Gracchus did something similar in Spain. When the Celtiberian legates
asked him in what did he have so much confidence that he dared to attack
them, he responded that it was in the good army that he had, and he had
the military tribune arrange the units in order so that they saw them, and
they compared their own with them. They were left astounded, and hav-
ing reported what they had seen, they inspired such a fear in their own
that they refrained from sending aid to the city that was under siege by
the Romans.
7 Of Caution22
It will notably increase the spirit of the soldiers if the captain shares the
opinion of an informed and cautious condottiere and is neither precipi-
tous nor foolhardy and does not abuse the life and the blood of his own;
for this it will help enough if he will be alert and industrious.
8 Of Alertness
Of great importance are alertness and quickness of mind in unforeseen
circumstances which sometimes secure victory or avoid disaster, as the
examples of Tullus, king of the Romans, of Datames, and of Gonzalo, the
Great Captain, show. Tullus Hostilius23 advanced with his troops along
with the Albani, his allies who were led by Mettius Fuffetius, to attack the
forces of Veii and Fideni. When they were on the point of an assault, the
two-faced Mettius began slowly to distance himself from the Romans and
to turn toward the mountains from where he would be able to see how the
battle would turn out. The Romans who were next to him saw that their
22
This chapter was deleted starting with RS 1596.
23
Tullus Hostilius was a legendary king of Rome from 672–641 bce; he defeated the troops
of Veii and Fidene, cities not far from Rome.
195
Of Alertness
flank was exposed by this movement, and, alarmed, they sent a messenger
to tell the king. Recognizing the danger, he reacted to the threatening dis-
aster with a quick order. He responded in a loud voice that they return
to their location and not waver; it was at his order that the Albani had
moved. This order raised in the soldiers of Fideni the suspicion that they
had been betrayed by Mettius who aimed to encircle them, and so they
retreated. So one word of a captain encouraged his own and stirred fear in
the enemy. No less presence of mind did Datames,24 the outstanding gen-
eral of Caria, demonstrate; he rebelled against King Artaxerxes because
the troops of Pisidia had murdered his son, and he marched against them.
Mithrobarzanes, his father-in-law, who was captain of the cavalry and
who doubted that things would go well for his son-in-law, fled from the
enemy with the troops under him. Who would not be alarmed by this?
But Datames, improvising, drew a great good from the evil. He spread
it about that his father-in-law had moved at his order in order to deceive
the enemy in this way, and he encouraged his own soldiers to follow and
aid him. So Mithrobarzanes’s troops, caught by the Pisidians on one side
and by Datames, who turned up unexpectedly, on the other, were torn
to pieces. No less worthy of being remembered in this place is the quick-
ness of mind of Ferrante Gonzalo.25 At the beginning of the battle with
the duke of Namurs,26 when he acquired the Kingdom of Naples for the
Catholic King, he commanded the artillery to fire. He was told anxiously
that the powder had been completely burned up either by treachery or by
accident. Without losing a bit of his spirit because of this news, he said “I
accept this augur of victory which we already celebrate happily with fire.”
With these words he revived the courage of his soldiers. When his troops
were put to flight by the army of Mithridates, Sulla held them back and
stopped them with these memorable words: “Go, comrades. I go here
to die gloriously. Remember to respond when you are asked where you
betrayed your captain, that it was here at Orchemenus.”27 These words
were of such force that the Romans turned their faces and hurled the
enemy back. In this last war between the Turks and Persians when his
troops mutinied, openly protesting that they did not want to cross the
24
Datames, an outstanding general, served as provincial governor of Cappadocia under the
Persian king Artaxerxes; he eventually took part in a rebellion against the king and was
assassinated in 362 bce.
25
The Great Captain.
26
The battle took place in 1503 when the duke of Namurs led French forces.
27
Orchomenus is in Boeotia in Greece. The battle referred to here was fought in 80 bce.
196
Which is Greater, Sea Power or Land Power
River Canac, Mustafa, the Turkish general, quieted the sedition at first
with good words as best he could but the following morning, mounted on
his horse, he entered the river saying “Cursed be he who eats the bread
of the Great Signor and does not come with me.” And they immediately
competed with each other to follow him.
9 Of Eloquence and Another Matter28

We have already spoken of eloquence elsewhere. It too will be a great
instrument of a captain, to hearten frightened soldiers or stimulate the
slack or to console the afflicted or to increase their spirit. Finally, elo-
quence is a general means to bring about nearly any good effect. Of no
less importance is liberality and the other virtues which gain for the com-
mander love and reputation which was discussed above. The Romans
went to war gladly because of the confidence that they had of victory
under the Papirii, the Manlii, the Scipios, and in the terror of the Cim-
brian War they wanted no other captain than C. Marius because of the
great concept that they had of his valor.
10 Which is Greater, Sea Power or Land Power

Now that we have increased and strengthened our troops and our forces,
let us compare a little the one and the other: first sea power and land
power and then cavalry and infantry.
Whether land forces are of greater importance than sea forces would
not be worthy of debate if it were not said popularly that he who is
master of the sea is also master on land, a thing that is manifestly con-
trary to reason and to experience: to reason, because land forces do not
have need of sea power, but maritime forces do have need of land forces
because it is the land that produces provisions, arms, and troops. More-
over, land forces are also good for the sea but sea forces not so for the
land as experience demonstrates that no empire based on sea power has
ever expanded much on land, not the Cretans, even though Aristotle says
that their island was made by nature for command of the sea,29 and in
effect its people were the first to prosper with naval glory, nor the Lydi-
ans, the Pelasgians,30 the Rhodians, the Phoenicians, the Egyptians, the
28 29
This chapter was eliminated starting with RS 1596. Politics, 2.10 (1271b).
30
Ancient name for the inhabitants of the Peloponnesus.
197
Which is Greater, Sea Power or Land Power
Milesians, even though they succeeded one another as masters of the sea.
On the other hand, all those who have had a great empire on land have
made themselves masters of the sea whenever they wanted to do so. So
the Romans with their landed power created within a space of forty days
a powerful fleet and more with which they finally seized the dominion
of the sea from the Carthaginians. Caesar did not have any naval forces
but when the need arose he created within two summers such a great
force that he conquered the Veneti,31 who were masters of it; he forced
Great Britain to sue for peace and pay tribute, and then, having defeated
Pompey, who possessed powerful land forces, he had no rival on the sea.
Since the decline of the Roman Empire, the Vandals, the Saracens, and
the Turks have been lords of the sea, barbarian peoples, born far from
the sea, without knowledge of wind, without experience of naval mat-
ters; but with their land forces they finally occupied the ports and the
islands. The Vandals who passed on from Spain into Africa under their
King Genseric, attacked Sicily and Italy, and sacked Rome, the capital of
the Empire, without any opposition. The Saracens, having seized Africa
and Asia, easily took possession of the islands, harassed Constantinople,
and ravaged large areas of our lands. At the same time the Turks with the
great power that they had acquired on land became masters of the water
so that their fleets now for more than a hundred years have sailed and sail
without resistance through our waters as well as theirs. The Portuguese
have had for their enterprise in India two excellent captains: Francisco
de Almeida and Afonso de Albuquerque.32 The two differed greatly in
the way that they conducted war in those lands. Almeida did not want
to commit himself to the conquest of cities and lands but intended solely
to maintain control of the ocean with a powerful fleet and so to be mas-
ter of trade and to force all the merchants who wanted to sail there and
the princes who possessed ports, to pay them tribute. But Albuquerque
thought that a storm would be able to sink the fleet or weaken it in such
a way as to deprive it of its strength and reputation and that it was not
possible to remain powerful on the sea without forces on land. So he
occupied the kingdoms of Malacca and Ormuz and the famous city of
Goa where he constructed an excellent arsenal, planted a colony of Por-
tuguese, and fostered in every way the conversion of the infidels, so that
31
The Veneti dwelt on the Atlantic coast of the southwest of France.
32
Francisco de Almeida (c. 1450–1510) was the conqueror and first viceroy of the Indies;
Afonso Albuquerque (1453–1513) was the conqueror of Goa, Malacca, and Ormuz, and
is considered the hero of Portuguese expansion in the East.
198
Which is of Greater Importance, the Cavalry or the Infantry
it can be said that he laid the foundation of the dominion that nation
possesses in India. If the city and environs of Goa had not supplied wood
to construct the ships and the galleys and metal to cast the artillery and
men to supply the fleets and arms to arm them and provisions to support
them, it was not possible that the Portuguese would have remained such
a long time amidst so many powerful enemies.
It is true that maritime forces greatly assist land forces, not because
they add to their strength but because they give them mobility. A land
empire the greater and more spacious it is, the slower and more unfit for
movement it is. Troops are not able to assemble easily nor provisions to
be transported nor munitions to be stored in one place. The horses grow
weary from the length of the journey, the soldiers become sick because
of the change in the air, the transport of the things necessary to sustain
troops and to carry on the war is an infinite expense. This can be seen in
the land campaigns of the Turks going forth from Constantinople to the
borders of Hungary and Persia and then returning when in addition they
lose the greater part of the summer plus so many soldiers due to hardship
and misery, so that the gain does not correspond to the expense. Now
armadas make campaigns easier because of the ease of transport; in little
time they carry great armies to distant places along with all necessary
provisions, and he who is powerful on the sea is able to harass the enemy
spontaneously in many places and so keep him always immobilized and
in suspense. So Cosimo de’ Medici said one cannot speak of a prince of
great power who has not joined naval forces to those on land.
11 Which is of Greater Importance, the Cavalry or

