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 a. Depletion Mode Device:
• A depletion mode device, typically a depletion-mode MOSFET (Metal-
Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor), is a transistor that conducts
when no voltage is applied to its gate terminal. In other words, the channel
is inherently present and needs to be “depleted” to reduce conductivity.
b. Body Effect:
• The body effect, also known as the back-gate effect, refers to the
phenomenon where the threshold voltage (Vth) of a MOSFET depends on the
voltage applied to its body (substrate). It influences the transistor’s
performance and is more noticeable in deep submicron technologies.
c. Storage Time in Bipolar Transistor:
• The storage time in a bipolar transistor is the time interval during which
charge carriers (electrons or holes) stored in the base region are being
removed, leading to a transition from the conducting to the non-conducting
state. It is a parameter crucial in switching characteristics and is a result of
charge storage in the base.
d. Fan-Out of a Logic Gate:
• The fan-out of a logic gate is the maximum number of standard input
loads (typically equivalent to the input capacitance of a gate) that the gate
can drive while maintaining proper signal integrity and meeting timing
requirements. It’s an important parameter in digital circuit design.
e. Charge moves from _ to _ when (Vds) is applied:
• Charge moves from the source to the drain when \(V_{ds}\) is applied in
a MOSFET.
f. Sheet Resistance:
• Sheet resistance is a measure of the resistance of a thin, uniform layer
of material (such as a semiconductor or conductor) per unit square. It is
often denoted by the symbol (R_{\square}) and is used to characterize the
conductivity of materials in microelectronics and integrated circuit
fabrication.
(G) Dynamic Logic:
Dynamic logic refers to a type of digital circuit design in which the logic
gates do not use static storage elements (like flip-flops) for their operation.
Instead, dynamic logic gates use capacitors to store and transfer
information. Dynamic logic can be more area-efficient than static logic but
requires careful attention to timing and signal restoration.

(H) Different Timings Used in Memory Cell:

Various timings associated with memory cells include:
1.Read Access Time: The time taken to retrieve data from the memory
cell.
2.Write Access Time: The time required to store data into the memory
cell.
3. Write Recovery Time: The time needed for the memory cell to recover
after a write operation.
4.Hold Time: The minimum time data must be maintained after a read
operation.
5.Cycle Time: The time between successive read or write operations.

(I) Propagation Delay: Propagation delay is the time taken for a signal to
travel from the input of a logic gate to its output. It is a critical
parameter in digital circuits, influencing the speed of the circuit. The
propagation delay is typically measured from the 50% point of the input
signal to the 50% point of the output signal during a transition.

(J) Logical Effort: Logical effort is a design methodology used to evaluate

and optimize the speed of digital circuits. It involves comparing the sizes
of transistors in a gate to achieve a balance between speed and power
consumption. The concept is based on the idea that different transistor
sizes affect the delay through a gate, and logical effort provides a metric
to assess the trade-off between these factors.
2.a.
Explain why the drain current keeps on increasing even after the VDsat
voltage whereas it should have been fixed for an ideal MOS transistor.

The phenomenon you're referring to, where the drain current keeps
increasing even after reaching the saturation voltage (VDsat), is often
associated with velocity saturation in MOSFETs.

In an ideal MOS transistor, once the drain-source voltage (Vds) reaches

the saturation voltage (VDsat), the transistor is expected to enter
saturation, and the drain current (Id) should remain relatively constant.

However, in real MOSFETs, especially in short-channel devices and at

higher drain voltages, carriers near the drain experience high electric
fields, leading to carrier velocity saturation. Velocity saturation refers to
the situation where the carriers in the channel attain a maximum
velocity, and further increase in the electric field does not result in a
proportional increase in carrier velocity.

This velocity saturation effect causes the drain current to continue

increasing slightly beyond VDsat. The increase in drain current is not as
steep as in the linear region, but it's not completely fixed as in the ideal
case. This departure from the ideal behavior is more pronounced in short-
channel MOSFETs and can impact the accuracy of circuit models,
especially at high frequencies or in technologies with small feature sizes.

To model this behavior accurately, more sophisticated MOSFET models,

such as those considering velocity saturation effects, may be employed.
These models take into account the complex physics involved in carrier
transport, allowing for more accurate predictions of device behavior in
practical scenarios.
2. b.
What is the physical origin of latch-up problem in CMOS? How can the
latch-up problem be prevented?

