CHAPTER

~ 16.1 INTRODUCTION

Flow in open channels is defined as the flow of a liquid with a free surface. A free surface is a
surf ace having constant pressure such as atmospheric pressure. Thus a liquid flowing at atmospheric
pressure through a passage is known as flow in open channels. In most of cases, the liquid is taken
as water. Hence flow of water through a passage under atmospheric pressure is called flow in open
channels. The flow of water through pipes at atmospheric pressure or when the level of water in the
pipe is below the top of the pipe, is also classified as open channel flow.
In case of open channel flow, as the pressure is atmospheric, the flow takes place under the force
of gravity which means the flow takes place due to the slope of the bed of the channel only. The
hydraulic gradient line coincides with the free surface of water.

~ 16.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW IN CHANNELS

The flow in open channel is classified into the following types :

1. Steady flow and unsteady flow, 2. Uniform flow and non-uniform flow,
3. Laminar flow and turbulent flow, and 4. Sub-critical, critical and super critical flow.

16.2.1 Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow. If the flow characteristics such as depth of flow,
velocity of flow, rate of flow at any point in open channel flow do not change with respect to time, the
flow is said to be steady flow. Mathematically, steady flow is expressed as
av
at = 0,
aQ
at =0 or
ay
at =
0 ... (16. 1)
where V = velocity, Q = rate of flow and y = depth of flow.
If at any point in open channel flow, the velocity of flow, depth of flow or rate of flow changes
with respect to time, the flow is said to be unsteady flow. Mathematically, unsteady flow means

av *- O or ay -: /- 0 or aQ O
at at at-::/- .
16.2.2 Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow. If for a given length of the channel, the
velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of the channel and cross-section remain constant, the flow is

737

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I 738 Fluid Mechanics

said to be uniform. On the other hand, if for a given length of the channel, the velocity of flow, depth
of flow etc., do not remain constant, the flow is said to be non-uniform flow. Mathematically, uniform
and non-uniform flow are written as :

ay = 0, av = 0 for uniform flow

as as
ay av
and as -::t- 0, as -::t- 0 for non-uniform flow.
Non-uniform flow in open channels is also called varied flow, which is classified in the following
two types as :
(i) Rapidly Varied Flow (R.V.F.), and
(ii) Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.).
(i) Rapidly Varied Flow (R.V.F.). Rapidly varied flow is defined as that flow in which depth of
flow changes abruptly over a small length of the channel. As shown in Fig. 16.1 when there is any
obstruction in the path of flow of water, the level of water rises above the obstruction and then falls
and again rises over a small length of channel. Thus the depth of flow changes rapidly over a short
length of the channel. For this short length of the channel the flow is called rapidly varied flow
(R.V.F.).
GRADUALLY VARIED
F.LOW

Fig. 16.1 Uniform and non-uniform fiow.

(ii) Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.). If the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a
long length of the channel, the flow is said to be gradually varied flow and is denoted by G.V.F.
16.2.3 Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow. The flow in open channel is said to be laminar if
the Reynold number (Re) is less than 500 or 600. Reynold number in case of open channels is defined as :

Re= pVR ... (16.2)

µ
where V = Mean velocity of flow of water
R = Hydraulic radius or Hydraulic mean depth
Cross-section area of flow normal to the direction of flow
Wetted perimeter
p and µ = Density and viscosity of water.
If the Reynold number is more than 2000, the flow is said to be turbulent in open channel flow. If
Re lies between 500 to 2000, the flow is considered to be in transition state.
16.2.4 Sub-critical, Critical and Super Critical Flow. The flow in open channel is said to
be sub-critical if the Froude number (Fe) is less than 1.0. The Froude number is defined as :

... (16.3)

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Flow in Open Channels 739 I

where V = Mean velocity of flow
D = Hydraulic depth of channel and is equal to the ratio of wetted area to the top width of channel

= ~. where T = Top width of channel.

T
Sub-critical flow is also called tranquil or streaming flow. For sub-critical flow, Fe < 1.0.
The flow is called critical if Fe = 1.0. And if Fe > 1.0, the flow is called super critical or shooting
or rapid or torrential.
llJll> 16.3 DISCHARGE THROUGH OPEN CHANNEL BY CHEZY'S FORMULA
Consider uniform flow of water in a channel as shown in Fig. 16.2. As the flow is uniform, it
means the velocity, depth of flow and area of flow will be constant for a given length of the channel.
Consider sections 1-1 and 2-2.

- - i- - -1o~;U_M_ L~N-E- - - - - - - - - i- - - : @

Fig. 16.2 Uniform flow in open channel.

Let L = Length of channel,

A= Area of flow of water,
i = Slope of the bed,
V = Mean velocity of flow of water,
P = Wetted perimeter of the cross-section,
f = Frictional resistance per unit velocity per unit area.
The weight of water between sections 1-1 and 2-2.
W = Specific weight of water x volume of water
=wxAxL
Component of W along direction of flow = W x sin i = wAL sin i ... (i)
Frictional resistance against motion of water= f x surface area x (velocity t
The value of n is found experimentally equal to 2 and surface area = P x L
Frictional resistance against motion = f x P x L x V2 ... ( ii)
The forces acting on the water between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
1. Component of weight of water along the direction of flow,
2. Friction resistance against flow of water,
3. Pressure force at section 1-1,
4. Pressure force at section 2-2.
As the depths of water at the sections 1-1 and 2-2 are the same, the pressure forces on these two
sections are same and acting in the opposite direction. Hence they cancel each other. In case of
uniform flow, the velocity of flow is constant for the given length of the channel. Hence there is no
acceleration acting on the water. Hence the resultant force acting in the direction of flow must be
zero.

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I 740 Fluid Mechanics

Resolving all forces in the direction of flow, we get
wAL sin i - f x P x L x V2 = 0
or wAL sin i = f x P x L x V2
wAL sin i w A . .
V2 = = -x- x smz
fxPxL f P

or V= ftEx~Pxsmz
~ ... (iii)

A
But -=m
p
= hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius,

l= C = Chezy's constant

Substituting the values of A and

p vE
f
in equation (iii), V = c.Jm sin i

For small values of i, sin i .::: tan i ~ i V = C ,,r,;J ...(16.4)

Discharge, Q = Area x Velocity= Ax V
=Axc,,r,;J ...(16.5)
Problem 16.1 Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a rectangular channel
of 6 m wide and 3 m deep, when it is running full. The channel is having bed slope as I in 2000. Take
Chery 's constant C = 55.
Solution. Given :
Width of rectangular channel, b = 6 m
Depth of channel, d=3 m
Area, A = 6 x 3 = 18 m2

Bed slope, i = 1 in 2000 = -1-

2000
Chezy's constant, C= 55
Perimeter, P = b + 2d = 6 + 2 x 3 = 12 m
A 18
Hydraulic mean depth, m = -=- = 1.5 m
P 12
Velocity of flow is given by equation (16.4) as,

V= c,,{i;J = 55 /1.5 x -1- = 1.506 mis. Ans.

~
2000
Rate of flow, Q = V x Area= V x A= 1.506 x 18 = 27.108 m3/s. Ans.
Problem 16.2 Find the slope of the bed of a rectangular channel of width 5 m when depth of
water is 2 m and rate of flow is given as 20 m3/s. Take Chery's constant, C = 50.
Solution. Given :
Width of channel, b= 5 m
Depth of water, d= 2m
Rate of flow, Q = 20 m3/s

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Flow in Open Channels 7 41 I

Chezys constant C = 50
Let the bed slope =i
Using equation (16.5), we have Q = ACJmi
2
where A = Area = b x d = 5 x 2 = 10 m
A 10 10 10 10
m=-=--= =--=-m
P b + 2d 5+2x2 5+4 9

20.0 = 10 x 50 x ~
~
9 ,"-' or ~rw-.
9 = 20.0 = 2
1
500 50

.
S quanng b oth stid es, we h ave -lO 1. = -- 4
9 2500
. 4 9 36 1 1
1 = --X-=--=-- =--.Ans.
2500 10 25000 25000 694.44
36
Bed slope is 1 in 694.44.
Problem 16.3 A flow of water of JOO litres per second flows down in a rectangular flume of width
600 mm and having adjustable bottom slope. If Chery's constant C is 56, find the bottom slope
necessary for uniform flow with a depth of flow of 300 mm. Also find the conveyance K of the flume.
Solution. Given :

Discharge, Q = 100 litres/s = lOO = 0.10 m3/s

1000
Width of channel, b = 600 mm = 0.60 m
Depth of flow, d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
: . Area of flow, A = b x d = 0.6 x 0.3 = 0.18 m2
Chezy' s constant, C= 56
Let the slope of bed =i
Hydraulic mean depth, m =A=~= 0.18 - 0.18 = 0.15 m
P b + 2d 0.6 + 2 x 0.30 1.2
Using equation (16.5), we have Q = ACJmi
or 0.10 = 0.18 x 56 x ..jo.15 xi or .Jo.I5i = O.lO
0.18 x 56

.
Squanng .
both sides, we have 0.15 1. = ( 0.10 J
2 = .000098418
0.18 x 56

i = .000098418 =.0006512 =--- = _1_. Ans.