the Infantry
Speaking absolutely, the infantry is of much greater importance because
its value extends to many more effects than does the cavalry. Let us con-
cede to the latter superiority in open country because truly he who in
open spaces is superior in cavalry will ordinarily conquer. So Xanthip-
pus shows; aware of the advantage that the Carthaginians had with ele-
phants and horses, he conquered the Romans solely by transferring the
war from mountainous areas to plains. And Hannibal’s victories against
the Romans did not for the most part take place otherwise than from
the advantage that he had in cavalry in open country, so that Fabius
Maximus, aware of this, never abandoned the hills and sites where the
199
cavalry could do nothing. Nor should the victories of the Turk over
the Christians be attributed to any other cause than the great number
of horses with which he has always overcome in flat territory. Those
who say that the strength of the Turkish military consists in the Janis-
saries greatly deceive themselves because before the Janissaries were cre-
ated the Turks had mounted campaigns of much greater importance
than they have made since: they took Bithynia, crossed the Straits,
occupied Philippopolis33 and Adrianople, routed the princes of Serbia
and Bulgaria, twice conquered the Christian forces united under King
Sigismund34 without being ever conquered except by the great Tam-
burlaine.35 After the foundation of the Janissaries they endured over-
whelming routs by Ladislaus, king of Poland,36 John Hunyadi,37 George
Castriotes, Husan Hassan, king of Persia,38 by the Mamelukes, by
Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,39 by the last league of Christian
princes, and by the present king of Persia. And there is nothing to the
claim that the Janissaries have sometimes reversed the course of bat-
tles seemingly lost and snatched victory from the hand of their ene-
mies because the Janissaries, encircling the person of the Grand Signior,
moved fresh against the enemy already worn out by fighting and killing
and so defeated them, something which a large company of cavalry, which
advanced fresh, or any other sort of soldiers, would have done even bet-
ter. As for the Janissaries, which normally number twelve to fifteen thou-
sand, why should they be feared by a Christian prince who opposes them
with an equal number of Germans or Swiss, Spaniards or Italians or Gas-
cons hardened in the military? In what instance will the former yield to
the latter? In strength of body or vigor of spirit? Christian infantry has
never been inferior to the Turkish but we have been ordinarily defeated
by the great advantage that they have had in cavalry which has cut
33
The capital of Thrace, today Plovdiv in Bulgaria, seized by the Turks in the fourteenth
century.
34
Sigismund I (1368–1437), king of Hungary and Croatia from 1387, king of Germany from
1411, king of Bohemia from 1419, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1433.
35
Tamerlaine or Timur (1336–1405), founder of the Timurid Empire, a late branch of the
Mongol Empire.
36
Without a doubt Botero refers to Ladislaus III, king of Poland from 1434–44, although he
never won any victory (BD, 386, n. 2).
37
1400–56, a leading Hungarian military and political figure.
38
Uzun Hasan (1423–78), a Turkmen chieftain who defended Trebizond against the Turks.
He was emperor of a briefly existing empire combining parts of present day Iran, Iraq,
Anatolia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.
39
1458–90.
200
off the roads for us, obstructed our plans, hindered our provisions and
reinforcements, surrounded us on every side, exhausted, defeated and
killed us, at Varna,40 Nicopolis,41 Mohacs,42 Eszeg,43 on the Livenza,44
and in other places. Also we have seen that Turkish arms that have con-
quered forces composed of the finest infantry have been routed and vig-
orously harassed by peoples strong in cavalry: by the Mamelukes, the
Hungarians, the Poles, the Muscovites, and the Persians. The infantry
then yields superiority to the cavalry in flat and open spaces, where this
infantry is nevertheless of the greatest importance, but it comes first in
all other aspects of battle in which in fact the cavalry is useless. First,
the cavalry is completely in the hands of the infantry; fighting and skir-
mishing are common to the one and the other but more to the infantry
because one is not able to employ the cavalry in many places such as hilly
territory, woods, vineyards, and valleys, and it has little or no part in the
siege or defense of cities. So we see that peoples that are strong in cavalry
but without soldiers on foot may well have overcome the enemy in the
field but they have not been able to hold territory of importance because
once the enemy has recovered in the cities and fortified places they have
not been able to besiege, to attack, or to storm them, as happened to the
Parthians in the wars against Crassus and Mark Antony and to the Per-
sians in ancient times when they fought against the Roman Empire, and
in our times in the wars against the Turks because in this last war, not
to speak of others, the Persian, because of his advantage in cavalry, has
made a great slaughter of Turks in open country but because of a lack of
infantry has not been able to seize or occupy cities of importance nor to
drive the Turk out of cities that he has taken nor out of fortified places.
So we conclude that cavalry is superior to infantry in open country but
that the infantry, which is also of the greatest importance even in open
country, outweighs the cavalry in every other military situation.45
40
Varna, in the east of Bulgaria, was the site of a battle between Murad II and Ladislaus
Jagiello assisted by John Hunyadi on November 10, 1444.
41
Site of a battle between Bayezid and Stephen Lazarevic of Serbia, September 25, 1396.
42
The battle at Mohacs on the Danube between Suleiman and Louis II of Hungary took
place on August 29, 1526.
43
Eszeg was a fortress in Slavonia.
44
The Livenza is a river in Friuli where many battles were fought but none where the Turks
defeated the Christians (BD, p. 387, n. 4).
45
Chap. 12 follows here starting in RS 1590; see Appendix C.
201
Appendix A
Of the Means to Calm Troubles Once they

have Arisen1
But because no matter how much prudence you have, necesse est ut eveni-
ant scandala (scandals necessarily come)2 and disturbances spring up, it
is necessary also to see how uprisings already under way can be pacified.
Troubles arise then either of the people against the prince and his offi-
cials or of the nobility in rebellion or division into factions. First I confess
that, as every illness of the human body cannot be healed, tollere nodosam
nescit medicina podagram, nec formidatis auxiliatur aquis (medicine does
not know how to heal every troublesome gout nor do the frightening
waters help),3 so with government order cannot be restored after every
disorder.
Kingdoms and republics also have their incurable and sometimes
deadly sicknesses. Italy, at another time divided into Guelphs and Ghi-
bellines, testifies to this, which without remedy tore it to pieces and
ruined it altogether.
But, to do what can somehow be done, we say that troubles and dis-
turbances are such that the prince sees himself either to be superior and
with the advantage or inferior in resources, and he should be considered
1
This chapter was added in RS 1590 at the end of Book Five.
2 3
Matthew 18:7. Ovid, Letters from the Black Sea, 1.3.23–24.
202
Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316493953
Appendix A
inferior even when he thinks himself to be equal. In the former case it is

fitting to use force and find a remedy at the beginning and cut out the root
as quickly as possible, and I will say also, with the silence and secrecy that
is possible so that the ringleaders will be removed before anything else is
known of it.
But if the prince sees himself in danger, it is necessary to think about
conquering by yielding and by the wise allowance to give vent to the furor
because ordinarily uprisings of the multitude have no leader with author-
ity so that it happens that they quickly cool down and lose their strength
because of disunion. But the prince ought not to leave the place of the
tumult or distance himself from it in some way as did Henry III, king of
France, during the troubles in Paris,4 because the absence of the prince
diminishes the respect for him, inspires the leaders, and gives enthusi-
asm to the mob; the revolutions in Flanders show this. Bajazet II, at the
time of the rebellion of his son, Selim I, although his guard composed of
Janissaries inclined to the son, did not take to flight but with the majesty
of his presence and the gravity of his words acted in such a way that
the Janissaries were ashamed to abandon him, let alone to betray him.
The Emperor Charles V, when he heard of the rebellion of the citizens
of Ghent, traveled from Spain to Flanders as soon as he could and with
the authority of his presence quieted the troubles, punished the rebels,
and with the help of a good citadel, secured that indomitable city. The
Romans ordinarily used two ways to pacify uprisings: the first was to seize
the leaders from the midst of the mob, the other to divert the mob from
domestic troubles to foreign wars, a practice also of Pericles in Athens,
because just as the doctors calm the peccant and disturbed humors of
the human body by sending them away and diverting them elsewhere
by way of cauterizing and blood-letting, so the wise prince placates the
angry people by leading them into a war against their enemies or with
other means to restrain them from their evil intention and to direct them
elsewhere. The crowd is, as Horace says, bellua multorum capitum (a beast
with many heads),5 so that when it rages it is necessary to take hold of it
by one head or by another and manipulate it with dexterity, making use
of the hand or the stick or the reins or the halter. And here it will help
to have at hand a supply of benefits and a variety of ideas with which
4
This alludes to the Day of the Barricades in Paris on May 12, 1588, when Henry III fled
the city at the arrival of the duke of Guise who received an enthusiastic reception from the
people.
5
Epistles, 1.1.76.
203
Appendix A
to delight them or to inspire fear, suspicion, and hope in them before

restraining them and leading them back to obedience. It will help to have
the assistance of persons who are loved and appreciated by the rebels and
are endowed with a lively intelligence and eloquence. Agrippa6 pacified
the Roman people with the memorable tale of the human body and its
members. But no less excellent was the clever invention of Calavius by
which he rendered the people of Capua capable of reason, which is com-
memorated by Livy.7 That people was so infuriated with the senators that
they wanted them all dead. Calavius did not oppose their furor; instead,
having first informed the senators of his intent, he assembled them all
in one place and then, addressing the people, he showed that he was in
agreement with them; then he said, “because you have determined to kill
all the senators, it is first necessary to choose from among you the persons
most suitable to replace them.” And beginning with the most hated sen-
ator, he said, “We will put to death such a man.” Then the whole people
shouting approved his judgment. “But let us see,” said Calavius, “whom
we will put in his place.” Then the shopkeepers and manual laborers
pushed forward, first one and then the other, for this position, unwilling
to yield to another so that as the competition increased so did the tumult,
and they quarreled with one another. The same happened with the nom-
ination of the second and of other senators. The end result was that not
wanting one of them to be preferred over another, they quickly agreed to
allow the senators not only to live but to retain their offices.
In Florence when the city was in flames and in danger of ruin,
Francesco Soderini8 who was the archbishop came forward in his pon-
tifical robes and with the clergy behind him and with the majesty of reli-
gion made each person return home.9 In many places the intervention of
preachers and the efforts of men considered to be saints or of singular
virtue have been useful.
If they cannot all be pacified together, it will help to make use of
all suitable means to divide them. When none of the above-mentioned
means is effective, well before taking up arms it is better to concede to
6
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (63–12 bce) was a Roman general, statesman, and architect and
a close associate of Emperor Augustus.
7
History of Rome, 2.32.8–12. Pacuvius Calavius was the chief magistrate of Capua during
the Second Punic War.
8
Francesco Soderini (1453–1524) became a cardinal in 1503; he held a number of bishoprics
but was never archbishop of Florence.
9
It is not clear to what event this applies, perhaps to the siege of Florence in 1529–30;
Soderini had then been dead for several years (BD, 231, n. 2).
204
Appendix A
them what they demand, in whole or in part, because, since the two foun-
dations of empire and government are love and reputation, if by yielding
you lose some reputation, yet you preserve love; this you ought to apply
much more easily with natural subjects than with acquired ones. And if
you are able also, always aid your reputation by using those means that
make it appear that you desire that which you cannot prevent and that
you give lovingly that which is taken from your hand by active force, as
do the merchants who sometimes not having the wind to carry them to
trade where they had planned, travel to do their business wherever the
wind leads them. There was a count in Flanders, whose name I do not
remember, against whom the mob of Ghent rose up, each one of them
wearing a white hood as a sign of their rebellion, and in a mad rage turned
the land upside down. The count worked hard to pacify them and make
them take off their hoods, but with little success. Why was it necessary to
make such an effort in so small a matter? Instead he should have put on
a white hood himself and so remained the leader of his people.
But such a concession ought to be understood as applying to things not
to persons; it seems to me to be very harsh that the prince is reduced to
the point of giving over his minister into the hands of an angry multitude
as did Amurath, king of the Turks, some years ago.10 In such an act there
occur such indignities that he ought to have preferred that his minister
be taken by force rather than to hand him over in one way or another, that
is, provided he has been a faithful minister and was without fault and it
was not possible to hide him or to have him flee or in some other way to
get him out of danger.
An excellent method is to pretend, when this is possible, not to know
of a disorder which cannot be remedied without a greater disorder, as
Charles V did wisely in the case of the duke of Infantado.11 But, if a
scandal arises from among the barons, this can happen in two ways; either
they plot against the prince or they break up into factions. If they plot
against the prince, it is necessary to make use of the same remedies as was
said of the multitude, and it will be much easier to create disunity among
the barons than among the multitude because it is much easier to win over
some from many than to win over many out of an infinite multitude. The
10
This alludes to the assassination in 1579 of Mehmed Pacha Sokullo, grand-vizier of
Suleiman (then Selim II), and finally of Amurath III (BD, 232, n. 2).
11
This alludes to a conflict between the duke of Infantado and an official of Charles V. The
emperor preferred not to proceed rigorously against an affront to the official in order to
avoid a rising of the grandees of Spain (BD, 232, n. 3).
205
Appendix A
life of Louis XI, king of France, who was one of the most astute princes
there ever was, can serve as an example and a mirror for him who finds
himself in distress or danger from sedition or plots. But if they turn the
kingdom upside down because of their private differences with the result
that they form parties, here greater circumspection is necessary because
the controversy will then be over a private or a public matter. If a private
matter, then it will be necessary to compel them to remit it to judges who
will decide the case or to arbitrators who will settle the matter without
showing favoritism to one side or the other so as not to alienate one of
the parties as did King Francis I in the suit between Madame Louise, his
mother, and Charles, duke of Bourbon, who rebelled because the king
favored his mother.12 The anger borne against princes and their states
follows in great part from favors granted without any basis in justice.
But if agreement cannot be reached in a case because evidence is lacking
or because it would cause greater trouble than the controversy itself, as
in the case of the enmity between Henry, duke of Guise,13 and Gaspard
de Coligny, Admiral of France, who was accused of having had Francis,
father of Henry,14 murdered, then the prince with his authority ought
to impose silence and banish the heads of each party from the court to
countries far from each other, or in some similar ways.
But if the difference has a public aspect, which is often used to hide
private passions, then if he is not able to cover it over or root it out, the
king ought to make himself leader of the better part. And he deceives
himself if he thinks to protect himself from imminent dangers to the state
and from similar rivalries or factions by providing a counterweight to the
parties, raising up in turn the weaker and pushing down the stronger.
This method was tried in France where, with this tactic, the above-
mentioned factions maintained themselves and grew in such a way that
with the passage of time the kingdom remained divided into two parts,
each with such a following and power that nothing remained to the king
but the name.
12
Louise of Savoy claimed the fiefs of the Bourbons after the death of Suzanne of Bourbon
in 1521. As a result of the favoritism shown by Francis I to his mother, Charles of Bourbon
went over to Emperor Charles V and served as one of his generals (BD, 132, n. 2 and 233,
n. 1).
13
Henry I of Guise was suspected of having ordered the assassination of Coligny at the time
of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572.
14
Francis of Lorraine, duke of Guise, was killed by a Huguenot noble in 1563, and Coligny,
leader of the Protestant party, was accused of having ordered the murder.
206
Appendix A
I conclude this part by saying that the uprisings and civil wars that
are not ended in their beginnings are not ordinarily ended except by the
ruin of one of the parties, as is seen throughout Roman history and in
events in France and in Flanders, or with the division of the state. The
reason is that the evil that in its beginning is as it were a stream that
one can cross on foot becomes as it progresses a formidable force. Anger
turns into hatred, and an uprising into rebellion and treason. And if one
party has a notable advantage, it will lay down its arms only with the ruin
of the enemy. If neither side has a significant advantage, they will end
the war out of fatigue, and each will remain with its area. So the sum of
human prudence in matters of state consists in two words: principiis obsta
(resist beginnings), because ordinarily, modicis rebus primii motus consedere.
Omne malum nascens facile opprimitur; inveteratum fit robustius (the begin-
nings consist of little things; every evil is easily suppressed aborning,
once established it becomes stronger).15 No one begins to disturb the
republic with a great offense, but he undermines the foundation of great
things by neglecting little things.
15
The second phrase comes from Cicero, Fifth Philippic, 31; the first is an interpolation
(BD, 234, n. 3).
207
Appendix A
Of the Means to Calm Troubles Once they