Physical Origin of Latch-Up in CMOS:

Latch-up in CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) devices is

a phenomenon where a low-resistance path is created inadvertently
between the power supply rails (VDD and GND). This leads to a sustained
and undesired current flow, potentially damaging the device. Latch-up
occurs due to the interaction of parasitic bipolar transistors inherent in
the CMOS structure.

The key contributors to latch-up are:

1.PNP-Network: The parasitic PNP (p-type/n-type/p-type) and NPN (n-

type/p-type/n-type) bipolar transistors formed by the substrate and the
well structures in CMOS.
2.Triggering Conditions: Under certain conditions, such as a high-voltage
event or transient, if both the PNP and NPN transistors are turned on
simultaneously (due to the voltages applied to the substrate and the well),
a latch-up condition can occur.

Preventing Latch-Up in CMOS:

Several techniques are employed to prevent latch-up in CMOS devices:

1.Guard Rings: Surrounding sensitive CMOS circuits with guard rings,

which are heavily doped regions, can help prevent latch-up. These guard
rings provide a low-resistance path for parasitic currents, preventing them
from reaching critical components.
2.Well Isolation: Proper isolation of n-wells and p-wells reduces the
likelihood of latch-up. By ensuring that the n-type and p-type wells are
well-isolated from each other, the parasitic bipolar transistors are less
likely to turn on simultaneously.
3. Substrate Ties: Connecting the substrate (bulk) to the appropriate
power supply rail helps control the potential difference between the
substrate and the wells, mitigating latch-up risks.
4.Reducing Parasitic Capacitance: Minimizing the size of the wells and
using lightly-doped substrates can help reduce the parasitic capacitance,
making it less likely for parasitic transistors to turn on simultaneously.
5.Proper Design Rules: Adhering to proper design rules, such as
maintaining adequate spacing between adjacent transistors and avoiding
high-current-density areas, can contribute to latch-up prevention.

Latch-up prevention is a critical aspect of CMOS design, and employing a

combination of these techniques helps ensure the robustness and
reliability of CMOS circuits under various operating conditions.

an untold story

Latch-up in CMOS is like an electronic hiccup, disrupting the normal flow of

things. It happens when sneaky hidden pathways (parasitic bipolar transistors)
create an unexpected shortcut between the power supply lines. This can cause
a continuous flow of current, potentially damaging the device. To stop this
hiccup, engineers use tricks. They build guard walls (guard rings) to keep things
in check, separate different regions (wells) to avoid shortcuts, and connect the
ground properly to control voltages. It's like creating rules for a game – keeping
everything organized and ensuring everyone plays fair. By tweaking the size
and layout, they make sure the hiccup never happens. These tricks, along with a
set of guidelines, act as electronic superheroes, preventing chaos and
maintaining the smooth operation of our electronic gadgets, even during
unexpected events. So, latch-up becomes just a story of how smart
engineering saved the day in our electronic world!
 3. a.
Explain the method of threshold voltage extraction from the
current-voltage characteristics of MOSFET

The threshold voltage (Vth) of a Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect

Transistor (MOSFET) is a crucial parameter that defines the voltage at
which the transistor begins to conduct. Extracting (Vth) from the current-
voltage (I-V) characteristics involves analyzing the behavior of the
MOSFET under different gate-source voltages (Vgs).

1.Subthreshold Region Analysis:

• In the subthreshold region (low (Vgs), the MOSFET operates in the
weak inversion or off state.
• Plot the logarithm of the drain current (Id) against (Vgs) on a semi-
logarithmic scale.
• Extrapolate the linear portion of the curve to the (Vgs) axis. The
intercept gives an estimation of (Vth).
2.Threshold Region Analysis:
• As Vgs increases, the MOSFET enters the threshold region.
• Plot Id against Vgs on a linear scale.
• Observe the point where Id starts to increase rapidly. This is typically
considered as the threshold voltage.
3. Threshold Voltage Extraction:
• Vth is the gate-source voltage at the onset of significant drain current.
• It is often defined as the point where Id reaches a specific value,
commonly (10^{-6}) or (10^{-7}) Amps for modern technologies.
4.CV (Capacitance-Voltage) Method:
• Utilizing the MOS capacitor structure, measure the capacitance as a
function of applied voltage.
• The flatband voltage in the CV curve corresponds to Vth for the
MOSFET.
5.Shift Method:
• Analyze the shift in the I-V characteristics caused by a change in the
gate oxide thickness.
• This shift can be correlated to the threshold voltage.