0.15 1524
.0006512
Slope of the bed is 1 in 1524.
Conveyance K of the channel
Equation (16.5) is given as Q = ACJmi

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I 742 Fluid Mechanics

which can be written as Q = K Ji

where K = AC .Jm and K is called conveyance of the channel section.
K = AC.Jm = 0.18 x 56 x .J0.15 = 3.9039 m3/s. Ans.
Problem 16.4 Find the discharge through a trapezoidal channel of width 8 m and side slope of
1 horizontal to 3 vertical. The depth of flow of water is 2.4 m and value of Chery's constant, C = 50.
The slope of the bed of the channel is given 1 in 4000.
Solution. Given :
Width, b=8m
Side slope = 1 hor. to 3 vertical
Depth, d = 2.4 m
Chezy's constant, C= 50
1 .
Bed slope, l=--
4000
From Fig. 16.3 when depth , CE= 2.4, Fig. 16.3
1
the horizontal distance BE= 2.4 x - = 0.8 m
3
Top width of the channel,
CD= AB+ 2 x BE= 8.0 + 2 x 0.8 = 9.6 m
Area of trapezoidal channel, ABCD is given as,
2.4
A=(AB+ CD)x CE =(8+9.6)x = 17.6x l.2=21.12m2
2 2
Wetted perimeter , P =AB+ BC+ AD= AB+ 2BC (°: BC= AD)

But BC= ~ BE2 + CE2 = ~(0.8)2 + (2.4)2 = 2.529 m

P = 8.0 + 2 x 2.529 = 13.058 m
A 12.12
Hydraulic mean depth, m = -=-- = 1.617 m
P 13.058
The discharge, Q is given by equation (16.5) as
~ 1 3
Q = AC-v mi = 21.12 x 50 1.617 x -- = 21.23 m Is. Ans.
4000
Problem 16.5 Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width 6 m, depth of water 3 m and
side slope of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical, when the discharge through the channel is 30 m3Is. Take
Chery 's constant, C = 70.
Solution. Given : c
D - --_---_-_-.r:_- _- - - -- _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _-_
Bed width, b = 6.0 m -------- ---------------
Depth of flow, d = 3.0 m
Side slope = 3 horizontal to 4 vertical
Discharge, Q = 30 m ' Is
A B E
Chezy' s constant, C = 70
1---6 m-------.• ....j .. 2.25....j
From Fig. 16.4, for depth of flow
= 3 m = CE Fig. 16.4

Distance, BE= 3 x I=
4 4
2_ = 2.25 m

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Flow in Open Channels 7 43 I

Top width, CD = AB + 2 x BE = 6.0 + 2 x 2.25 = 10.50 m

Wetted perimeter, P = AD + AB + BC = AP + 2BC ( ·: BC = AD)
=AB+ 2~ BE2 + CE2 = 6.0 + 2~(2.25)2 + (3)2 = 13.5 m
Area of flow, A = Area of trapezoidal ABCD
(AB+ CD) x CE (6 + 10.50)
= = x 3.0 = 24.75 m2
2 2

Hydraulic mean depth, m = ~ = 24·75 = 1.833

P 13.50
Using equation (16.5), Q = AC,/mi
or 30.0 = 24.75 x 70 x .Jt.833 xi = 2345.6,./i

.
1
=
(
2345.6 J = (23:i·6r =
30 2 1 1
6133. Ans.

Problem 16.6 Find the discharge of water through the channel shown in Fig. 16.5. Take the
value of Chery's constant= 60 and slope of the bed as 1 in 2000.
Solution. Given :
Chezy' s constant, C= 60
. 1
Bed slope, z=--
2000
From Fig.16.5, Area, A = Area ABCD + Area BEC
rrR2
= ( 1.2 x 3.0) + -
2

(1.5)2 2 E
= 3.6 + -- 2 = 7.134 m
Fig. 16.5
Wetted perimeter, P = AB + BEC + CD
=
1.2 + rcR + 1.2 = 1.2 + re x 1.5 + 1.2 = 7.1124 m
7.134
Hydraulic mean depth, m = A= = 1.003
P 7.1124
The discharge, Q is given by equation (16.5) as
Q = AC,/mi
= 7.134 x 60 x
/1.003 x-1- = 9.585 m3/s. Ans.
~ 2000
Problem 16.7 Find the rate of flow of water through a V-shaped channel as shown in Fig. 16.6.
Take the value of C = 55 and slope of the bed 1 in 2000.
Solution. Given :
Chezy's constant, C= 55
. 1
Bed slope, z=--
1000

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I 744 Fluid Mechanics

Depth of flow, d= 4.0 m
Angle made by each side with vertical,
i.e., LABD = L CBD = 30°
From Fig. 16.6, we have 4.0 m

Area, A= Area of ABC J_

2xADxBD B
= 2 x Area ABD = = AD x BD
Fig. 16.6
2

= BD tan 30° x BD tan 30° = -AD , AD = BD tan 30° )

BD
= 4 tan 30° x 4 = 9.2376 m2
Wetted perimeter, P = AB + BC = 2AB (·: AB= BC)

= 2~ BD2 + AD2 = 2~4.02 + ( 4 tan 30°)2

= 2~16.0 + 5.333 = 9.2375 m.

. A 9.2376
Hydrauhc mean depth, m = - = --- = 1.0 m
P 9.2375
Using equation (16.5) for discharge,

Q = AC./m[ = 9.2376 x 55 x ~Ix I

1000
= 16.066 m3/s. Ans.

~ 16.4 EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR THE VALUE OF CHEZY'S CONSTANT

Equation (16.4) is known Chezy's formula after the name of a French Engineer, Antoine Chezy
who developed this formula in 1975. In this equation C is known as Chezy's constant, which is not a
dimensionless co-efficient. The dimension of C is
V LIT LIT L JI
= -Jmi= ff;=~~; =m=r
= L 112T-1 { i is dimensionless}
Hence the value of C depends upon the system of units. The following are the empirical formulae,
after the name of their inventors, used to determine the value of C:
C_ 157.6
1. Bazin formula ( In MKS units) : - ... (16.6)
1.s1 + rmK
where K =
Bazin's constant and depends upon the roughness of the surface of channel, whose
values are given in Table 16.1.
m = Hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius.

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Flow in Open Channels 745 I

2. Ganguillet-Kutter Formula. The value of C is given in MKS unit as
0.00155 1
23 + +-
C= i N ... (16.7)
l + (23 + 0.0~155) !!_
l rm
where N = Roughness co-efficient which is known as Kutter's constant, whose value for different
surfaces are given in Table 16.2
i = Slope of the bed
m = Hydraulic mean depth.

Table 16.l Values of Kin the Bazin 's Formula

S. No. Nature of Channel inside surface Value of K

1. Smooth cemented or planned wood 0.11
2. Brick or concrete or unplanned wood 0.21
3. Rubble masonary or Ashlar or poor brick work 0.83
4. Earthen channel of very good surface 1.54
5. Earthen channel of ordinary surface 2.36
6. Earthen channel of rough surface 3.17

Table 16.2 Value of Nin the Ganguillet-Kutter Formula

S. No. Nature of Channel inside surface Value of N

1. Very smooth surface of glass, plastic or brass 0.010
2. Smooth surface of concrete 0.012
3. Rubble masonary or poor brick work 0.017
4. Earthen channels neatly excavated O.Q18
5. Earthen channels of ordinary surface 0.027
6. Earthen channels of rough surface 0.030
7. Natural streams, clean and straight 0.030
8. Natural streams with weeds, duppools etc. 0.075 to .15

3. Manning's Formula. The value of C according to this formula is given as

C= __!___ m116 ... (16.8)

N
where m = Hydraulic mean depth
N = Manning's constant which
is having same value as Kutter's constant for the normal
range of slope and hydraulic mean depth. The values of N are given in Table 16.2.
Problem 16.8 Find the discharge through a rectangular channel 2.5 m wide, having depth of
water 1.5 m and bed slope as 1 in 2000. Take the value of k = 2.36 in Basin's formula.
Solution. Given :
Width of channel, b = 2.5 m
Depth of flow, d = 1.5 m
Area, A = b x d = 2.5 x 1.5 = 3.75 m2
Wetted Perimeter, P = d + b + d = 1.5 + 2.5 + 1.5 = 5.5 m

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I 746 Fluid Mechanics

3·75
Hydraulic mean depth, m= A = = 0.682
P 5.50
. 1
Bed slope, l=--
2000
Bazins constant, K = 2.36
Using Bazin's formula given by equation (16.6), as
157.6 157.6
C= K - 2.36 = 33.76
1.81+ r 1.81+ ~
-a m 0.682
Discharge, Q is given by equation ( 16.5), as
Q =AC.f;J

= 3.75 x 33.76 x /0.682 x-1- = 2.337 m3/s. Ans.