have Arisen1
But because no matter how much prudence you have, necesse est ut eveni-
ant scandala (scandals necessarily come)2 and disturbances spring up, it
is necessary also to see how uprisings already under way can be pacified.
Troubles arise then either of the people against the prince and his offi-
cials or of the nobility in rebellion or division into factions. First I confess
that, as every illness of the human body cannot be healed, tollere nodosam
nescit medicina podagram, nec formidatis auxiliatur aquis (medicine does
not know how to heal every troublesome gout nor do the frightening
waters help),3 so with government order cannot be restored after every
disorder.
Kingdoms and republics also have their incurable and sometimes
deadly sicknesses. Italy, at another time divided into Guelphs and Ghi-
bellines, testifies to this, which without remedy tore it to pieces and
ruined it altogether.
But, to do what can somehow be done, we say that troubles and dis-
turbances are such that the prince sees himself either to be superior and
with the advantage or inferior in resources, and he should be considered
1
This chapter was added in RS 1590 at the end of Book Five.
2 3
Matthew 18:7. Ovid, Letters from the Black Sea, 1.3.23–24.
202
Appendix A
inferior even when he thinks himself to be equal. In the former case it is

fitting to use force and find a remedy at the beginning and cut out the root
as quickly as possible, and I will say also, with the silence and secrecy that
is possible so that the ringleaders will be removed before anything else is
known of it.
But if the prince sees himself in danger, it is necessary to think about
conquering by yielding and by the wise allowance to give vent to the furor
because ordinarily uprisings of the multitude have no leader with author-
ity so that it happens that they quickly cool down and lose their strength
because of disunion. But the prince ought not to leave the place of the
tumult or distance himself from it in some way as did Henry III, king of
France, during the troubles in Paris,4 because the absence of the prince
diminishes the respect for him, inspires the leaders, and gives enthusi-
asm to the mob; the revolutions in Flanders show this. Bajazet II, at the
time of the rebellion of his son, Selim I, although his guard composed of
Janissaries inclined to the son, did not take to flight but with the majesty
of his presence and the gravity of his words acted in such a way that
the Janissaries were ashamed to abandon him, let alone to betray him.
The Emperor Charles V, when he heard of the rebellion of the citizens
of Ghent, traveled from Spain to Flanders as soon as he could and with
the authority of his presence quieted the troubles, punished the rebels,
and with the help of a good citadel, secured that indomitable city. The
Romans ordinarily used two ways to pacify uprisings: the first was to seize
the leaders from the midst of the mob, the other to divert the mob from
domestic troubles to foreign wars, a practice also of Pericles in Athens,
because just as the doctors calm the peccant and disturbed humors of
the human body by sending them away and diverting them elsewhere
by way of cauterizing and blood-letting, so the wise prince placates the
angry people by leading them into a war against their enemies or with
other means to restrain them from their evil intention and to direct them
elsewhere. The crowd is, as Horace says, bellua multorum capitum (a beast
with many heads),5 so that when it rages it is necessary to take hold of it
by one head or by another and manipulate it with dexterity, making use
of the hand or the stick or the reins or the halter. And here it will help
to have at hand a supply of benefits and a variety of ideas with which
4
This alludes to the Day of the Barricades in Paris on May 12, 1588, when Henry III fled
the city at the arrival of the duke of Guise who received an enthusiastic reception from the
people.
5
Epistles, 1.1.76.
203
Appendix A
to delight them or to inspire fear, suspicion, and hope in them before

restraining them and leading them back to obedience. It will help to have
the assistance of persons who are loved and appreciated by the rebels and
are endowed with a lively intelligence and eloquence. Agrippa6 pacified
the Roman people with the memorable tale of the human body and its
members. But no less excellent was the clever invention of Calavius by
which he rendered the people of Capua capable of reason, which is com-
memorated by Livy.7 That people was so infuriated with the senators that
they wanted them all dead. Calavius did not oppose their furor; instead,
having first informed the senators of his intent, he assembled them all
in one place and then, addressing the people, he showed that he was in
agreement with them; then he said, “because you have determined to kill
all the senators, it is first necessary to choose from among you the persons
most suitable to replace them.” And beginning with the most hated sen-
ator, he said, “We will put to death such a man.” Then the whole people
shouting approved his judgment. “But let us see,” said Calavius, “whom
we will put in his place.” Then the shopkeepers and manual laborers
pushed forward, first one and then the other, for this position, unwilling
to yield to another so that as the competition increased so did the tumult,
and they quarreled with one another. The same happened with the nom-
ination of the second and of other senators. The end result was that not
wanting one of them to be preferred over another, they quickly agreed to
allow the senators not only to live but to retain their offices.
In Florence when the city was in flames and in danger of ruin,
Francesco Soderini8 who was the archbishop came forward in his pon-
tifical robes and with the clergy behind him and with the majesty of reli-
gion made each person return home.9 In many places the intervention of
preachers and the efforts of men considered to be saints or of singular
virtue have been useful.
If they cannot all be pacified together, it will help to make use of
all suitable means to divide them. When none of the above-mentioned
means is effective, well before taking up arms it is better to concede to
6
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (63–12 bce) was a Roman general, statesman, and architect and
a close associate of Emperor Augustus.
7
History of Rome, 2.32.8–12. Pacuvius Calavius was the chief magistrate of Capua during
the Second Punic War.
8
Francesco Soderini (1453–1524) became a cardinal in 1503; he held a number of bishoprics
but was never archbishop of Florence.
9
It is not clear to what event this applies, perhaps to the siege of Florence in 1529–30;
Soderini had then been dead for several years (BD, 231, n. 2).
204
Appendix A
them what they demand, in whole or in part, because, since the two foun-
dations of empire and government are love and reputation, if by yielding
you lose some reputation, yet you preserve love; this you ought to apply
much more easily with natural subjects than with acquired ones. And if
you are able also, always aid your reputation by using those means that
make it appear that you desire that which you cannot prevent and that
you give lovingly that which is taken from your hand by active force, as
do the merchants who sometimes not having the wind to carry them to
trade where they had planned, travel to do their business wherever the
wind leads them. There was a count in Flanders, whose name I do not
remember, against whom the mob of Ghent rose up, each one of them
wearing a white hood as a sign of their rebellion, and in a mad rage turned
the land upside down. The count worked hard to pacify them and make
them take off their hoods, but with little success. Why was it necessary to
make such an effort in so small a matter? Instead he should have put on
a white hood himself and so remained the leader of his people.
But such a concession ought to be understood as applying to things not
to persons; it seems to me to be very harsh that the prince is reduced to
the point of giving over his minister into the hands of an angry multitude
as did Amurath, king of the Turks, some years ago.10 In such an act there
occur such indignities that he ought to have preferred that his minister
be taken by force rather than to hand him over in one way or another, that
is, provided he has been a faithful minister and was without fault and it
was not possible to hide him or to have him flee or in some other way to
get him out of danger.
An excellent method is to pretend, when this is possible, not to know
of a disorder which cannot be remedied without a greater disorder, as
Charles V did wisely in the case of the duke of Infantado.11 But, if a
scandal arises from among the barons, this can happen in two ways; either
they plot against the prince or they break up into factions. If they plot
against the prince, it is necessary to make use of the same remedies as was
said of the multitude, and it will be much easier to create disunity among
the barons than among the multitude because it is much easier to win over
some from many than to win over many out of an infinite multitude. The
10
This alludes to the assassination in 1579 of Mehmed Pacha Sokullo, grand-vizier of
Suleiman (then Selim II), and finally of Amurath III (BD, 232, n. 2).
11
This alludes to a conflict between the duke of Infantado and an official of Charles V. The
emperor preferred not to proceed rigorously against an affront to the official in order to
avoid a rising of the grandees of Spain (BD, 232, n. 3).
205
Appendix A
life of Louis XI, king of France, who was one of the most astute princes
there ever was, can serve as an example and a mirror for him who finds
himself in distress or danger from sedition or plots. But if they turn the
kingdom upside down because of their private differences with the result
that they form parties, here greater circumspection is necessary because
the controversy will then be over a private or a public matter. If a private
matter, then it will be necessary to compel them to remit it to judges who
will decide the case or to arbitrators who will settle the matter without
showing favoritism to one side or the other so as not to alienate one of
the parties as did King Francis I in the suit between Madame Louise, his
mother, and Charles, duke of Bourbon, who rebelled because the king
favored his mother.12 The anger borne against princes and their states
follows in great part from favors granted without any basis in justice.
But if agreement cannot be reached in a case because evidence is lacking
or because it would cause greater trouble than the controversy itself, as
in the case of the enmity between Henry, duke of Guise,13 and Gaspard
de Coligny, Admiral of France, who was accused of having had Francis,
father of Henry,14 murdered, then the prince with his authority ought
to impose silence and banish the heads of each party from the court to
countries far from each other, or in some similar ways.
But if the difference has a public aspect, which is often used to hide
private passions, then if he is not able to cover it over or root it out, the
king ought to make himself leader of the better part. And he deceives
himself if he thinks to protect himself from imminent dangers to the state
and from similar rivalries or factions by providing a counterweight to the
parties, raising up in turn the weaker and pushing down the stronger.
This method was tried in France where, with this tactic, the above-
mentioned factions maintained themselves and grew in such a way that
with the passage of time the kingdom remained divided into two parts,
each with such a following and power that nothing remained to the king
but the name.
12
Louise of Savoy claimed the fiefs of the Bourbons after the death of Suzanne of Bourbon
in 1521. As a result of the favoritism shown by Francis I to his mother, Charles of Bourbon
went over to Emperor Charles V and served as one of his generals (BD, 132, n. 2 and 233,
n. 1).
13
Henry I of Guise was suspected of having ordered the assassination of Coligny at the time
of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572.
14
Francis of Lorraine, duke of Guise, was killed by a Huguenot noble in 1563, and Coligny,
leader of the Protestant party, was accused of having ordered the murder.
206
Appendix A
I conclude this part by saying that the uprisings and civil wars that
are not ended in their beginnings are not ordinarily ended except by the
ruin of one of the parties, as is seen throughout Roman history and in
events in France and in Flanders, or with the division of the state. The
reason is that the evil that in its beginning is as it were a stream that
one can cross on foot becomes as it progresses a formidable force. Anger
turns into hatred, and an uprising into rebellion and treason. And if one
party has a notable advantage, it will lay down its arms only with the ruin
of the enemy. If neither side has a significant advantage, they will end
the war out of fatigue, and each will remain with its area. So the sum of
human prudence in matters of state consists in two words: principiis obsta
(resist beginnings), because ordinarily, modicis rebus primii motus consedere.
Omne malum nascens facile opprimitur; inveteratum fit robustius (the begin-
nings consist of little things; every evil is easily suppressed aborning,
once established it becomes stronger).15 No one begins to disturb the
republic with a great offense, but he undermines the foundation of great
things by neglecting little things.
15
The second phrase comes from Cicero, Fifth Philippic, 31; the first is an interpolation
(BD, 234, n. 3).
207
Appendix B
In the Accumulation of Wealth One Ought