These methods collectively provide insights into the threshold voltage of a

MOSFET by analyzing its behavior across different gate-source voltages and
current levels. Advanced techniques and simulations are often employed for
precise threshold voltage extraction in modern semiconductor technologies.

To find the threshold voltage (Vth) of a MOSFET from its current-voltage (I-V)
characteristics:

1. Subthreshold Analysis:
• Look at the low Vgs part where the MOSFET is off.
• Draw a line, and where it hits the Vgs axis is an estimate of (Vth).
2. Threshold Analysis:
• Look for when the current starts increasing quickly.
• That point is often considered as (Vth).
3. Threshold Voltage Extraction:
• (Vth) is where the significant current starts.
• Sometimes defined when (Id) reaches a specific value.
4. CV Method:
• Measure capacitance vs. voltage for a MOS capacitor.
• Flatband voltage in the curve corresponds to (Vth).
5. Shift Method:
• See how the I-V curve shifts with changes in gate oxide thickness.
• The shift gives an idea about Vth.

These methods help understand (Vth) by looking at different (Vgs) and current
levels. Modern technologies may use advanced techniques for accurate (Vth)
extraction.
3.b.
Consider a MOS system with the following parameters :
• Gate oxide thickness (tox) = 200 A°
• Gate to substrate contact potential (ΦGc) = 0.85 V
• Substrate doping (NA) = 2x10^15 cm^(-3)
• Trapped oxide charge (Qm) = q² x10¹¹ C/cm²
Determine the threshold voltage Vto under zero bias at room temperature
(T = 300 K). Given : εox = 3.97εo and εsi = 11.7εo.

Calculate ferrite potential for the p-type and for the n-type poly silicon gate -
4. a.
What do you understand by constant voltage scaling? What is the effect
of constant field scaling on (i) power dissipation and (ü) delay time?

Constant Voltage Scaling:

Constant voltage scaling is a semiconductor scaling technique where the
operating voltage of electronic devices is scaled down while maintaining the
electric field within the devices at a constant level. In other words, the
dimensions of the components are reduced proportionally, but the voltage is
lowered to preserve a consistent electric field strength.

Effect of Constant Field Scaling:

1.Power Dissipation (P):

• Inverse Relationship: Power dissipation decreases with constant voltage
scaling.
• As voltage ((V)) is reduced, the quadratic dependency of power on
voltage (P œ V² ) results in a significant reduction in power consumption.
• Lower voltage reduces the energy consumed per operation, contributing
to lower overall power dissipation.
2.Delay Time (τ):
• Direct Relationship: Delay time increases with constant voltage scaling.
• The delay time ((τ)) is directly proportional to the product of the load
capacitance ((C)) and the voltage ((V)), i.e., (τ œ CV).
• As voltage decreases, the delay time increases, slowing down the
operation of the electronic device.

Constant voltage scaling is a trade-off between power dissipation and delay

time. While it helps in reducing power consumption significantly, there is an
associated increase in delay time due to the reduced voltage. Engineers
must carefully consider these trade-offs to optimize the performance of
electronic circuits based on specific application requirements.
 4. b.
Explain the method of channel length modulation parameter
extraction from the current-voltage characteristics of MOSFET.

Extracting the channel length modulation parameter ((λ)) from the current-
voltage (I-V) characteristics of a Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MOSFET) involves analyzing the behavior of the transistor in the
saturation region. Channel length modulation is a phenomenon where the
effective channel length changes with the applied drain-source voltage,
affecting the drain current.

Here’s a step-by-step explanation of the method:

1.Plot I-V Characteristics:

• Obtain the I-V characteristics of the MOSFET by plotting the drain
current (Id) against the drain-source voltage ((Vds) for various values of
gate-source voltage ((Vgs).
2.Identify Saturation Region:
• Focus on the region where the MOSFET is in saturation, characterized
by a constant slope in the I-V curve.
3. Linear Fit:
• Fit a straight line to the linear part of the I-V curve in the saturation
region. This linear fit represents the region where channel length
modulation is significant.
4.Extract Slope:
• The slope of the linear fit corresponds to (1/λ), where (λ) is the
channel length modulation parameter.
5.Calculate Channel Length Modulation ((λ)):
• Invert the slope obtained from the linear fit to find (λ).