~ 2000
Problem 16.9 Find the discharge through a rectangular channel 14 m wide, having depth of
water 3 m and bed slope 1 in 1500. Take the value of N = 0.03 in the Kutter' s formula.
Solution. Given :
Width of channel, b= 4m
Depth of water, d= 3 m

Bed slope, i = -1- = 0.000667

1500
Kutter' s constant, N= 0.03
Area of flow, A = b x d = 4 x 3 = 12 m2
Wetted perimeter, P = d+ b+ d= 3 + 4+ 3 = 10 m
A .12
Hydraulic mean depth, m = - = - = 1.2 m
p 10
Using Kutter's formula given by equation (16.7), as

23 + .00155 + __!___ 23 + .00155 + _

C= i N _ .000667 .03
l + (23 + .00~55) x
1
».
Jm
l + (23 + .00155 ) x ~
.000667 -.J1.20

= 23 + 2.3238 + 33.33 = 58.633 = 32.0 l

1 + (23 + 2.3238) x .03286 1.832
Discharge, Q is given by equation ( 16.5), as
Q = AC.f;J = 12 x 32.01 x J12 x .000667 = 10.867 m3/s. Ans.
Problem 16.10 Find the discharge through a rectangular channel of width 2 m, having a bed
slope of 4 in 8000. The depth of flow is 1.5 m and take the value of Nin Manning's formula as 0.012.
Solution. Given :
Width of the channel, b=2m
Depth of the flow, d = 1.5 m
: . Area of flow, A = b x d = 2 x 1.5 = 3.0 m2

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Flow in Open Channels 747 I

Wetted perimeter, P = b + d + d = 2 +1.5 + 1.5 = 5.0 m
A 3.0
Hydraulic mean depth, m= - =- = 0.6
P 5.0

Bed slope, i = 4 in 8000 = -4- = -1-

8000 2000
Value of N = 0.012
Using Manning's formula, given by equation (16.8), as

C = __!__ ml/6 = -1- x 0.61/6 = 76.54

N 0.012
Discharge, Q is given by equation ( 16.5), as
Q =AC.fi;J

= 3.0 x 76.54 f o.6 x _l _ m2/s = 3.977 m3/s. Ans.

~ 2000
Problem 16.11 Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width 4 m, depth of water 3 m
and side slope of 2 horizontal to 3 vertical, when the discharge through the channel is 20 m3 Is.

Take Manning's N = 0.03 in Manning's formula C = _!_ m116•

N

Soluti.on. Given : ~~S:-:-?:-:-~:-:-?:-:-@Jr

~::l:~;IOW,
Side slope
:: : C::
= 2 hor. to 3 vert.
--==}tn~mt~E
;;;;;;; ;;;;;;;;

Discharge, Q = 20.0 m3/s Fig. 16.7

Manning's, N= 0.03
From Fig. 16.7, we have
2 2
Distance, BE= d x - =3 x - = 2 m
3 3
Top width, CD= AB+ 2BE
= 4 + 2 x 2 = 8.0 m
Area of flow, A = Area of trapezoidal section ABCD

= (AB+ CD) x d = ( 4 + 8) x 3 = 18 m 2
2 2
Wetted perimeter, P = AD + AB + BC = AB + 2BC (·: AD= BC)

=4.0+2~BE2 +EC2 =4.0+2~22 +32 =4.0+2x Jo= 11.21 m

A 18
Hydraulic mean depth, m = - = -- = 1.6057
P 11.21
116
Using Manning's formula, C = __!__ m = -1- x (1.6057)116 = 36.07
N 0.03

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I 748 Fluid Mechanics

Using equation (16.5) for discharge,
Q = AC,./mi = 18 x 36.07 x ..jl.6057 xi or 20.0 = 822.71 Ji
.
l = ( --20.0
)2 = 0.0005909 = --1 . Ans.
822.71 1692
Problem 16.12 Find the diameter of a circular sewer pipe which is laid at a slope of 1 in 8000 and
carries a discharge of 800 litres/s when flowing half full. Take the value of Manning's N = 0.020.
Solution. Given :
. 1
Slope of pipe, z=--
8000
Discharge, Q = 800 litres/s = 0.8 m3/s
Manning's, N= 0.020
Let the dia. of sewer pipe, =D

Depth of flow, d= D
2
Fig. 16.8
. ·. Area of flow, A = !!:_D2 x _!_ = nD2
4 2 8

Wetted perimeter, P= nD
2

nD2
Hydraulic mean depth, m= ~ = 8 = D
P nD/2 4

Using Manning's formula given by equation (16.8), C = _!__ m116

N
The discharge, Q through pipe is given by equation (16.6), as
Q =ACJmi

nD2 1 116 rr:

= --x-m -c mi
8 N
or 0.80 = !!:...v2 x _l_ x m116 x m112 x Ji
8 .020

= !!:_D2 x -1-m(116+ 112l x ~ I = 1!:_D2 x -1- x m213 x 0.01118

8 .020 8000 8 .020
D)213
= 0.2195 x D2 x (
4 (-: m=~)
= ·2~~5 x D2 x D213 = 0.0871 D813
4

or D813 = 0.80 = 9.1848

.0871
D = (9.1848)318 = (9.1848)0375 = 2.296 m. Ans.

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Flow in Open Channels 7 49 I

llJll> 16.S MOST ECONOMICAL SECTION OF CHANNELS

A section of a channel is said to be most economical when the cost of construction of the channel
is minimum. But the cost of construction of a channel depends upon the excavation and the lining. To
keep the cost down or minimum, the wetted perimeter, for a given discharge, should be minimum.
This condition is utilized for determining the dimensions of a economical sections of different form of
channels.
Most economical section is also called the best section or most efficient section as the discharge,
passing through a most economical section of channel for a given cross-sectional area (A), slope of the
bed (i) and a resistance co-efficient, is maximum. But the discharge, Q is given by equation (16.5) as

~ ~
Q = AC-vmi = AC~p
For a given A, i and resistance co-efficient C, the above equation is written as
1
Q = K Jp, where K = ACJAi = constant

Hence the discharge, Q will be maximum, when the wetted perimeter Pis minimum. This condition
will be used for determining the best section of a channel i.e., best dimensions of a channel for a
given area.
The conditions to be most economical for the following shapes of the channels will be considered :
1. Rectangular Channel, 2. Trapezoidal Channel, and 3. Circular Channel.
16.S. I Most Economical Rectangular Channel. The condition for most economical sec-
tion, is that for a given area, the perimeter should be minimum. Consider a rectangular channel as
shown in Fig. 16.9
b = width of channel,
Let
d = depth of the flow, ================= T
r. -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- d
Area of flow,
Wetted perimeter,
A=bxd
P = d + b + d = b + 2d
... ( i)
... ( ii)
-----------------1
From equation (i), b= A b -----·I
d
Substituting the value of b in (ii), Fig. 16.9 Rectangular channel.

P = b + 2d = ~ + 2d ... (iii)
d
For most economical section, P should be minimum for a given area.

or dP =O
d(d)
Differentiating the equation (iii) with respect to d and equating the same to zero, we get

dtd) [; + 2d J =0 or - ; + 2 =0 or A = 2d2
But A = b x d, :. b x d = 2d2 orb= 2d ... (16.9)
bxd
A
Now hydraulic mean depth, m = - = -- ( ·: A = bd, P = b + 2d)
P b+2d

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I 750 Fluid Mechanics

2d xd
= 2d+2d
(',: b = 2d)

2d2 d
= --4d = -2 ... (16.10)

From equations (16.9) and (16.10), it is clear that rectangular channel will be most economical when:
(i) Either b = 2d means width is two times depth of flow.

(ii) Or m = !!:__ means hydraulic depth is half the depth of flow.