Not to Continue ad Infinitum
If every human action has a predetermined end, the accumulation of
treasure ought not to proceed ad infinitum, but rather conform to the
other resources of the state; otherwise the excess has something of the
monstrous because it lacks proportion with the other members and has
something of the unfit and out of place and will always serve as bait and
then as booty to enemies. Now the end of the resources of a prince is the
preservation and expansion of the state. It is preserved by defense and
expanded by offense but for neither defense nor offense is infinite trea-
sure required but that which is proportionate to the rest of your power.
Not for defense because if the scale and length of a war would not exhaust
your treasury, they would consume your people and country if your
other resources were not proportionate to your treasure. Perseus, king
of Macedonia, Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, and Darius, king of Persia,
were ruined with treasuries that were full; Ptolemy, king of Cyprus,1 had
seven million at the time when he received the news that the Romans,
for this reason, had seized his kingdom. Despairing at not being able to
defend himself because the rest of his resources did not correspond to
his wealth, he killed himself. Pompey himself during the war that Caesar
1
80–58 bce.
208
Appendix B
waged against the republic left a full treasury for his enemies. Hulagu the
Tartar2 after taking Baghdad left the caliph to die of hunger among the
heaps of riches that he had avidly accumulated, and Muhammad II had
Stephen, prince of Bosnia, shot, because he preferred to ruin himself by
saving the treasure that he had amassed rather than to spend it on arms.3
Finally, I do not find any notable example of a state being lost because
it lacked money but because the prudence and valor of the captains, the
number and discipline of the soldiers, the quantity of munitions and pro-
visions, and the other resources on land and sea were clearly not equal
to the accumulated gold. And it ordinarily happens that he who accumu-
lates treasures, in order to avoid expenses, neglects every other means to
maintain his grandeur and reputation; he does not pay his soldiers, does
not employ men of reputation and skill, does not resupply munitions,
does not repair the walls of dilapidated fortresses, does not dig ditches,
and does not construct warships. Finally, all his thoughts are directed to
acquiring money while everything else is abandoned. But what use are
the treasures of Croesus or Midas to a prince who has been attacked by
sea but does not have in his state or among his allies wood to construct
galleys and ships, nor craftsmen, nor sailors, nor oarsmen, nor tools, nor
other necessary things? And if attacked by land does not have a supply
of horses or artillery, nor captains, nor soldiers to oppose the enemy in
the field, nor provisions, nor munitions, nor men adequate to protect his
cities and fortresses? Money is said to be the sinews of war because it co-
ordinates your forces and locates them where they are needed. But if you
have no forces, of what use will it be? He who has nothing to spend is as
poor as he who has nothing to buy. But if infinite treasure is not sought
for defense, it is much less necessary for offensive operations and for
attempted conquests; a campaign, for which you have to spend without
measure of your own funds, is not a campaign of acquisition but of dam-
age and loss because all those enterprises ought to be considered foolish
which are not able to maintain and sustain themselves; so we read that the
Carthaginians abandoned some undertakings, even acquisitions already
made. And the Romans having lost in various shipwrecks in the Second
Punic War more than seven hundred large ships with a huge number
of soldiers, abandoned the sea, more out of necessity than skill.4 The
2
Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, took possession of Baghdad on February 10,
1258.
3
Mehmed II (1432–81), called “the Conqueror,” conquered Bosnia in 1463.
4
This should refer to the First rather than the Second Punic War (BD, 278, n. 1).
209
Appendix B
Chinese showed much greater prudence because when they ruled nearly
all the islands of the Eastern Ocean5 and the greater part of India, real-
izing that such a task consumed infinite riches, arms, soldiers, materials,
they determined to abandon it and to withdraw to their own country, and
they issued a law that prohibited sailing in those lands and making offen-
sive war there. The Emperor Hadrian abandoned that part of Britain that
lies beyond the River Tweed, today called Scotland, which had been con-
quered by Julius Agricola,6 just as he abandoned the provinces beyond
the River Tigris which had been subjugated by Trajan.
Since an immense treasure is not necessary either to defend your state
or to conquer another, it is necessary to limit it in proportion to your
other resources. How?, someone will say. It is a difficult thing and not
very well-advised to say precisely the quantity or the sum which the one
assembling treasure ought not to surpass because this depends on the
circumstances of individual states, whether they are open or enclosed,
with many or few ports, abundant or barren lands, with much commerce
as Flanders or with little as Poland, bordering on powerful enemies or
princes nearly equal to them. But if someone requires that I provide some
rule in this matter, I would say that the accumulation [of treasure] does
no harm so long as it does not disrupt normal commerce and exchange
because up to this point one can set aside something for future needs
without disadvantages for the subjects. But the ruler who withdraws so
much [treasure] that it deprives merchants of the means to carry on com-
merce and artisans to exercise their profession and to exchange what the
earth produces and human industry creates, strikes at the roots of his
state and weakens it in such a way as to make it useless for his service.
So as the stomach which does not digest and distribute food further but
only causes the exhaustion and corruption of the other members [of the
body] as well as of itself, so the prince who devours and keeps for him-
self the wealth of his subjects without distributing it proportionately and
sharing it according to their needs, consumes and ruins his subjects as
well as himself.
But in order to know more exactly how much he can set aside with-
out doing notable damage to his people, it is necessary that the prince
know in detail the amount of money that leaves his state for the goods
5
Botero refers here to all the maritime space encompassed by the north of the Indian Ocean,
the South China Sea, and the East China Sea (BD, 278, n. 2).
6
The Roman general Gnaeus Julius Agricola (40–93 ce) completed the conquest of Britain.
Hadrian began the construction of Hadrian’s Wall to shut out the barbarians in 122 ce.
210
Appendix B
that are imported and the sum that is made or enters for the goods that
are exported, and to see to it that the amount which he sets aside is not
greater than that by which the income surpasses the outgoing payments.
But when the income is less than the outgoing payments the prince ought
not aim to increase his treasure because he will not be able to do so and if
he tries to do so, he will ruin his state; it will be better to make every effort
to make his subjects more industrious, in agriculture as well as in crafts
and commerce, of which I have spoken elsewhere. It is said that the king
of China has more than one hundred million in gold as income which,
although to some this seems incredible, I consider to be most true on the
supposition that that be true that is written about the size of his empire,
the fertility of the land, the mineral deposits, the innumerable multitude
of artisans and merchants, the convenience of the paved streets through-
out the whole realm, the presence of navigable rivers, the number, size,
and density of the cities, the subtlety of the intelligence and the industry
of the people which does not allow one hand’s breadth of land to be lost
nor one ounce of material, no matter how poor it is, to which they do not
give some artificial form if only, as Giovanni di Barros and others write,
to propel their carts with sails.7 To this is added the inestimable expenses
of the king; because, supposing that there is in China altogether a thou-
sand million scudi and that there is taken in each year another thirty or
forty for the goods that are exported and are dug from the mines with-
out losing one dram of gold or silver, it would not be a great matter that
the king has annually an income of one hundred million on the condition
that he does not spend each year seventy or more because, as water rises
as much as it falls, it happens easily that the prince who spends much also
takes in enough for himself because he draws a profit from that which he
spends. It is impossible to draw a profit over a long period from a state
that does not acquire from outside while not spending a great deal. In
effect, let us suppose that in a state such as this, there are ten million
scudi and that the prince has a revenue of one million and that he does
not spend more than one hundred thousand. Then it will happen that in
a dozen years or more his subjects will lose everything and the prince will
no longer be able, I will not say to clip but even to fleece them.
7
João de Barros, Terceira decada da Asia (Lisbon, 1563), 1.2, chap. 7; see also Giovanni
Pietro Maffei, Historiarum Indicarum libri XVI (Florence, 1588), 6, 113c (BD, 280, n. 4).
211
Appendix C
Against Whom the Prince Ought to Deploy

his Military Forces1
Military forces ought to be employed for defense of our own or for the
acquisition of another’s. The defense of one’s own is so just that there is
need of no other proof than to consider the weapons of animals, horns,
teeth, claws, and kicks, all given to them by nature for the conservation of
their being; and so roses are armed with thorns, ears of corn with bristles,
chestnuts with shells. Finally, nature is so solicitous in this that princes
have no need to be instructed in its art. But they ought to take care not to
exceed limits in such a way that defense becomes offense every time that
they are presented with an easy opportunity. In this the Romans behaved
in an excellent fashion because, if their enemies remained unconquered,
they never denied them a fair peace, which ought to be the goal of every
war, nor should it be denied except to those from whom one could not
hope for it except by their destruction or who had committed a deed that
ought to be punished by their extermination as an example to others.
As Sallust said of the Romans, Duabus his artibus, audacia in bello, ubi
pax evenerat, aequitate, seque rempublicam curabunt (These two virtues,
1
Starting with RS 1590 this chapter was added at the end of Book Ten and at the end of the
whole work. It corresponds to the last chapter of The Prince where Machiavelli summons
the Medici ruler of Florence to take up arms and lead a coalition to drive the foreigner out
of Italy.
212
Appendix C
boldness in time of war and fairness in time of peace, permitted them