Mathematically, (λ) is related to the change in effective channel length

((ΔL)) with respect to the change in drain-source voltage (ΔVds):
If more Vds applied then channel length will get decrease so that no of
electrons is move in very small length so more current flow this is called
channel length modulation.
5.b.
Consider a CMOS inverter with the following device parameters :

Determine the (W / L) ratios of the nMOS and pMOS transistor such

that the switching threshold (Vth) is 1.5 V. Given Vdd = 3V, λ= 0.
6.a.
Suppose a unit inverter with three units of input capacitance has unit drive.
What is the drive of a 4x inverter? What is the drive of a 2-input NAND
gate with 3 units of input capacitance?

The drive of an inverter or a gate is often related to its ability to drive a

certain amount of load capacitance. If the unit inverter has unit drive and
three units of input capacitance, it means it can drive an equivalent load of
three units.

Now, for a 4x inverter, which is four times larger, it would typically have
four times the drive capability. Therefore, the drive of the 4x inverter
would be (4 x 3 = 12) units.

Similarly, for a 2-input NAND gate with 3 units of input capacitance, the
drive would be the same as the unit inverter, which is 3 units. In CMOS
(Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) logic, the drive strength is
often standardized, and gates with more inputs might have larger physical
sizes to accommodate the increased load capacitance.

Certainly. Let’s simplify it further:

1.Unit Inverter:
• Drive: 1 unit
• Input capacitance: 3 units
2.4x Inverter:
• Drive: 4 times the unit inverter’s drive
• Therefore, Drive of 4x Inverter = (4 x 1 = 4) units
3. 2-input NAND Gate:
• Drive: Same as the unit inverter
• Therefore, Drive of 2-input NAND Gate = 1 unit

So, the drive of a 4x inverter is 4 units, and the drive of a 2-input

NAND gate with 3 units of input capacitance is 1 unit.
6.b.
What is a transmission gate (TG)?
Design a circuit for 2-input TG based XOR gate.

Transmission gate is a parallel combination of p-mos and n-mos transistor

with gate connected to a complementary input.

The disadvantage of weak ‘0’ and weak ‘1’ can be overcome by

transmission gate instead of path transistor.

Working of TR Gate
When x = 0, N and P device OFF
Vin = ‘0’ or ‘1’, Vo = Z
Where, z is a high impedance

When x = 1, N and P device ON

Vin = ‘0’ or ‘1’, Vo = ‘0’ or ‘1’
7.a.
Explain the problem of charge sharing in dynamic CMOS designs and its
probable solution.

Charge Sharing in Dynamic CMOS:

Charge sharing is a phenomenon in dynamic CMOS circuits where the
charge stored on a node is unintentionally shared with another node
during the evaluation phase. This can lead to errors in the logic operation
and affect the reliability of the circuit.
During the evaluation phase, the output node is pre-charged to either
VDD or GND, and based on the inputs, it is discharged or remains at the
pre-charge level. However, parasitic capacitances between the output node
and other nodes can cause the sharing of charge, impacting the stored
voltage and potentially leading to incorrect logic outputs.
Probable Solution:
One common solution to mitigate charge sharing in dynamic CMOS designs
involves using a pulldown network that provides a low-impedance
discharge path. This network is activated during the evaluation phase to
quickly discharge the output node, reducing the impact of parasitic
capacitances.
Specific techniques include:
1.Bootstrapping:
• Introduce additional transistors that temporarily boost the voltage on
the output node, minimizing the effect of charge sharing.
2.Precharge Isolation:
• Use precharge isolation techniques to disconnect the output node
from the precharge circuitry during the evaluation phase, preventing
charge sharing.
3. Differential Precharge:
• Implement a differential precharge scheme, where complementary
signals are used for precharging and evaluation, minimizing the impact of
charge sharing.
4.Additional Transistors:
• Integrate additional transistors to create a robust pulldown network
that can quickly discharge the output node.
Charge Sharing in Dynamic CMOS:
In dynamic CMOS circuits, charge sharing happens when the electric
charge on one part unintentionally mixes with another during certain
operations. This mix-up can cause mistakes in the circuit’s results.

Solution:
To fix this, engineers use tricks like adding extra pathways to quickly
clear the charge during specific operations. Think of it like having a
quick drain for any extra water that accidentally gets into the wrong
bucket. These tricks help keep the circuit’s actions precise and prevent
mix-ups due to charge sharing.