2
Problem 16.13 A rectangular channel of width, 4 m is having a bed slope of 1 in 1500. Find the
maximum discharge through the channel. Take value of C = 50.
Solution. Given :
Width of channel, b=4m
1.
Bed slope, l=--
1500
Chezy's constant, C = 50
Discharge will be maximum, when the channel is most economical. The conditions for most
economical rectangular channel are :

( i) b = 2d or d = -b = -4 = 2.0 m
2 2
d 2
(ii) m = -=- = 1.0 m
2 2
Area of most economical rectangular channel, A= b x d = 4.0 x 2.0 = 8 m2
Using equation (16.5) for discharge as

Q = AC.fi;J = 8.0 x 50 x
fl.Ox-1- = 10.328 m3/s. Ans.
1500 1J
Problem 16.14 A rectangular channel carries water at the rate of 400 litres/s when bed slope is 1
in 2000. Find the most economical dimensions of the channel if C = 50.
Solution. Given :
Discharge, Q = 400 litres/s = 0.4 m3/s
Bed slope, i = _l _
2000
Chezy' s constant, C = 50
For the rectangular channel to be most economical,
(i) Width, b = 2d
d
(ii) Hydraulic mean depth, m= -
2
Area of flow, A =bxd = 2d x d = 2d2
Using equation (16.5) for discharge,
Q = AC.fi;J

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Flow in Open Channels 751 I

or 0.4 = 2d2 x 50 x ~d x I = 2 x 50 x ~ d512 = 1.581 d512

2 2000 V 2><2000
d512 =~ = 0.253
1.581
d = (.253)215 = 0.577 m. Ans.
b = 2d = 2 x .577 = 1.154 m. Ans.
Problem 16.15 A rectangular channel 4 m wide has depth of water 1.5 m. The slope of the bed of
the channel is 1 in 1000 and value of Chery's constant C = 55. It is desired to increase the discharge
to a maximum by changing the dimensions of the section for constant area of cross-section, slope of
the bed and roughness of the channel. Find the new dimensions of the channel and increase in
discharge.
Solution. Given :
Width of channel, b = 4.0 m
Depth of flow, d = 1.5 m
Area of flow, A = b x d = 4 xl.5 = 6.0 m2
. 1
Slope of bed, l=--
1000
Chezy's constant, C= 55
Wetted perimeter, P = d + b + d = 1.5 + 4 + 1.5 = 7 .0 m
A 4.0
:. Hydraulic mean depth, m = -=- = 0.857
P 7.0

The discharge, Q is given by Q = AC.fi;J = 6.0 x 55 /0.857 x -1- = 9.66 m3/s ... (i)
V 1000
For maximum discharge for a given area, slope of bed and roughness we proceed as :
Let b' = new width of channel
d' = new depth of flow
Then, Area, A = b' x d', where A = constant= 6.0 m2
b' x d' = 6.0 ... (ii)
Also for maximum discharge b' = Zd' ... (iii)
Substituting the value of b' in equation (ii), we have
6·0
Zd' x d' = 6.0 or d'2 = = 3.0
2
d' = ,/3 =1.732
Substituting the value of d' in (iii), we get
b' = 2 x 1.732 = 3.464
New dimensions of the channel are
Width, b' = 3.464 m. Ans.
Depth, d' = 1.732 m. Ans.
Wetted perimeter, P' = d' + b' + d' = 1.732 + 3.464 + 1.732 = 6.928

Hydraulic mean depth, m' = ~ = ~ = 0.866 m

P' 6.928

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I 752 Fluid Mechanics

(New hydraulic mean depth, m' corresponds to the condition of maximum discharge. And hence
also equal to
d' _ 1. 732 _ O )
-----. 8 66m
2 2

Max. discharge, Q', is given by Q' = ACM = 6.0 x 55 x /0.866 x -1- = 9.71 m3/s ... (iv)
V 1000
Increase in discharge = Q' - Q = 9.71 - 9.66 = 0.05 m3/s. Ans.
16.S.2 Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel. The trapezoidal section of a channel will
be most economical, when its wetted perimeter is minimum. Consider a trapezoidal section of channel
as shown in Fig. 16.10.
Let b = width of channel at bottom,
d = depth of flow,
0 = angle made by the sides with horizontal,

Fig. 16.10 Trapezoidal section.

(i) The side slope is given as 1 vertical to n horizontal.

(BC+ AD) b + (b + 2nd)
Area of flow, A= xd= xd ( ·: AD = b + 2nd)
2 2
2b 2nd
= + x d = ( b + nd) x d ... (i)
2
A
- = b + nd
d
A
b = --nd ... (ii)
d
Now wetted perimeter, P = AB + BC+ CD = BC + 2CD (·: AB= CD)
= b + 2~CE2 + DE2 = b + 2~n2d2 + d2 = b + 2d~ ... (iia)
Substituting the value of b from equation (ii), we get
P= A-nd+2d~ ... (iii)
d

For most economical section, P should be minimum or dP = O

d(d)
Differentiating equation (iii) with respect to d and equating it equal to zero, we get

_:!_[A-nd+2d~J
d(d) d
=0
or -
A
-2-
rr:: = 0
n + 2-v n + 1 ( ·: n is constant)
d

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Flow in Open Channels 753 I

or
A
-2 +n = 2,;rs=:
n +1
d
Substituting the value of A from equation (i) in the above equation,

(b+nd)d
--2 --+ n = 2,;n~ +1 or
b+nd
--- + n = 2,; n + 1
rr::
d d

or b+nd+nd = b+2nd =2~ or b+2nd

d~ ... (16.11)
d d 2
. b + 2nd
But from Fig. 16.10, = Half of top width
2
and d~ = CD = one of the sloping side
Equation (16.11) is the required condition for a trapezoidal section to be most economical, which
can be expressed as half of the top width must be equal to one of the sloping sides of the channel.
( ii) Hydraulic mean depth
A
Hydraulic mean depth, m=-
p
Value of A from (i), A= (b + nd) xd
Value of P from (iia), P = b + 2d~ = b + (b + 2nd) (": From equation (16.11)

b + 2nd= 2d~)
= 2b +2nd= 2(b+ nd)
A (b+nd)d d
Hydraulic mean depth, m=-= - ... (16.12)
P 2(b + nd) 2
Hence for a trapezoidal section to be most economical hydraulic mean depth must be equal to half
the depth of flow,
(iii) The three sides of the trapezoidal section of most economical section are tangential to the
semi-circle described on the water line. This is proved as :
Let Fig. 16.11 shows the trapezoidal channel of most economical section.
Let 0 = angle made by the sloping side with horizontal, and
0 =
the centre of the top width, AD.
Draw OF perpendicular to the sloping side AB.
liOAF is a right-angled triangle and angle OAF = 0
. e =- OF
sm OF= AO sin 0 ... (iv)
OA

In MEB, sin 0 = AE = d
AB ~d2 + n2d2

d I
=---- di
.i:: I

Substituting sin 0 = ~ in equation (iv), we get

Fig. 16.11

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I 754 Fluid Mechanics

OF=AOx r=; ... (v)

-vl+n2
But AO = half of top width
b+2nd ~ .
= = d-vn + 1 from equation (16.11)
2
Substituting this value of AO in equation (v),

d~
OF= ~ = d depth of flow ... (16.13)
-vn2+1
Thus, if a semi-circle is drawn with O as centre and radius equal to the depth of flow d, the three
sides of most economical trapezoidal section will be tangential to the semi-circle.
Hence the conditions for the most economical trapezoidal section are:
b+2nd ~l
1. =dvn +1
2
d
2. m=-
2
3. A semi-circle drawn from O with radius equal to depth of flow will touch the three sides of the
channel.
Problem 16.16 A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical and the slope of
the bed is 1 in 1500. The area of the section is 40 m2• Find the dimensions of the section if it is most
economical. Determine the discharge of the most economical section if C = 50.
Solution. Given :
Horizontal 1
Side slope, n=
Vertical 2
~~=========I========r1~~
- ==========:
- -----
==========--
- - - - -----
----
1 . ----
----
---
d ----
----
----
Bed slope, l=--
1500
Area of section, A = 40 m2
Chezy' s constant, C = 50 Fig. 16.12
For the most economical section, using equation (16.11)

b +;nd = d~ or b +2~tx d = dJGf +I

or b + d = d~.!_+1 = 1.118 d
42
or b = 2 x l.118d-- d = 1.236 d ... (i)
b + (b + 2nd)
But area of trapezoidal section, A = x d = (b + nd) d
2
= ( 1.236 d + f d) d ( ·: b = 1.236 d and n = ±)
= 1.736 d2
But A= 40 m2 (given)
40 = 1.736 d2

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Flow in Open Channels 755 I

40
d =~ = 4.80 m. Ans.
1.736
Substituting the value of d in equation (i), we get
b = 1.236 x 4.80 = 5.933 m. Ans.
Discharge for most economical section. Hydraulic mean depth for most economical section is
4·80
m = !:___ = = 2.40 m
2 2