to provide for their needs and for those of the republic).2 And so just is
defensive war that offensive war can have no other justice than that which
it receives from defensive war, nor is it possible to have any instance in
which offensive war is licit except in defense.
How then, someone will say, can I expand my state? By defending the
public good. Now the public good is of two sorts, spiritual and temporal.
The temporal is civil and political peace, the spiritual is religion and the
union of the church of God. The one and the other are opposed and dis-
turbed by two sorts of enemies, heretics and infidels; the former are inter-
nal, the latter external, and so the former are more dangerous than the
latter because the infidel intends primarily to attack the temporal good
and as a result of this, the spiritual good. But the heretic aims chiefly at
the spiritual good and following upon its ruin, the temporal good. But
because war is the ultimate remedy which ought to be employed against
the heretic, it is not so universally licit for all to wage war against heretics
as it is against infidels. But every prince ought with all his power keep
this pestilence at a distance. He who openly seeks to withdraw men from
obedience to the church of God will seek to withdraw them much more
easily from your rule and obedience. And it is not to be wondered that
God permits so many revolutions of states against their princes because
these princes care little for the disobedience of their peoples toward His
Majesty. Yet there are not lacking today men, no less impious than fool-
ish, who give princes to understand that heresies have nothing to do with
politics. And although there is no heretical prince who will for reason of
state allow the exercise of the Catholic religion in his domain, there are
not lacking princes who make profession of being good Christians who
freely permit heresies in their kingdoms; this demonstrates how true is
that saying of the Lord that the children of darkness show more prudence
in their affairs than do the children of light.3
But he who wants to wage war cannot excuse himself by saying that he
has no public enemy against whom he can show his courage, an enemy
who always thinks of nothing less than the oppression of Christendom
and who has such great military forces that to resist him, let alone to
overcome him, would bring much greater glory than could be acquired
by taking up arms among Christians. We have the Turk at the door, we
have him on our flanks, and do we seek reasons for war more just or more
2 3
Sallust, Conspiracy of Catiline, 9.3. Luke 16:8.
213
Appendix C
honorable? Cato when he wanted to show the Romans the danger that
hung over them from their enemies, made them look at some fresh figs
recently brought from Carthage.4 How much nearer is Valona5 to Italy
than Carthage was to Rome? M. Varro wanted to unite Epirus to Italy
with a bridge. Perhaps some will say that the enemy is near but with
few troops? The Romans feared the Carthaginians whom they had often
conquered and subjugated, and do we disdain the Turk who has taken
from us so many fortresses, so many cities, so many kingdoms, and two
empires? Who dominates Africa, who rules Asia, who holds more coun-
tries in Europe than do all the states of the Catholic princes? Who because
of our discord has grown in such a way on land, already for three hundred
years, that he maintains mastery there and has no rival on the sea? An
enemy who in time of peace is better armed than we are in time of war?
An enemy whose treasures are inexhaustible, his armies innumerable, his
supplies endless? Who on the day of battle covers the plains with his cav-
alry and in the assault on cities piles up mountains of earth and makes
a ladder on the walls of the fortresses with the mass of his own men?
An enemy finally who up until now has not lost anything of importance
that he has once acquired. Fernando de Toledo, duke of Alba, who had
taken part in so many wars and won more victories than any other man
of his times, nevertheless used to say that he had done nothing because
it had not been granted him to see himself before an army of Turks.
Truly I do not know with what judgment reason of state6 would show
itself to be more an enemy of Christians than of Turks or other infidels.
Machiavelli exclaims impiously against the church, and against the infi-
dels he does not open his mouth, and the armies of Christian princes are
so intent on ruining one another as though they had no other enemies
in the world. The emperors Comnenus, Alexius, Kalojan, and Manuel7
followed similar rules in order not to allow the Christian princes of the
west to expand in the lands taken from them by the Turks; they opposed
with all their power the campaigns of Gottfried, the Emperor Conrad,
and others against those barbarians. What happened as a result of this?
The barbarians first chased ours out of Asia and then they brought the
Greeks under their feet. Behold, the fruit of modern politics! The lords
of Venice, attacked from every side in the days of Julius II by nearly as
4 5
Pliny, Natural History, 15.18. Today Vlora in Albania.
6
In RS 1590 and RS 1596 there is added here, “if something so irrational, not to say bestial,
merits the name of reason.”
7
Alexis I (r. 1081–1118), John II (r. 1118–43), and Manuel I Comnenus (r. 1143–80).
214
Appendix C
many rulers as there were in Christendom,8 consistently refused the aid

offered them by Bajazet II, king of the Turks, so that God did not aban-
don them, indeed he enabled them nearly miraculously to recover the
rule over Lombardy that they had lost.
8
The League of Cambrai in 1508–09 included France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire.
215
Appendix D1
Of Reputation
BOOK ONE
1 What is Reputation
I recall that some years ago when talking with the famous poet Torquato
Tasso about reputation, among the other things regarding this matter
that he wisely remarked and said was that just as the vine-dresser waters
often and trims the useless and superfluous branches so that the vines
may produce more and better grapes, so he who wishes to acquire rep-
utation must banish from his life and his actions all that is improper or
unworthy of a person of high estate. Hence he concluded that reputation
requires frequent pruning. This derivation seemed to me, while respect-
ing the authority of such a great man, more subtle than true because, first,
reputation exists not in the person who is said to possess a reputation but
in the one who considers that another has a reputation,2 and secondly,
that it is born not of a lack or a defect but of excellence and of great
worth. So I think that to repute is nothing other than to rethink or to
1
These three chapters are taken from Botero’s Additions to the Reason of State (Aggiunte
alle Ragione di stato) first published with RS 1598. The text used here is taken from Della
ragion di stato di Giovanni Botero, con tre libri delle Cause della grandezza delle città, due
Aggiunte e un Discorso della popolazione di Roma, ed. Luigi Firpo (Turin, 1948), “Della
Reputazione,” Book 1, chaps. 1–4 (pp. 413–24).
2
“la riputazione non è nel riputato ma nel riputante.”
216
Appendix D
reconsider a matter more profoundly, and that a man of reputation is one

whose virtù cannot be easily understood or comprehended and merits to
be frequently considered and esteemed; this is what reputation is.
Many things have something I do not know what similar to reputation,
such as credit, authority, esteem, wonder, fame, but they all are quite
different from it. Reputation is not the same as credit although it over-
laps with it to a degree; credit applies to private persons, reputation to
public ones. It differs from authority because this is in the captain with
respect to the soldiers; reputation, on the other hand, is in the soldiers
with respect to the captain, so that we say “to have authority” and “to be
in reputation.”3 Authority is toward inferiors and to those nearby, rep-
utation extends also to foreigners and to those at a distance. Yet there is
sometimes little difference, as when Tacitus speaking of Corbulo4 said
Multa auctoritate, quae viro militari pro facundia erat (with much author-
ity which in a professional soldier took the place of eloquence),5 or when
Sextus Victor6 said of Antoninus Pius, Orbem terrae nullo bello per quatuor
et viginti annos sola auctoritate rexit (By his authority alone without any
war he governed the whole world for twenty-four years).7 This is per-
haps the same as esteem but with the addition of “great,” so that the
Latins had no other way with which they could designate a man of rep-
utation then to say Virum magnae existimationis (a man of great honor).8
Yet esteem is in a superior with respect to an inferior; one does not say
that the servant esteems his master but, on the contrary, that the master
esteems the servant. But reputation is in the inferior with respect to the
superior. Wonder has some similarity to reputation but it is not the same.
Wonder extends also more to things speculative and natural than to those
human and practical but reputation includes only practical things. Won-
der arises because we do not understand the effect, so that eclipses of the
moon and the sun, the comet and other such things appear marvelous to
one who does not understand the reason for them. Reputation emerges
not because we do not know the reason for its effect but because we do not
easily understand its greatness. It appears that fame agrees to a degree
with reputation as when Tiberius felt with his hand publicum sibi odium
3
“essere in reputazione.”
4
Corbulo (7–67 ce) was a Roman general, brother-in-law of Emperor Caligula.
5
Annals, 15.26.
6
Sextus Aurelius Victor (320–90 ce) was a historian and politician of imperial Rome.
7
A Collection about the Emperors, “Antoninus Pius”; he governed Rome from 138–61 ce.
8
Perhaps a reference to Cicero, On the Republic, 3.17.
217
Appendix D
magisque fama quam vi stare res suas (the public hatred of him and the fact
that his power was based more on reputation than on force).9 But it is not
the same because fame extends also to evil things, contrary to reputation.
2 What is the Origin of Reputation

We assign reputation only to those whom we have considered to have by
their excellence and greatness surpassed the ordinary limits of human
virtue10 and have in themselves I do not know what of the heavenly and
the divine. Reputation ought to be considered the child and the fruit of an
excellent virtue11 and of all perfection. A small good that does not extend
beyond the confines of mediocrity is well suited to elicit love but not
reputation, because, being easily understood by the intellect, it suddenly
moves the will or the appetite which takes pleasure in it, embraces and
loves it, but a preeminent virtù takes hold of and seizes the intellect so
much in consideration of it that the will and love can have only a small
part in it. So Aristotle teaches that we love the equal and the lesser, we
reverence the greater, and we honor and beatify heroes and personages
who by the loftiness of their virtù and perfection have passed beyond
the ordinary limits of human nature.12 So those virtues add to reputation
which have the quality of the lofty and the admirable and elevate the
prince above the earth and carry him beyond the number of common
men. Tentanda via est, qua me quoque possum tollere humo, victorque virum
volitare per ora (It is necessary that I take a path that permits me to lift
myself above the earth and to fly victorious beyond the limits).13
Now a man only exalts himself through subtlety of intellect and vigor
of spirit, and because the reputation of a prince is located in the opinion
and the concept that the people have of him, the matters with which he
ought to concern himself in order to acquire such great good ought to be
those in which the people have an interest. And these are peace and war
because with the arts of peace he keeps his subjects quiet and with those
of war he keeps enemies at a distance.
Such civil ways secured the fame of divinity among the ancients for
Orpheus, Amphion, Rhadamanthus, and Minoe.14 No less did men raise
9 10 11
See Tacitus, Annals, 6.30. valore. virtù.
12 13
See Aristotle, Politics, 7.13 (1332). See Vergil, Georgics, 3.8–9.
14
See Horace, Art of Poetry, 391–96. They were figures of Greek mythology. Orpheus was
the chief of poets and musicians. Amphion, founder of the city of Thebes, symbolized the
218
Appendix D
themselves up with victories and triumphs. Res gerere et captos osten-

dere civibus hostes attingit solium Jovis et coelestia tentat (To lead military
enterprises and to display enemy prisoners to fellow citizens is the glory
that reaches heaven and touches the throne of Jupiter).15 When the same
Horace wished to praise Caesar Augustus fully, he rendered him excellent
in both the one and the other, Cum tot sustineas tanta negotia solus, res itali-
cas armis tuteris, moribus ornes, legibus emendes (From the moment that you
alone undertook such important negotiations, defended Italy with arms,
adorned her with customs, corrected her with laws).16 While conceding
to the Greeks the knowledge of how to plead cases and to fashion with
marvelous delicacy statues of marble and metal and to note and describe
the movements of heaven and the stars, Vergil did not wish to claim for
Roman greatness anything else but civil and military prudence. Tu regere
imperio populos, Romane, memento; hae tibi erunt artes, pacique imponere
morem, parcere subjectis, et debellare superbos (You, O Roman, govern the
peoples as sovereign; these are your arts, to impose terms of peace, to par-
don the conquered, and to put down the proud).17 Among the Jews there
have been two kings of incomparable reputation, one for the art of war,
David, and the other for the art of peace, Solomon. And in Rome two
personages acquired eminent names, one for valor of arms, that is, Pom-
pey called the Great, and the other for civil prudence, Quintus Fabius
Rullus, called the Greatest.18
Nor should anyone wonder that the Romans honored the latter with a
greater title than the former because as we have said elsewhere, it is much
more difficult to preserve than to extend rule. So as Heracles, ambas-
sador of Antiochus, said of the Romans, Parari singula acquirendo facilius
potuerunt, quam universa teneri (It was easier for them to have acquired
provinces one by one than to maintain them all).19 Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus, excellent in the waging of war and the craft of arms, because he
did not know how to keep what he had acquired, was accounted a gam-
bler who played the dice well but did not know how to make use of his
winnings. And in war itself it is more praiseworthy to conquer with coun-
sel than with the sword because in the former manner of waging war the
enemy is overcome along with the complete preservation of one’s own
superiority of intelligence over brute force. Rhadamanthus and Minos were, according to
Greek mythology, models of just judges in this and the future life.
15 16 17
See Horace, Epistles, 1.17.33–34. Ibid., 2.1.1–3. Aeneid, 6.851–53.
18
Quintus Fabius Rullus served as consul five times in the later fourth century bce.
19
Livy, History of Rome, 37.35.
219
Appendix D
army, whereas in the latter la vittoria sanguinosa spesso suol fare il capitan
men degno (the bloody victory often is accustomed to make the captain
less worthy),20 so that having learned that Alexander the Great after hav-
ing acquired so great a state said that he did not know what he ought to
do, Caesar Augustus wondered why he did not consider it a much greater
work to govern what he had acquired than to have acquired it.
Now states just as they are ruined by the stupidity or the cruelty or
the lust or the ineptitude of princes, so they are preserved and expanded
by the wisdom and justice, the temperance and fortitude of the same;
and these virtues produce the effects of greater reputation and wonder
with the multitude the more elevated and eminent they are. Prudence
is common to peace and to war, justice (where I include religion) and
temperance belong more to peace, courage more to war than to peace.
3 Of the Importance of Reputation