7.b.
Compare the BiCMOS logic with CMOS in terms of delay and
power consumption. Why was BiCMOS logic used in Intel Pentium
and Pentium Pro but discarded in Pentium II?

BiCMOS vs. CMOS:

1. Delay:
• BiCMOS: Generally has shorter delays compared to pure CMOS due
to the faster bipolar transistors.
• CMOS: Tends to have slightly longer delays compared to BiCMOS
but is more power-efficient.

2. Power Consumption:
• BiCMOS: Typically consumes more power than CMOS due to the
inclusion of bipolar transistors, especially at lower frequencies.
• CMOS: Known for its low static power consumption, making it more
energy-efficient.
Usage in Intel Processors:

• Intel Pentium and Pentium Pro:

• Reason for BiCMOS: Intel Pentium and Pentium Pro used BiCMOS
technology to combine the advantages of both bipolar and CMOS
transistors. BiCMOS provided a balance between speed (from bipolar) and
power efficiency (from CMOS).
• Pentium II:
• Shift to Pure CMOS: The Pentium II moved to a pure CMOS process.
This shift was driven by advancements in CMOS technology, allowing it to
achieve higher speeds and better power efficiency without the need for
bipolar transistors.
• Reason for Discarding BiCMOS: As CMOS technology improved, it
became more capable of delivering high performance while maintaining low
power consumption. The complexity and power drawbacks of BiCMOS were
outweighed by the advancements in pure CMOS technology, leading to its
adoption in later processor generations like the Pentium II.

In summary, while BiCMOS offered advantages in certain scenarios, the

continuous improvement of CMOS technology made it more appealing for
Intel processors like the Pentium II, where the emphasis shifted towards
optimizing power efficiency and performance without the need for bipolar
transistors.
the untold story
Once upon a time, there were two processor families – the fast but power-hungry
heroes (BiCMOS) and the patient and energy-efficient wizards (CMOS). The heroes,
like Intel Pentium and Pentium Pro, were chosen for their speed. But as time passed,
the wizards, the CMOS family, learned new tricks and became faster too.

When it was time for a new hero, the Pentium II, the wizards had become so clever
that they didn't need the extra speed from the heroes. The kingdom decided to go
with the energy-efficient wizards for Pentium II, leaving the heroes behind. The
wizards, with their wise tricks, proved that you don't always need superhero speed –
efficiency can save the day. And that's how the kingdom's processors evolved,
choosing the wise wizards of CMOS over the fast but power-hungry heroes of
BiCMOS for the Pentium II adventure.
 8.a
Explain the dual rail domino logic.
Design XOR/XNOR gate using dual rail domino logic.

Dual-Rail Domino is also known as "Differential Cascade Voltage

Switch" (DCVS). Domino only performs non inverting functions like AND,
OR but not NAND, NOR, or XOR. Dual-rail domino solves this problem by
taking true and complementary inputs and producing true and
complementary outputs.

There are also some other limitations associated with domino CMOS logic
gates. First, only non-inverting structures can be implemented using
domino CMOS, If necessary, inversion must be carried out using
conventional CMOS logie, Also, charge sharing between the dynamic stage
output node and the intermediate nodes of the nMOS logic block during
the evaluation phase may cause erroneous outputs.
 8.b. Implement the full adder using transmission gates.

Design the 1-bit full adder using T.G.

 9.a. Explain the working of 4T SRAM cell with neat diagram.

• The most common SRAM cell consists of 4 nMOS transistors and two
poly-load resistors.
• The design is called 4T cell SRAM.
• Two nMOS transistors are path transistors.
• Three transistors have their gates tied to word line & connect the cell
to the columns.

• Write Operation
1.Drive one bit line high, other low.
2.Then turn ON word line (WL)
3. Bit line over power cell with new value.

• Write Stability
1.Must overpower feedback inverter.
2.N2 >> P1 and N4 >> P2

Force A low, then A rises to high.

• Read Operation
1. Pre charge both bit line (BL & BL)
high.
2. Then turn ON WL.
3. One bit line will be pulled down by
the cell.

• Read Stability
1. ‘A’ must not flip.
2. N1 >> N2, N3 >> N4
 9. b. Explain the working of a 3T DRAM with neat diagram.

3T DRAM utilise gate of the transistors and a capacitance to store the

data value.
Working:-
When a charge is sent through a column the transistor at the column is
activated.