Discharge Q = Ac,f;J = 40 x 50 x !2.40 x-1-

V 1500
= 80 m3/s. Ans.
Problem 16.17 A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical and slope of its
bed is 1 in 2000. Determine the optimum dimensions of the channel, if it is to carry water at 0.5 m3Is.
Take Chery's constant as 80.
Solution. Given :
Horizontal 3
Side slopes

Slope of bed,
n=

.
l=--
Vertical
1
4
~~=-=-=-=-1~=--~=-7-~ Ir
- .: .: .: .: .r : d ·_- .: .: .: .:
- - - - - -----
----
--- ----
---
2000
Discharge, Q = 0.5 m3/s
Chezy's constant, C = 80 Fig. 16.13
For the most economical section, the condition is given by equation (16.11) as
2nd
b+ = d~, where b = width of section, d = depth of flow
2

2 4 = dvm + 1 = id
b+2xid ~
or b + l.5d = 1. 25 d
or
2
or b = 2 x 1.25 d - 1.5 d = d ... (i)
For the discharge, Q, using equation (16.5) as
Q = AC,f;J ... ( ii)

But for most economical section, hydraulic mean depth m = !:___

2
Substituting the value of m and other known values in equation (ii)

... ( iii)

But area of trapezoidal section is given as

A= (b + nd) x d = (d + f d) x d (·: From (i) b = d and n = t)
= !_d2 = 1.75 d2
4
Substituting the value of A in equation (iii), we get

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I 756 Fluid Mechanics

0.50 = 1.75 d2 x 80 x ~~ x I = 2.2135 d512

2 2000

0.50 )2'5
d = ( --- = 0.55 m. Ans.
2.2135
From equation (i), b = d = 0.55 m. Ans.
Optimum dimensions of the channel are width = depth = 0.55 m.
Problem 16.18 A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of I to I has to be designed to convey
IO m3 Is at a velocity of 2 mis so that the amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides is the
minimum. Calculate the area of lining required for one metre length of canal.
Solution. Given :
Horizontal
Side slope, n= =l
Vertical
Discharge Q = 10 m3/s
Velocity, V = 2.0 mis
;;;;; I/Ill/

Area of flow, A= Discharge= 10.0 = 5 m2 ...(i) j.-- b .. ,.. d

Velocity 2.0
Fig. 16.14
Let b = Width of the channel
d = Depth of flow
For the amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides to be minimum the section should be most
economical. But for the most economical trapezoidal section, the condition is from equation (16.11)
as
Half of the top width = one of the sloping side
i.e., b + 2nd = d~
2
For n = 1, the condition becomes
b+2xld ttr:':
= dv 1 2 + 1 = 1.414 d
2
or b = 2 x l.414d - 2d = 0.828 d ... (ii)
But area, A = (b + nd) d = (0.828d + 1 x d) d (": b = 0.828 d, n = 1)
= 1.828 d2
Also from equation (i), A = 5 m2
Equating the two values of A, we get
5
5 = 1.828 d2 or d = ~ 1.828 = 1.6538 "'1.654 m

From equation (ii), b = 0.828 d = 0.828 x 1.654 = 1.369 m

Area of lining required for one metre length of canal
= Wetted perimeter x length of canal
=Pxl

where P = b + 2d~ = 1.369 + 2 x 1.654~ = 6.047 m

Area of lining = 6.047 x 1 = 6.047 m2• Ans.

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Flow in Open Channels 757 I

Problem 16.19 A trapezoidal channel has side slopes 1 to 1. It is required to discharge 13.75 m3/s of
water with a bed gradient of 1 in 1000. If unlined the value of Chery 's C is 44. If lined with concrete,
its value is 60. The cost per m3 of excavation is four times the cost per m2 of lining. The channel is to
be the most efficient one. Find whether the lined canal or the unlined canal will be cheaper. What will
be the dimensions of that economical canal ?
Solution. Given :
1
Side slope, n=-=1
1
Discharge, Q = 13.75 m3/s
. 1
Slope of bed, l=--
1000
For unlined, C = 44
For lined C = 60
Cost per m ' of excavation = 4 x cost per m2 of lining
Let the cost per m2 of lining =x
Then cost per m3 of excavation= 4x
As the channel is most efficient,
d
Hydraulic mean depth, m = -, where d = depth of channel
2
Let b = width of channel
Also for the most efficient trapezoidal channel, from equation (16.11), we have
Half of top width = length of sloping side

or b+2nd = d~
2

or b +2x1xd = d~ = ./id
2
b=2x Ju -
2d = 0.828 d ... (i)
Area, A = (b + nd) x d = (0.828 d + 1 x d) x d
= 1.828 d2 ... ( ii)
1. For unlined channel
Value of C = 44
The discharge, Q is given by, Q = A x V = A x C .J;J,

or 13.75 = 1.828 d2 x 44 x ~ (-: A= 1.828 d2, m = f)

= 1.828 X 44 X dS/2
,J2rJ.XJ
13·75
d512 = x ,./woo = 7.6452
1.828 x 44
d = (7 .6452)215 = 2.256 m
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get

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I 758 Fluid Mechanics

b = 0.828 x 2.256 = 1.868 m.
Now cost of excavation per running metre length of unlined channel
= Volume of channel x cost per m' of excavation
= (Area of channel x 1) x 4x = [(b + nd) x d x l] x 4x
= (1.868 + 1 x 2.256) x 2.256 x 1 x 4x = 37.215 x ... ( iii)
2. For lined channels
Value of C = 60
The discharge is given by the equation, Q = A x C x ,J;J
d
Substituting the value of A from equation (ii) and value of m = - , we get
2

( ·: Q = 13.75)

1
= 1.828 x 60 x x d512
,J2000

d5/2 = 13.75 x ,./woo = 5.606

1.828 x 60
d =
(5.606)215 = 1.992 m
Substituting this value in equation (z), we get
b = 0.828 x 1.992 = 1.649 m
In case of lined channel, the cost of lining as well as cost of excavation is to be considered.
Now cost of excavation = (Volume of channel) x cost per m3 of excavation
= ( b + nd) x d x 1 x 4x
= (1.649 + 1 x 1.992) x 1.992 x 1 x 4x = 29.01 x
Cost of lining = Area of lining x cost per m 2 of lining
= (Perimeter of lining x 1) xx

= (b + 2dP°) x 1 xx= (1.649 + 2 x l.992p) x 1 xx

= (1.649 + 2 x 1.992 x -Ii) x = 7.283 x
Total cost= 29.0lx + 7.283x = 36.293x
The total cost of lined channel is 36.293x whereas the total cost of unlined channel is 37.215x.
Hence lined channel will be cheaper. The dimensions are b = 1.649 m and d = 1.992 m. Ans.
Problem 16.20 An open channel of most economical section, having the form of a half hexagon
with horizontal bottom is required to give a maximum discharge of 20.2 m3Is of water. The slope of
the channel bottom is 1 in 2500. Taking Chery's constant, C = 60 in Chery's equation, determine the
dimensions of the cross-section.
Solution. Given :
Maximum discharge,

Bed slope,

Chezy's constant,
Q = 20.2 m3/s
.
l=--

C= 60
1
2500
~----
~
------
,r-1---a
--------------
----~
------
-::::: : :----
: : : : : -: : : : : = d=::::::::
;;;;;;

j....-- b----.j
-----
::-=::::::::::::::::::::::::- n 1

--::::-::::-::::-:::: -::::-::::-::::-::::- 60°

;;;;;;

nd
r
1-
Fig. 16.15

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Flow in Open Channels 759 I

Channel is the form of a half hexagon as shown in Fig. 16.15. This means that the angle made by
the sloping side with horizontal will be 60°.

tan e = tan 60° = ,J3 = -1

n
1
n= ,J3
Let b = width of the channel, d = depth of the flow.
As the channel given is of most economical section, hence the condition given by equations (16.11)
and (16.12) should be satisfied i.e.,
Half of the top width = one of the sloping side
And hydraulic mean depth = half of depth of flow
. b+Znd ~
From equation (16.11), = dvn +1
2

For n =
1
,J3,
b+2XT3
2
ld
-
-
rr.l
J2 _ 2d
d~lT3) +1- J3
or
J)b + 2d 2d or ./3b + 2d = 2d
2,.j3 = ,J3 2
2 x 2d-2d 2d
b= ,J3 = ,J3 ... (i)

Area of flow, A=(b+nd)d= (ld+ ~}

= _l_d2 = J3d2
,J3
d
From equation (16.12) m=-
2
Using equation (16.5) for discharge Q as

Q = AC..f;J or 20.2 = ../3 d2 x 60 x W = 1.4694 d512

20·2
d512 = = 13.745
1.4696
d = (13.745)215 = 2.852 m. Ans.
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
2d 2
b = ,J3 = ,J3 x 2.852 = 3.293 m. Ans.