It is necessary that every principality is supported by one of three foun-
dations, that is, by love or by fear or by reputation, of which the first two
are simple qualities and the third a composite of the one and the other.
Of these love is by its nature without a doubt stronger and more suited to
keep the people more devoted and subjected because it is of all our affec-
tions the most powerful and of the greatest strength; in addition it is the
first and the principal one and that which gives vigor and movement to
all. So Plutarch compares it to a dictator in whose presence every other
magistrate yields.21 So one would not be able to improve on that rule
which was based completely on the affection of the subjects. But on the
other hand there is no form of government more uncertain and false, not
because of a defect in this love but because of the imperfection of the
subjects because it is too difficult for a prince to conduct himself with
such measure and circumspection with his subjects that for a long period
he fully satisfies and contents them. Our spirits are by nature insatiable
and difficult to please. Or mi diletta e piace quel che piu mi dispiacque (Now
that delights and pleases me that displeases me more).22 So we see that
princes who are elected to great applause and with a marvelous celebra-
tion are then soon abandoned or dead; the whole history of the Roman
emperors is full of them. Just as prime matter is not long content with
20 21
Ariosto, Orlando furioso, 15.1.3–4. See Plutarch, Amatorius, 21.14–15 (768a).
22
Petrarch, Canzoniere, 2, Sonnet 22.
220
Appendix D
one form,23 so our spirits from hour to hour seek some novelty in every-
thing but principally in the manner of government. The multitude is by
nature prone to grumbling and with difficulty remains satisfied, and the
present government usually appears always to be hard and stern, and yet
ferenda regum ingenia, says Tacitus, neque usui crebras mutationes (it is nec-
essary to bear up under the temper of sovereigns, lest there be frequent
changes).24 It is impossible then that so many thousands of men agree
and concur in the love of one, and not less impossible that one always
operates in a way that pleases all. A good look, a favor, a grace that is
made to one rather than to another is apt to render bitter every previous
kindness and to cancel out the memory of every past benefit, to place hate
where love once lodged.
For these and for other reasons many princes, not trusting the moods
of their subjects, have departed from the way of love and based their
rule on fear as in something stronger and more secure because love is in
the power of the subject but fear depends upon him who makes himself
feared, and the ways to make oneself lovable are not as secure and uni-
versal as those that make one feared. And if this is true for subjects, it is
much more true for strangers who have no other bond with you except
that of proximity and of fear of your forces. But it is necessary that these
carry themselves in such a way that fear is greater than hate; hence when
Cato the Utican asked his teacher how Sulla, whose many cruelties were
seen, lasted so long, he responded, because he is more feared than hated.
Reputation is composed of love and fear, which is better than the one or
the other because it contains that which is good and useful in both, that
is, it takes from love the union of the subjects with the prince and from
fear the submission because the former unifies and the latter subjects.
But someone will ask me which has the greater part in reputation, love
or fear. Fear without a doubt, because just as respect and reverence so
also reputation is for the eminence of virtù from which proceeds species
of fear rather than of love. This can be easily understood by this: love is a
passion that conciliates spirits, fear draws them back; the former unites,
the latter draws them apart; the former makes equal, the latter makes
unequal. Now it is clear that in reputation there appear many more fea-
tures and effects of fear than of love because it has greater strength to pull
back, to separate, and to render unequal. The same thing can be easily
23
Here the author alludes to the Aristotelian doctrine of matter and form.
24
Annals, 12.11.
221
Appendix D
understood from this: there is nothing more contrary to reputation than

disdain, so that Dio Cassius writes that having perceived that because of
his old age he had become contemptible and had so lost all reputation,
Emperor Nerva adopted Trajan and set him up as emperor.25 Ovid was
also of this opinion then when having vaguely said that after the ancient
chaos things remained confused for a long time, without the distinction
of a majority and a minority, so that the gods of lower rank often sat
themselves near Jupiter and Saturn, he added that finally honor and rev-
erence assigned to each his grade and his appropriate seat. From this
was born Majesty next to which were seated Respect and Fear. Hinc nata
Maiestas, quae mundum temperat omnem, quaque die artu est edita, magna
fuit. … Consedere simul Pudor et Metus. Omne videres Numen ad hanc cultus
composuisse suos (From this was born Majesty, which governs the whole
world and was grand from the day that it came to light … Next to it were
seated Shame and Fear. Then you would have been able to see all the
divinities imitate it with their proper attitudes.)26 Moreover, to be feared
is of great importance for reputation because one can maintain it with-
out love. So Livy wrote that even if Camillus had assigned the spoils of
the city of Veio27 to the treasurers, to the anger of the soldiers, severi-
tate imperii victi, eandem virtutem oderant et mirabant (overcome by the
severity of their commander, they hated and admired his rigor).28
Now one can know how great reputation is from this: that dead men by
their shadow have performed deeds of living men. As we read of El Cid,29
a personage of great valor at arms, his soldiers after his death placing his
likeness on a horse, by his presence alone conquered a great army of
Moors who were approaching the city of Valencia. Baldrino Panicaglia30
had such a great reputation among the soldiers that even after his death
they were governed by him as they carried his embalmed body with them
and they pitched his tent as when he was alive, and with certain auguries
probed for his opinion and were governed by them. The Turks took to
flight at the sight of the troops of George Skanderbeg who was already
dead since they believed that he was still alive and guided them, and then
that by carrying his relics with them they acquired strength and shared
in his courage.
25 26
Roman History, 63.3. Cf. Fasti, 5.25–26, 29–30.
27 28
An important Etruscan city. History of Rome, 5.26.
29
Ruy Diaz de Vivar (c. 1040–99), the Spanish national hero.
30
I have not been able to identify him.
222
Appendix D
4 Grades and Types of Reputation

Reputation is divided by some into three grades since it is, they say, either
less, or as great or greater than that to which it is attributed. About this
we say first that if reputation is an effect (as was demonstrated above)
of outstanding virtù, to be a prince with a reputation that is less than
is appropriate is not a benefit but a defect not so much of reputation as
of the virtù of which it derives. As for the rest, reputation is of three
types, of which one is natural, the second artificial, and the third we will
call adventitious. Natural is that which is as the lamp of the light; so it
proceeds from the eminence of virtù, and as the midday shadow is enough
to be equal to its cause. Artificial is that which by the industry or the
artifice of the prince surpasses the limits of that which is reputed; such
was the fame of the riches of Alfonso II of Ferrara.31 Adventitious is
that which without the prince’s action is attributed to him by the false
opinion of another. Now true reputation is that which we have called
natural; it is content to be equal to the thing reputed, that is, it results
as a quasi reflection of his outstanding virtù. The other two types are
as it were alchemy, which not consisting of solid principles, last briefly
in comparison, more briefly as in a refiner’s dish, and are accustomed to
produce sometimes laughter and disdain, sometimes danger and damage.
Without adducing ancient examples, Carmagnola and PaoloVitelli show
this a little before our time.32 These two captains, who were thought to be
of much greater value than in fact they were, fell prey to the opinion that
it was due to treason that they had not wanted to carry out that which
in fact they had been unable to accomplish because of the difficulty of
the enterprise. So Carmagnola was decapitated by the Venetians for not
having taken Cremona and Vitelli by the Florentines for not having taken
Pisa by storm. And before them when Alcibiades lost a part of the fleet,
the Athenians blamed this not on misfortune but on his wickedness, and
he was banned by them. On the other hand, that other was, says Tacitus,
maximis provinciis per quatuor et viginti annos impositus, nullam ob eximiam
artem, sed quos par negotiis neque supra erat (placed at the head of the most
important provinces for twenty-four years, he had nothing of exceptional
merit, but was adequate to the business and nothing more).33
31
Reigned 1559–97.
32
Carmagnola (c. 1382–1432) and Paolo Vitelli (1461–99) were Italian condottieri.
33
Annals, 6.39. The allusion is to Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus, a Roman politician who served
as consul in 9 ce and as governor of Moesia from 12–35.
223
Appendix D
But I do not deny that as with bankers it always helps to have greater
credit than capital, so with a prince it is useful and a benefit to be held in
greater esteem than his quality justifies. But this is called opinion rather
than reputation. Two things belong to reputation regarding what we are
now considering: one is to conceal one’s weaknesses, the other is to reveal
one’s greatness without ostentation; and if it is not unsuitable that it sur-
pass the limits of the truth, it is expected that it remain within the limits
of verisimilitude. But if reputation derives from virtù, what is to be said
of military strength and treasure? Do not these also give rise to reputa-
tion? I say that reputation depends properly upon the wisdom and valor
of the prince; the other things produce the effect of that which we are
discussing not in themselves but with respect to the virtù and the lofti-
ness of the intelligence and spirit of him whose instruments they ought to
be. What reputation did the treasure left to him by Tiberius ever bring to
Caligula if he was held to be a beast? What did the greatness of the Roman
Empire bring to Claudio if he was considered an idiot? Just as neither a
miser because of his riches nor a coward because of his strength, so nei-
ther will a prince who lacks prudence and valor enjoy reputation because
of his treasure or because of his army.
224
Index
This index does not include topics and concepts that are listed in the extensive Table of Contents.
Acarnanians, 184 Apelles, 32

actors, 73 appearance and reality, xxiv–xxv
Additions to the Reason of State, xxiv Archimedes, 100
Aemilius Paulus, 55, 182, 184 architectural enterprises, xxviii, 74–75
Afonso de Albuquerque, 198 Ariosto, 42
Agathocles, 118 Aristotle, 7, 16, 24, 50, 61, 69, 74, 81, 86, 100,
Agesilaus, 9, 44, 111 125, 197
Agrippa, Marcus Vispanius, 204 Aritperto, 27
Ahab, 29 Arnulf (emperor), 64
Alaric, 68, 157 arquebus, 162
Alba, duke of, 43, 126, 214 artisans, 93, 99
Alexander III (pope), 17 Assyrians, 39
Alexander Severus, 23, 142 astuteness, 48, 188
Alexander the Great, 32, 35, 36, 38, 55, 57, 82, Attila, 157
94, 95, 101, 158, 160, 164, 172, 191, 192, Attilius Regulus, 183
193 Augustus, 11, 28, 31, 32, 50, 55, 69, 72, 88,
Alexander (king of the Jews), 45 112, 130, 136, 140, 170, 174, 178, 219, 220
Alexis I Comnenus, 214 Aurelian, 69, 170, 171
Alfonso I (king of Naples), 36, 60 auspices, 167
Alfonso II (duke of Calabria), 48 Austrian royal house, 148
Alfonso II (king of Naples), 123 Avignon, 145
Alfonso III (king of Spain), 59
Alfonso V (of Aragon), 53, 116 Bajazet II, 203
Alfonso X (king of Castile), 36, 54, 60 Baroque, xxii
Almeida, Francisco de, 198 Basil the Macedonian, 33
Ammirato, Scipione, xviii, xxi begging, 136
Amurath, 205 Bellarmine, Robert, xviii, xix, xx
Antigonus I, 47 Boccalini, Traiano, xxi
Antimachiavellians, xvi, xxi, xxii Bodin, Jean, xvii, xix, xx, xxi, xxvi, xxxii,
Antiochus III the Great, 49, 55, 57 xxxiii, 38, 56, 123, 124, 126
225
Index
Bologna, University of, 32 Conring, Hermann, xvi