Problem 16.21 A trapezoidal channel to carry 142 m3 /minute of water is designed to have a
minimum cross-section. Find the bottom width and depth if the bed slope is 1 in 1200, the side slopes
at 45° and Chery 's co-efficient = 55.

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I 760 Fluid Mechanics

142
Solution. Given : Discharge, Q = 142 m3/min. = = 2.367 m3/s
60
Bed slope, i = 1 in 1200 = -1-
1200

Fig.16.16

Side slope, e = 45°

1 1
tan e = - or tan 45° = -
n n
1 = ..!._ or n = 1
n
Chezy' s constant, C= 55
Let b = Width of the channel, d = Depth of the flow.
As the channel is to be designed for a minimum cross-section (i.e., channel is of most economical
section), the conditions given by equations (16.11) and (16.12) should be satisfied i.e.,
(i) Half of top with= Length of sloping side
(ii) Hydraulic mean depth= Half of depth of flow
. b+2nd ~
From equation (16.11), = dvn +1
2

or b+2xlxd = dFi (·: n= 1)

2
or b + 2d = 2,fid = 2 x 1.414 d = 2.828 d
b = 2.828 d - 2d = 0.828 d ... (i)
Now using equation (16.5) for discharge Q, we get
Q=A.C.,f;J

or 2.367 = (b + nd) d x 55s (-.- A= (b + nd) x d and m = f)

= (0.828d x l x d) d x 55~ d
2400
( ·: b = 0.828d)

= (l.828d) X d X 55~ d = 2.052 d512

2400

2.367)2'5 = 1.058 ~ 1.06 m. Ans.

d = ( --
2.052
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
b = 0.828 x 1.06 = 0.877 m. Ans.

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Flow in Open Channels 761 I

Problem 16.22 A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 3 horizontal to 2 vertical has to be
designed to convey JO m3Is at a velocity of 1.5 mis, so that the amount of concrete lining for the bed
and sides is minimum. Find
(i) the wetted perimeter, and

(ii) slope of the bed if Manning's N = 0.014 in the formula C = _!_ x m116
N
Solution. (i) Given :
Horizontal 3
Side slope, n=---- = 1.5
Vertical 2
Discharge, Q = 10 m3/s
Velocity, V = 1.5 m/s
Manning's constant, N= .014

Let b = width of the channel, d = depth of the flow.

The amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides will be minimum, when the section is most
economical. For most economical trapezoidal section, the condition is given by equation (16.11) as
b+2nd = d~
2
2 =
For n = 1.5, b+ x l.5 x d = d~l.52 + 1 = -J3.25 d = 1.8 d or b + 3d 1.8 d
2 2
b = 2 x 1.8 - 3d = 0.6 d ... (i)
But area of trapezoidal section, A= (b + nd)d = (0.6d + l.5d)d (°: b = 0.6d, n = 1.5)
= 2.1 d2
Also area, A = Discharge = Q = lO.O = 6.67 m2
Velocity V 1.5
Equating the two values of A, we have 2.1 d2 = 6.67
d = ~6.67 = 1.78 m
2.1
From equation (i), b = 0.6d = 0.6 x 1.78 = 1.068 .:::: 1.07 m

Hence wetted perimeter, P = b + 2d~ = 1.07 + 2 x 1.78~1.52 + 1 = 7.48 m. Ans.

.
(ii) Slope of the bed when N = 0.014 m the formula, C = -1 m
1/6

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I 762 Fluid Mechanics

For the most economical trapezoidal section, hydraulic mean depth m, is given by equation (16.12) as
d 1.78
m = -=-= 0.89 m
2 2

c= _l_ x (.89)116 = 66.09 wrong

0.014

Using equation (16.5), Q =ACJ;;i

or 10.0 = 6.67 x 66.09,'10.89 x i = 415.86.Ji
1
10 )2 Ans.
i = ( 415.86 = 1729.4
Hence slope of the bed is 1 in 1729 .4.
16.S.3 Best Side Slope for Most Economical Trapezoidal Section.
Area of trapezoidal section, A = (b + nd)d . .. (i)
where b = width of trapezoidal channel, d = depth of flow, and
n = slope of the side of the channel
A
From equation (i), b = - - nd ... ( ii)
d

Perimeter (wetted) of channel, P = b + 2d~

Substituting the value of b from equation (ii), perimeter becomes
A rt=:
P =- - nd + 2d v n + 1 ...( iii)
d
For the most economical trapezoidal section, the depth of flow, d and area A are constant. Then n
is the only variable. Best side slope will be when section is most economical or in other words, P is
. .
nummum. F or P to b e mnumum,
. . we must h ave -dP = O
dn
Hence differentiating equation (iii) with respect to n,

_!!:___[~-
dn d
nd + 2d~J =0
1 2 1/2 1 1
or - d + 2d x - x (n + 1) - x 2n = 0 or - d + 2nd x ~ =0
2 -..;n2 + 1

Cancelling d and re-arranging, we get 2n = ~

Squaring to both sides,

{l 1
4n2 = n2 + 1 or 3n2 = 1 or n = V 3 = ,./3 ... (16.14)

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Flow in Open Channels 763 I

If the sloping side makes an angle 0, with the horizontal,
then we have
1 1
tan e = - = - = ,fS = tan 60°
n 1
,fS
e = 60° ... (16.15) Fig. 16.18
Hence best side slope is at 60° to the horizontal or the value of n for the best side slope is given by
equation (16.14).
For the most economical trapezoidal section, we have
Half of top width = length of one sloping side

or b+2nd = d~
2
Substituting the value of n from equation (16.14), we have

b+2X
---"'-
1
r,:,Xd
:>3
__ =d
W:J2
-1- + 1 = 3!!:_ or
,/3b + 2d 2d
2 ,J3 ,J3 2 x ,/3 ,fS
2d
or ,/3b + 2d = 2 x J3 x ,J3 = 4d

b = 4d-2d = 2d ... (iv)

,J3 ,J3
Now, wetted perimeter, P=b+2d~

6d 2d . 2d )
or P=-=3X-=3Xb
,J3 ,J3 ( ·: From (iv), ,J3 = b

For a slope of 60°, the length of sloping side is equal to the width of the trapezoidal section.
Problem 16.23 A power canal of trapezoidal section has to be excavated through hard clay at the
least cost. Determine the dimensions of the channel given, discharge equal to 14 m3 Is, bed slope
I : 2500 and Manning's N = 0.020.
Solution. Given :
Discharge, Q = 14 m3/s
. 1
Bed slope, l=--
2500
Manning's, N= 0.020

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I 764 Fluid Mechanics

For excavation of the canal at the least cost, the trapezoidal section should be most economical.
Here side slope (i.e., value of n) is not given. Hence the best side slope for most economical trapezoidal
1
section (i.e., the value of n) is given by equation (16.14) as n = J3
Let b = width of channel, d = depth of flow
For most economical section,
Half of top width = length of one of sloping side
or b+2nd = d~
2

1
For n = .../3,

or ... (i)

Area of trapezoidal section, A = (b + nd) x d = ( ~ + ~ d) x d

= J3d2
Hydraulic mean depth for most economical section, m = !!._
2

Now discharge, Q is given by Q = ACJ;;i, where C = _!__ m116

N

1
Q = .J3d 2 x_!_m116 ~m x
N 2500

1
= ./3d2 x -1- x m116+112 x ~ = 1.732 d2 x m213
0.020 2500

or 14.0 = 1.732 d2 x ( 2d) 2'3

= 1~2/3
732
d813 = 1.09 d813

14·0
d813 = = 12.844
1.09
d = (12.844)318 = (12.844)°"375 = 2.605 m. Ans.
2d 2 x 2.605
From equation (i), b= r,::; = = 3.008 m. Ans.
-v3 1.732
Problem 16.24 For a trapezoidal channel with bottom width 40 m and side slopes 2H: 1 V,
Manning's N is 0.015 and bottom slope is 0.0002. If it carries 60 m3/s discharge, determine the
normal depth.

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Flow in Open Channels 765 I

Solution. Given :
Bottom width, b = 40 m
Side slopes 2 horizontal to 1 vertical i.e., n = 2
:. Manning's constant, N = 0.015
Bed slope, i = 0.0002
Discharge, Q = 60 m3/s
Let d = Normal depth.
Now A= (b + nd) x d = (40 + 2d) x d

P = b+2d~ =40+2d~ =40+ 2x fsd=40+4.472d

A (40 + 2d) x d
m=-=-----
p 40 +4.472d
The discharge is given by, Q = Area x Velocity

= Ax _!__m213 i112 = ~ x m213 x i112

N N
2/3
( 40 + 2d) x d + 2d) x d
( 40 112
60 = x x 0.0002
0.015 [ 40 + 4.472d ]

=
[(40 + 2d) x d]5'3 x 0.01414
0.015 x (40 + 4.472d)213

60 x O.o15 x (40 + 4.472d)213

---------- = [(40 + 2d) X d]513
0.01414
63.65(40 + 4.472 d)2'3 = (40d + 2d2)513
(40d + 2d2)513- 63.65 (40 + 4.472d)213 = 0 ... (i)
The above equation will be solved by Hit and Trial method.
(i) Assume d = 1 m, then L.H.S of equation (i) will as
L.H.S. = (40 + 2)513 - 63.65 (40 + 4.472)213
= 42513 - 63.65 x 44.472213 = 513.838 - 808.4 = - 294.56
(ii) Assume d = 2 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be as
L.H.S. = (40 x 2 + 2 x 22)513 - 63.65(40 + 4.47 x 2)213
= 88513 - 63.65 x 48.944213 = 1767 .2 - 862.77 = 904.43
where d = 1 m, L.H.S. is - ve. But when d = 2 m, L.H.S. is +ve. Hence value of d lies between 1 and 2.
(iii) Assume d = 1.3 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be as
L.H.S. = (40 x 1.3 + 2 x 1.32)513 - 63.65(40 + 4.472 x 1.3)213
= 55.38513 - 63.65 x 45.8136213 = 815.45 - 825.4 = - 9.95
(iv) Assume d = 1.31 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be
L.H.S. = (40 x 1.31 + 2 x 1.312)513 - 63.65(40 + 4.472 x 1.31)213
= 55.8322513 - 63.65 x 45.8583213 = 826.6 - 825.9 = 0.7
The value of L.H.S. = 0. 7 is negligible in comparison to the value of 904.43.
:. Value of d = 1.31 m. Ans.

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I 766 Fluid Mechanics

16.5.4 Flow Through Circular Channel. The flow of a liquid through a circular pipe, when
the level of liquid in the pipe is below the top of the pipe is classified as an open channel flow. The rate
of flow through circular channel is determined from the depth of flow and angle subtended by the
liquid surface at the centre of the circular channel.
Fig.16.19 shows a circular channel through which water is flowing.
Let d = depth of water,
20 = angle subtended by water sur-
face AB at the centre in radians,
R = radius of the channel,
Then the wetted perimeter and wetted area is determine as :
2nR
Wetted perimeter, P = -- x 20 = 2R0 ... (16.16) D
2n: Fig. 16.19 Circular channel.
Wetted area, A= Area ADBA
= Area of sector OADBO - Area of MBO

= n:R2 x _ AB x CO = R20 _ 2BC x CO

20 (·: AB= 2BC)
2n: 2 2
= R20 _ 2 x R sin 0 x R cos 0
(": BC = R sin 0, CO = R cos 0)
2

= R20 _ R2 x 2 sin 0 cos 0 = R20 _ R2 sin 20

(": 2 sin 0 cos 0 = sin 20)
2 2

... (16.17)

R2 (0 _ sin 20)
Then hydraulic mean depth, m
__ A __ 2 __ _B__ (0 _ sin 20)
P 2R0 20 2
And discharge, Q is given by, Q = AC-J;J.
Problem 16.25 Find the discharge through a circular pipe of diameter 3.0 m, if the depth of
water in the pipe is 1.0 m and the pipe is laid at a slope of 1 in 1000. Take the value of Chery's
constant as 70.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, D= 3.0
3·0
Radius, R = D= = 1.50 m
2 2
Depth of water in pipe, d = 1.0 m
1.
Bed slope, l=--
1000
Chezy' s constant, C = 70
Fig. 16.20
From Fig. 16.20, we have OC = OD - CD = R - 1.0
= 1.5 - 1.0 = 0.5 m
AO= R = 1.5 m

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Flow in Open Channels 767 I

Also

0 = 70.53° = 70.53 x ~ = 1.23 radians ( ·: 180° = n radians)

180
Wetted perimeter is given by equation (16.16) as
P = 2R0 = 2 x 1.5 x 1.23 (0 should be in radians)
= 3.69 m
Wetted area is given by equation ( 16.17) as

A= R2( 0 _ sin/0) = LS' ( 1.23 _ sin (2 ~70.53°) J

sin (141.08°)]- [ sin (180°-141.08°)]
= 2.25 [ 1.23 - - 2.25 1.23 - ------
2 2
sin 38.94°]
= 2.25 [ 1.23- = 2.06 m2
2
2·06
Hydraulic mean depth, m= A = =.5582
P 3.69

~ 1 2
The discharge is given by, Q = AC-v mi = 2.06 x 70 x 0.5582 X -- = 3.407 m Is. Ans.
1000
Problem 16.26 If in the problem 16.25, the depth of water in the pipe is 2.5 m, find the rate of
flow through the pipe.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe = 3.0 m
:. Radius, R = 1.5 m
Depth of water, d= 2.5 m

i = -1-and C = 70
1000
From Fig. 16.21, OC = CD - OD= 2.5 - R = 2.5 - 1.5 = 1.0 m
OA = R = 1.5 m

From MOC,
oc = -1.0 = 0.667
cos a = -
OA 1.5
a= 48.16°
e = 180° - a= 180° - 48.16° = 131.84°
= 131.84 x ~ = 2.30 radians
180
Now wetted perimeter is given by equation (16.16) as
P = 2R0 = 2 x 1.5 x 2.30 = 6.90 m

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I 768 Fluid Mechanics

And wetted area is given by equation (16.17) as

A =R 2(
0 _ sin/0) = 1.52 ( 230 _ sin (2 X;31.84°) J
= 2.25 ( 2.30 - sin 2~3.680) 3

sin (180° + 83.68°)]

= 2.25 [ 2.30 - -------
D
2
Fig. 16.21
_ [ (- sin 83.58°)]
- 2.25 2.30 - ----
2

= 2.25 [ 2.30 + sin

J·
8 680 J = 6.293 m 2

6·293
Hydraulic mean depth, m= A = = 0.912 m
P 6.90
r= 1 3
Discharge, Q is given by, Q = AC....;mi = 6.293 x 70 x
0.912 x-- = 13.303 m /s. Ans.
1000
Problem 16.27 Calculate the quantity of water that will be discharged at a uniform depth of 0.9 m
in a 1.2 m diameter pipe which is laid at a slope 1 in 1000. Assume Chery's C = 58.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe = 1.2 m
1.2
:. Radius, R = - = 0.6 m
2
Depth of water, d= 0.9 m
. 1
Slope, l=--
1000
Chezy's, C= 58
From Fig. 16.22, we have OC = CD - OD
= 0.9 - R = 0.9 - 0.6 = 0.3 m
OA = R = 0.6 m
Now in triangle AOC, 1.2 m

cos
oc
a=-=-=-
0.3 1
OA 0.6 2 0.9 m

a= cos-'(±) = 60°
j
0 = Angle DOA= 180° - a
Fig. 16.22
= 180° - 60° = 120° = 120 x ~ radians
180

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Flow in Open Channels 769 I

= 0.667 1t radians
Now wetted perimeter is given by equation (16.16) as
P = 2R0 = 2 x 0.6 x 0.667 1t = 2.526 m
And area of flow is given by equation (16.17) as

A= R2( 0 _ sin/0)
sin (2 x 120°)] [ sin 240°]
= 0.62 [ 0.6671t - = 0.36 0.6671t -
2 2

(- 0.866)] 2
= 0.36 [ 0.6671t - = 0.36 [0.667 1t + 0.433] = 0.913 m
2

Now discharge is given by, Q =Ax V =Ax Cslr=:

mi = 0.913 x 58 ~1- x--
p 1000

0.913 1 3
= 0.913 x 58 -- x -- = 1.007 m Is. Ans.
2.526 1000
Problem 16.28 Water is flowing through a circular channel at the rate of 400 litres/s, when the
channel is having a bed slope of 1 in 9000. The depth of water in the channel is 8.0 times the
diameter. Find the diameter of the circular channel if the value of Manning's N = 0.015.
Solution. Given :
Discharge, Q = 400 litres/s = 0.4 m3/s
. 1
Bed slope, l=--
9000
Manning's, N = 0.015
Let the diameter of channel =D
Then depth of flow, d= 0.8 D
From Fig. 16.23, we have D
Fig. 16.23
D
OC = CD - OD= 0.8 D - -
2
= (0.8 - 0.5) D = 0.3 D
D
And AO = R = - = 0.5 D
2
OC 0.3 D
cos a=-=--= 0.6
AO 0.5 D
a =53.13°
And e= 180° - 53.13 = 126.87° = 126.87 x ---2:_ = 2.214 radians.
180
From equation (16.16), wetted perimeter,