Borgia, Cesare, xxvii consent in government, xxiii–xxiv
Borromeo, Carlo, xvii, xxix, 74 Constantine Ducas, 32
Borromeo, Federico, xviii Constantine the Great, 11, 16, 30, 58, 63, 106,
Botero, Giovanni, life of, xvi–xviii 167
Burgundians, 156 Constantinople, 141, 157
buying off enemies, 118 continence, 51
Corfu, 109
Cairo, 105 corruption of soldiers, 169–70
Calais, 110, 112 Cortés, Hernán, 66, 183
Calavius, 204 council of conscience, 63
Caligula, 11, 20, 68, 129 Counter-Reformation, xvi, xxii, xxx
Caloyannis (John V), 157 courage, 9
Calvin, Jean, 65, 76, 106, 142 Croesus, 209
Calvinists, xxxi, 97–98 cruelty, 6
Cambyses, 27 Crusades, 150, 214
Camillus, 14, 15 Cyrus the Great, 192
Cannae, Battle of, 131, 169
Capua, 144 Darius III, 122, 208
Carmagnola, 223 Datames, 196
Carthage, 10, 24, 102, 110 David (king of Israel), 162, 167, 219
Casimir III (king of Poland), 59 decimation, 179
Casimir (count palatine of the Rhine), 193 Demetrius, 18
Cassius, 31, 86 Denmark, 39
Castile, 143, 175 deportation, 103, 105, 106
Catiline, 89 Deuteronomy, 62–63
Cato the Elder, 69, 100, 183 Diocletian, 11, 98, 101, 106
Ceuta, 109, 112 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 16
change, pace of, xxvii Dionysius the Elder, 6
chaplains, military, 167 dissimulation, 48
Charlemagne, 16, 30, 32, 36, 58, 67, 93, 95, Domitian, 11, 54, 69
103, 104, 176 Doria, Andrea, 192
Charles IX (of France), 54
Charles Martel, 43, 77 ecclesiastical spectacle, 73–74
Charles V (emperor), 52, 193, 203, 205 economic development, xxxii–xxxiii
Charles V (king of France) the Wise, 36, 61 education, 94–95
Charles VI (king of France), 76 Edward II (king of England), 21
Charles VIII (king of France), 157 Edward, St. (king of England), 19
Childeric, 77 Eger, 111, 185–86
China, 24, 26, 82–83, 90, 136, 152, 210, 211 El Cid, 222
Christendom, 213 Elizabeth I, 115
church eloquence, 35
conflict of rulers with, 44 England, 13, 39
relations of government with, 67 expansion, xxii
church construction, 67
citadels, 109 Fabius Maximus, 7, 43, 57, 187, 191, 199
climate, xxvi, 38–40 Fabricius, 15
Colossus of Rhodes, 74 Facchinetti, Giovanni Antonio, xv
common good, xxiii Farnese, Alexander, xxvii, 53, 145, 190, 193
226
Index
fear, xxiv, 221–22 heretics, 6, 213

feminization of boys, 99–100 Herod I, 57
Ferdinand Álvarez de Toledo. See Alba, duke Hezekiah, 53
of history, xxvi, 175–76
Ferdinand II (emperor), xvi Holy League, 149–50
Ferdinand II (of Aragon) the Catholic, 17 Homer, 18, 38
Ferdinand III (of Castile and León), 59 Honorius, 73
fidelity to treaties and agreements, hostages, 102
xxvii–xxviii, 94 Hugh Capet, 14
fidelity to word, 53 Huguenots, 167
Flanders, 13, 138, 158, 207 Hussite Wars, 45
Florence, 25, 118, 145
food, abundance of, 71–72 independence of states, 155–56
foreign policy, xxxii industry, xxxiv
fortune, 43 infidels, 6, 213
France, 39, 75, 132, 138, 140, 206, 207 Innocent IX. See Fachinetti
Francis (duke of Guise), 193 interest (interesse), xxii, 41, 48, 92–93
Francis I (king of France), 36, 157, 182, 206 interest on loans, 127, 130
Francis II (king of France), 21 iron, 138
Franks, 156 Isabella (queen of Castile), 134
Ismail (king of Persia), 64
Galba, 33 Israel, 71
Gaspard de Coligny, 65, 86, 193, 206 Italian soldiers, 165, 168
Genoa, 23, 25, 93 Italy, 132, 138
Genseric, 114, 157
geography, xxvi, 38–41 Janissaries, 94, 102, 200–01, 203
Giovanna II, 21 Jesuit schools, 96
Giovanni de’ Medici, 161 Jews, xix, xxxii, 6, 30, 99, 106, 133
Giovanni di Vega, 29 John of Austria, 173
gladiatorial contests, 72 Joshua, 192
Goa, 198 Judas Maccabeus, 160
Godfrey of Bouillon, 14 Julius Caesar, 10, 15, 23, 29, 35, 36, 71, 89,
Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (the Great 101, 102, 163, 166, 180, 188, 191, 193,
Captain), 56, 179, 196 198
Gracchi, 31, 71 justice, xxv, 17
Gratian, 84 Justinian, 32, 76, 97, 192
Gregory I, 60
Gregory VII, 17 knowledge, pursuit of, 35–36
Hadrian, 156, 170, 210 Ladislaus (king of Naples), 42

Hannibal, 101, 114, 160, 163, 168, 183, 187, Ladislaus III (king of Poland), 200
188, 194, 199 Landais, Peter, 21
Hasdrubal, 185 language, 95, 105
health, 51–52 legion, 164–65, 180
Henry (duke of Guise), 206 Leo I, 17, 60
Henry II (emperor), 64 Leo X, 120
Henry II (king of France), 127, 144, 157 Lepanto, Battle of, 149, 168
Henry III (king of France), 203 liberality, xxv–xxvi, 17
Hercules, 135 Lipsius, Justus, xvi
227
Index
Livius, M., 14 Milan, 13, 135

Livy, xxi, 16, 49, 50 military exercises, 171–72
Louis (duke of Savoy), 30 military orders, 176–77
Louis (prince of Condé), 65 military power, xxxiv–xxxv
Louis IX (king of France), 16, 30 Minucci, Minuccio, xv
Louis XI (king of France), 48, 50, 55, 157, 206 ‘mirror of princes’, xix
Louis XII (king of France), 22, 23 Miseno, 112
love, xxiv, 14–15, 17–18, 204–05, 220–21 Mithridates II (king of Parthia), 57
Lucca, 25 Mithridates VI (king of Pontus), 10, 22, 163
Lucinge, René de, xvii Mohacs, 201
Lucullus, 23, 37 Molucca Islands, 147
Ludovico il Moro, 115 money, 136
Ludovico Sforza, 52, 156 Mongols, 39
Luther, Martin, 65, 142 Moors, xix, xxxii, 6, 12, 82
Lycurgus, 9, 24, 140, 173 Muhammad II, 37, 58, 125
Lysander, 188 music, 100
Lysippus, 32 Muslims, xxxi, 97
Mustafa (Turkish general), 197
Machiavelli, Niccolò, xiv–xv, xxi, xxii, xxix,
xxx, xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxv, 1, 78, 214 Nero, 33, 54, 68, 93, 129
Maffei, Giovanni Pietro, 175 Nicopolis, 201
magnanimity, 56 Nicosia, 111
magnificence, 56 nobles, xxix
Malta, 109, 111, 114 as soldiers, 154
Mamelukes, 151–52, 200, 201 Nur ed-din, 94
Manlius Capitolinus, 31
Mantua, 110 obedience
Manuel I (king of Portugal), 127–28 of soldiers, 101–02
Manuel I Comnenus, 214 owed princes, 65
Marcello II, 25 occasion (occasione), xxvii
Marcellus, 7, 54, 179 Occhiali, 46
Marcus Aurelius, 26 offices, sale of, 123
Marcus Fabius, 184 officials, foreign, 25–26
Marius, 10, 14, 170, 183, 186, 193 Olivares, count-duke of, xxii
Mary Stuart, xxxi, 97, 115 Olympic Games, 72
Matthias Corvinus (king of Hungary), 200 On the Causes of the Greatness and Magnificence
Maximilian (duke of Bavaria), xv of Cities, xviii–xix, xxxiv
Maximilian I (emperor), 49 Onasander, 167
Medes, 39 opportunity (opportunità), xxvii, 45
Medici, Cosimo de’ (Grand Duke), 27, 47, 60, oppression of Catholics, 65
117 Orpheus, 218
Medici, Cosimo the Elder de’, 60 Osorio, Jeronymo, xv
Medici, Lorenzo de’, 60, 73, 116 Otto I, 59
Meinecke, Friedrich, xiv Otto III, 32, 61
mercenary troops, 155–57
Metellus, 47 Papirius Cursor, 181, 194
Michael Comnenus Paleologus, 59 pardons, 28–29
Midas, 209 Paris, University of, 32
middle class, 80–81 parks, 135
228
Index
Passerino, 48 regalian rights, 128–29

patrimonial lands, 125 religion, xxix–xxx
Paul the Deacon, 67 dissidents, xxxi–xxxii
Pavia, University of, 32 members of religious orders, 66–67
Pepin, 14, 16 tolerance, xxxii
Pericles, 35, 172, 203 reputation, xxii, xxiii–xxv, 13–15, 17–18, 24,
perpetuity in office, 87–88 204–05
Perseus (king of Macedonia), 123, 208 resources (forze), xxiii
Persians, 39, 201 Richelieu, Armand-Jean du Plessis (cardinal),
Peter III, 47 xxii
phalanx, 164–65 right of resistance, xxx
Philip I (king of Macedon), 54 Robert (king of France), 30
Philip II (king of Macedon), 8, 42, 45, 107, 140 Roger de Flor, 119
Philip II (king of Spain), xxvii, 29, 43, 45, 148 Romans, 10, 11–12, 24, 27, 39, 61, 68, 69, 89,
Philip IV (king of France), 19, 26 112, 131, 142–44, 149, 161–62, 176, 179,
Philippines, 13 198, 203, 207, 209, 212–13
Phoenicians, 197 Eastern Empire, 12, 93
Plato, 18, 81, 166 Romulus, 158
Plutarch, 36 Rudolf (of Habsburg), xxx, 63
poetry, 38
Poland, 39 Saladin, 105
Polybius, 24 sale of offices, xxv
Pompey, 10, 14, 15, 19, 57, 208, 219 Salic Law, 148
Pontine marshes, 136 Sallust, 56
poor, 30–31, 80–81 Samnites, 185
class, 80–81 Saracens, 39, 198
urban, xxviii Sardanapalus, 208
popular entertainments, xxviii–xxix, 73–74 Sardis, 111
population, xxxiv, 140–42 Saul, 29, 50
Portugal, 12, 13, 69, 143, 151, 168, 175, schismatics, 6
198 Scipio Africanus, 15, 53, 56, 94, 114, 159, 169,
Potosì, 138 174, 191, 194, 195, 197
power, xxiii Scotland, 39
preservation of the state, 219 secrecy, 55
Prester John, 40 secret tribunals, 104
princely treasure, xxxiii Seleucus I Nicator, 193
Propylaeum, 74 Selim I, 37, 93, 137
protection of other states, 144–45 Sertorius, 9
prudence, xxvi–xxviii, 207 severity, 55
Ptolemy (of Cyprus), 208 Severus, Septimius, 72
public good, 213 Sharif (king of Morocco), 64
Pyrrhus (king of Epirus), 131, 219 Sicilian Vespers, 92
silk, 137
Qinshi Huangdi, 90 Sixtus V, xxviii
Skanderbeg (George Castriotes), 160, 193,
Ravenna, 112 200, 222
raw materials, 139, 146 slave trade, 151–52
reason of state, xxi, xxvi, 1, 111, 213, 214 Soderini, Francesco, 204
recruitment of foreigners, 146 Solomon, 20, 75, 123
229
Index
Solon, 23, 90, 140 Tullus Hostilius, 195

Spain, 12, 13, 39, 132–33 Turks, 39, 44, 76, 82, 84, 126, 131, 154–55,
foreign wars, 75 187, 198, 200–01, 213–15
Spartacus, 9
Spartans (Lacadaemonians), 7, 9, 10, 19, 24, Universal Relations, xviii, xix, xxvi
131 Urban II, 17
Spencer, Hugues, 21 usury, xxxiii, 22–23
spies, 27, 104, 107
state Valentinian, 54, 84
definition, xx, 4 Valerian, 156
origins, 14 valor, xxvi, xxviii, 14, 34, 154, 161, 169, 180
Stilico, 11 Vandals, 156, 198
Strasbourg, 110 Vegetius, 13
Suleiman the Magnificent, 78 Venetians, 42, 116
Sulla, 10, 181, 196 Venice, 10, 23, 105, 110, 118, 151, 214
sumptuary laws, 69–70 Arsenal, 121–22
Sweden, 39 Vergil, 38, 54, 219
Swiss, 116 Vespasian, 11, 14, 26, 29, 52, 69, 71, 169
soldiers, 102 veterans, care of, 177–78
Syphax, 165 Viriatus, 9
virtù, xxii–xxiii, 7, 14, 15–16, 31–32, 51, 182,
Tacitus, xv, xxi, 1, 69 217
Tamburlaine, 200 Vitelli, Paolo, 223
Tangier, 109, 112
Tarquinius Priscus, 95 war
Tasso, Torquato, 216 against Turks, xxxv
Tauris, 109 defense of Christendom, xxxv
taxation, xxxiii–xxxiv, 126–27 diversion of the people, xxviii, 75–76
temperance, xxx–xxxi just war, xxxv, 159, 212, 213
Theodoric, 68, 72, 98, 157 wealthy class, 80–81
Theodosius, 11, 14, 30, 32, 58, 63 William (duke of Normandy), 64, 95, 99, 183
Theopompus, 7 William of Nassau, 65, 86, 193
threats, 48 women, xxxi, 69–70
Tiberius, 1, 11, 19, 20, 28, 43, 48, 50, 56, 68, wool, 137
69, 78, 88, 135
Titus, 29, 31 Xanthippus, 187, 191, 199
Trajan, 11, 14, 27, 36
Transylvania, 39 Zizim, 73
230
Titles Published in the Series thus far

Aquinas Political Writings (edited and translated by R.W. Dyson)
Aristotle The Politics and The Constitution of Athens (edited and translated by
Stephen Everson)
Arnold Culture and Anarchy and Other Writings (edited by Stefan Collini)
Astell Political Writings (edited by Patricia Springborg)
Augustine The City of God against the Pagans (edited and translated by R.W.
Dyson)
Augustine Political Writings (edited by E.M. Atkins and R.J. Dodaro)
Austin The Province of Jurisprudence Determined (edited by Wilfrid E. Rumble)
Bacon The History of the Reign of King Henry VII (edited by Brian Vickers)
Bagehot The English Constitution (edited by Paul Smith)
Bakunin Statism and Anarchy (edited and translated by Marshall Shatz)
Baxter Holy Commonwealth (edited by William Lamont)
Bayle Political Writings (edited by Sally L. Jenkinson)
Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings (edited by Richard
Bellamy; translated by Richard Davies)
Bentham A Fragment on Government (edited by Ross Harrison)
Bernstein The Preconditions of Socialism (edited and translated by Henry Tudor)
Bodin On Sovereignty (edited and translated by Julian H. Franklin)
Bolingbroke Political Writings (edited by David Armitage)
Bossuet Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture (edited and
translated by Patrick Riley)
The British Idealists (edited by David Boucher)
Burke Pre-Revolutionary Writings (edited by Ian Harris)
Burke Revolutionary Writings (edited by Iain Hampsher-Monk)
Cavendish Political Writings (edited by Susan James)
Christine de Pizan The Book of the Body Politic (edited by Kate Langdon Forhan)
Cicero On Duties (edited by E.M. Atkins; edited and translated by M.T. Griffin)
Cicero On the Commonwealth and On the Laws (edited and translated by James
E.G. Zetzel)
Comte Early Political Writings (edited and translated by H.S. Jones)
Conciliarism and Papalism (edited by J.H. Burns and Thomas M. Izbicki)
Condorcet Political Writings (edited by Steven Lukes and Nadia Urbinati)
Constant Political Writings (edited and translated by Biancamaria Fontana)
Dante Monarchy (edited and translated by Prue Shaw)
Diderot Political Writings (edited and translated by John Hope Mason and
Robert Wokler)
The Dutch Revolt (edited and translated by Martin van Gelderen)
Early Greek Political Thought from Homer to the Sophists (edited and translated by
Michael Gagarin and Paul Woodruff)
The Early Political Writings of the German Romantics (edited and translated by
Frederick C. Beiser)
Emerson Political Writings (edited by Kenneth S. Sacks)
The English Levellers (edited by Andrew Sharp)
Erasmus The Education of a Christian Prince with the Panegyric for Archduke
Philip of Austria (edited and translated by Lisa Jardine; translated by Neil M.
Cheshire and Michael J. Heath)
Fénelon Telemachus (edited and translated by Patrick Riley)
Ferguson An Essay on the History of Civil Society (edited by Fania Oz-Salzberger)
Fichte Addresses to the German Nation (edited by Gregory Moore)
Filmer Patriarcha and Other Writings (edited by Johann P. Sommerville)
Fletcher Political Works (edited by John Robertson)
Sir John Fortescue On the Laws and Governance of England (edited by Shelley
Lockwood)
Fourier The Theory of the Four Movements (edited by Gareth Stedman Jones;
edited and translated by Ian Patterson)
Franklin The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue
(edited by Alan Houston)
Gramsci Pre-Prison Writings (edited by Richard Bellamy; translated by Virginia
Cox)
Guicciardini Dialogue on the Government of Florence (edited and translated by
Alison Brown)
Hamilton, Madison, and Jay (writing as “Publius”) The Federalist with Letters of
“Brutus” (edited by Terence Ball)
Harrington The Commonwealth of Oceana and A System of Politics (edited by
J.G.A. Pocock)
Hegel Elements of the Philosophy of Right (edited by Allen W. Wood; translated by
H.B. Nisbet)
Hegel Political Writings (edited by Laurence Dickey and H.B. Nisbet)
Hess The Holy History of Mankind and Other Writings (edited and translated by
Shlomo Avineri)
Hobbes On the Citizen (edited and translated by Michael Silverthorne and
Richard Tuck)
Hobbes Leviathan (edited by Richard Tuck)
Hobhouse Liberalism and Other Writings (edited by James Meadowcroft)
Hooker Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity (edited by A.S. McGrade)
Hume Political Essays (edited by Knud Haakonssen)
King James VI and I Political Writings (edited by Johann P. Sommerville)
Jefferson Political Writings (edited by Joyce Appleby and Terence Ball)
John of Salisbury Policraticus (edited by Cary J. Nederman)
Kant Political Writings (edited by H.S. Reiss; translated by H.B. Nisbet)
Knox On Rebellion (edited by Roger A. Mason)
Kropotkin The Conquest of Bread and Other Writings (edited by Marshall Shatz)
Lawson Politica Sacra et Civilis (edited by Conal Condren)
Leibniz Political Writings (edited and translated by Patrick Riley)
Lincoln Political Writings and Speeches (edited by Terence Ball)
Locke Political Essays (edited by Mark Goldie)
Locke Two Treatises of Government (edited by Peter Laslett)
Loyseau A Treatise of Orders and Plain Dignities (edited and translated by Howell
A. Lloyd)
Luther and Calvin on Secular Authority (edited and translated by Harro Höpfl)
Machiavelli The Prince (edited by Quentin Skinner and Russell Price)
Joseph de Maistre Considerations on France (edited and translated by Richard A.
Lebrun)
Maitland State, Trust and Corporation (edited by David Runciman and Magnus
Ryan)
Malthus An Essay on the Principle of Population (edited by Donald Winch)
Marsiglio of Padua Defensor minor and De translatione Imperii (edited by Cary J.
Nederman)
Marsilius of Padua The Defender of the Peace (edited and translated by Annabel
Brett)
Marx Early Political Writings (edited and translated by Joseph O’Malley)
James Mill Political Writings (edited by Terence Ball)
Mill On Liberty and Other Writings (edited by Stefan Collini)
Milton Political Writings (edited by Martin Dzelzainis; translated by Claire
Gruzelier)
Montesquieu The Spirit of the Laws (edited and translated by Anne M. Cohler,
Basia Carolyn Miller, and Harold Samuel Stone)
More Utopia (edited by George M. Logan and Robert M. Adams)
Morris News from Nowhere (edited by Krishan Kumar)
Nicholas of Cusa The Catholic Concordance (edited and translated by Paul E.
Sigmund)
Nietzsche On the Genealogy of Morality (edited by Keith Ansell-Pearson;
translated by Carol Diethe)
Paine Political Writings (edited by Bruce Kuklick)
Plato Gorgias, Menexenus, Protagoras (edited by Malcolm Schofield; translated
by Tom Griffith)
Plato Laws (edited by Malcolm Schofield; translated by Tom Griffith)
Plato The Republic (edited by G.R.F. Ferrari; translated by Tom Griffith)
Plato Statesman (edited by Julia Annas; edited and translated by Robin
Waterfield)
Price Political Writings (edited by D.O. Thomas)
Priestley Political Writings (edited by Peter Miller)
Proudhon What is Property? (edited and translated by Donald R. Kelley and
Bonnie G. Smith)
Pufendorf On the Duty of Man and Citizen according to Natural Law (edited by
James Tully; translated by Michael Silverthorne)
The Radical Reformation (edited and translated by Michael G. Baylor)
Rousseau The Discourses and Other Early Political Writings (edited and translated
by Victor Gourevitch)
Rousseau The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings (edited and
translated by Victor Gourevitch)
Seneca Moral and Political Essays (edited and translated by John M. Cooper;
edited by J.F. Procopé)
Sidney Court Maxims (edited by Hans W. Blom, Eco Haitsma Mulier, and
Ronald Janse)
Sorel Reflections on Violence (edited by Jeremy Jennings)
Spencer Political Writings (edited by John Offer)
Stirner The Ego and Its Own (edited by David Leopold)
Thoreau Political Writings (edited by Nancy L. Rosenblum)
Tönnies Community and Civil Society (edited and translated by Jose Harris;
translated by Margaret Hollis)
Utopias of the British Enlightenment (edited by Gregory Claeys)
Vico The First New Science (edited and translated by Leon Pompa)
Vitoria Political Writings (edited by Anthony Pagden and Jeremy Lawrance)
Voltaire Political Writings (edited and translated by David Williams)
Weber Political Writings (edited by Peter Lassman; edited and translated by
Ronald Speirs)
William of Ockham A Short Discourse on Tyrannical Government (edited by
Arthur Stephen McGrade; translated by John Kilcullen)
William of Ockham A Letter to the Friars Minor and Other Writings (edited by
Arthur Stephen McGrade; edited and translated by John Kilcullen)
Wollstonecraft A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights
of Woman (edited by Sylvana Tomaselli)

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