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I 770 Fluid Mechanics

D
P = 2R0 = 2 x - x 2.214 = 2.214 D m.
2

~r [
From equation ( 16.17), wetted area,

A= R2( 0 __sin_/-0)=( 2_214 __si_n_(2_x_2_12_6_.8_7°_)]

D2 [ sin 253.74°] D2 [ sin (180°+73.74°)]

=- 2.214- =- 2.214------
4 2 4 2

= ~ 2_214 _ (-sin ;3.74°)]

2 [ <' [ 2.214 + sin 7:.74°]

2
= !!_ [2.214 + .48] = 0.6735 D2
4

A 0.6735 D2
Hydraulic mean depth, m = - = = 0.3042 D
P 2.214 D
Discharge by Manning's formula is given by,

Q = .l, x A x m213 x i112

N

or 0.4 = - 1 x 0.6735 D2 x (.3042 D)213 x ( -- 1 )112

.015 9000
0·6735
= D2 x 34521 x D213 x 0.0105 = 0.213 D813
0.015

D813 = 0.40 = 1.8779

0.213
D = (1.8779)318 =(1.8779)0.375 = 1.266 m. Ans.
Problem 16.29 A sewer pipe is to be laid at a slope of 1 in 8100 to carry a maximum discharge of
600 litres/s, when the depth of water is 75% of the vertical diameter. Find the diameter of this pipe if
the value of Manning's N is 0.025.
Solution. Given :
Discharge, Q = 600 litres/s = 0.6 m3/s
. 1
Bed slope, l=--
8100
Manning's, N= 0.025
Depth of water = 75% of dia. of pipe = 0.75 dia. of pipe
Let d = depth of water, D =Dia.of pipe
Then d= 0.75 D

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Flow in Open Channels 771 I

From Fig. 16.23 (a), we have OC = CD - OD = 0.75 D - 0.5 D = 0.25 D
AO= R = 0.5 D
In triangle AOC, cos a= OC = 0.25 D = 0.5
AO 0.5 D
a = cos " 0.5 = 60°
And e = 180° - a = 180° - 60° = 120°

D
= 120 x --2:_ radians = 2.0946 radians.
180
From equation (16.16), wetted perimeter Fig. 16.23 (a)
P = 2R0 = 2 x 0.5 D x 2.0496 (·: R = 0.5 D)
= 2.0496 D
And from equation (16.17), the area of flow,

A =R 2( 0 _ sin/0)
sin (2 x 120°)]
= (0.5 D)2 [ 2.0946 - 2

= 0.25 D2 [ 20946-(-·~66) J = 0.25 D2 [2.0946 + 0.433]

= 0.6319 D2

A 0.6319 D2
m= - = = 0.308 D
P 2.0496 D
Discharge by Manning's formula is given by

Q = _!__ x A x m213 x i112

N

or 0.6 = --
1 ( 1
x 0.6319 D2 x (0.308 D)213 x --
)1/2 = 0.128 x D813
0.025 8100

D813 = ~ = 4.6875
0.128
D = (4.6875) 3/8 = 1.785 m. Ans.
16.5.S Most Economical Circular Section. We have discussed in Art. 16.5 that for a most
economical section the discharge for a constant cross-sectional area, slope of bed and resistance
co-efficient, is maximum. But in case of circular channels, the area of flow cannot be maintained
constant. With the change of depth of flow in a circular channel of any radius, the wetted area and
wetted perimeter changes. Thus in case of circular channels, for most economical section, two
separate conditions are obtained. They are :

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I 772 Fluid Mechanics

1. Condition for maximum velocity, and
2. Condition for maximum discharge.
1. Condition for Maximum Velocity for Circular Section. Fig. 16.24 shows a circular channel
through which water is flowing.
Let d = depth of water,
20 = angle subtended at the centre by water surface,
R = radius of channel, and
i = slope of the bed,
The velocity of flow according to Chezy's formula is given as

The velocity of flow through a circular channel will be maximum

when the hydraulic mean depth m or A!P is maximum for a given
value of C and i. In case of circular pipe, the variable is 0 only.
Hence for maximum value of A!P we have the condition, D
Fig. 16.24

d (;) =0 ... (i)

d0
where A and P both are functions of 0.
The value of wetted area, A is given by equation (16.17) as

A = R2 ( e _ sin220) ... ( ii)

The value of wetted perimeter, Pis given by equation (16.16) as

P = 2R0 ... ( iii)
Differentiating equation (i) with respect to 0, we have
p dA -A dP
d0
p2
d0 =0 or ... (iv)

28
From equation (ii), dA = R2 (1 - cos x 2) = R2 (1 - cos 20)
d0 2

From equation (iii), dP = 2R

d0

Substituting the values of A, P dA and dP in equation (iv),

d0 d0

2R0[R' (l-cos20)]-R2 (e- sin/0}2R) =O

or sin 20)
2R30(1-cos20)-2R3 ( 0--2- =0

or 0(1-cos20)- sin 20) =0

( 0--2- (Cancelling 2R3)

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Flow in Open Channels 773 I

sin 20
0 - 0 cos 20 - 0 + -- =o
2

or 0 cos 20 =
sin 20
-- or sin 20 = 20
2 cos20
tan 20 = 20
The solution of this equation by hit and trial, gives
20 = 257° 30' (approximately)
or 0 = 128° 45'
The depth of flow for maximum velocity from Fig. 16.24, is
d = OD - OC = R - R cos 0
= R[l - cos 0] = R[l - cos 128° 45'] = R[l - cos (180° - 51° 15')]
= R[l - ( - cos 51° 15')] = R[l + cos 51° 15']
D
= R[l+ 0.62] = 1.62 R = 1.62 x -
2
= 0.81 D ... (16.18)

where D = diameter of the circular channel.

Thus for maximum velocity of flow, the depth of water in the circular channel should be equal to
0.81 times the diameter of the channel.
Hydraulic mean depth for maximum velocity is

m= A= R'(e-¥)_~[0 _sin20]
P 2R0 20 2
where 0 = 128° 45' = 128.75°

= 128.75 x ~ = 2.247 radians

180

R [ sin 257° 30'] R [ sin (180°+ 87.5°)]

m= 2.247- =-- 2.247------
2 x 2.247 2 4.494 2

= _R_ [2.247 + sin 87.50] = 0.611 R

4.494 2

= 0.611 x D = 0.3055 D = 0.3 D ... (16.19)

2
Thus for maximum velocity, the hydraulic mean depth is equal to 0.3 times the diameter of circular
channel.
2. Condition for Maximum Discharge for Circular Section. The discharge through a channel is
given by

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I 774 Fluid Mechanics

3 3
The discharge will be maximum for constant values of Candi, when ~ is maximum. ~ will be
p p

maximum when de
d (Ap3) = 0.

Differentiating this equation with respect to 0 and equation the same to zero, we get
p x 3A 2 dA - A 3 dP
d~ d0 = 0 or 3P A 2 dA - A 3 dP = 0
P d0 d0

Dividing by A2, 3P dA - A dP =0 ... (i)

d0 d0
But from equation (16.16), P = 2R0
dP = 2R
d0

From equation (16.17), A= R2( 0 _ sin220)

dA = R2 (1 - cos 20)
d0
. . dP dA. . .
Substituting the values of P, A, - and - m equation (i)
d0 d0
sin 20) x 2R = 0
3 x 2R0 x R 2 (1 - cos 20) - R 2( 0 - -2-

6R30 (I - cos 20) - 2R3( 0- sin/0) =O

Dividing by 2R3, we get
sin 20
30 (I - cos 20) - ( 0- sin/0) =O or 30 - 30 cos 20 - e + -- = o
2
sin 20
or 20 - 30 cos 20 + -- =0 or 40 - 60 cos 20 + sin 20 = 0
2
The solution of this equation by hit and trial, gives
20 = 308° (approximately)
308°
0= - = 154°
2
Depth of flow for maximum discharge [See Fig. 16.24]
d = OD - OC = R - R cos 0
= R[l - cos 0] = R[l - cos 154°]
= R[l - cos (180° - 26°)] = R[l + cos 26°] = 1.898 R
D
= 1.898 x - = 0.948 D.:::: 0.95 D ... (16.20)
2
where D = Diameter of the circular channel.
Thus for maximum discharge through a circular channel the depth of flow is equal to 0.95 times its
diameter.

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Flow in Open Channels 775 I

Problem 16.30 The rate of flow of water through a circular channel of diameter 0.6 m is 150 litresis.
Find the slope of the bed of the channel for maximum velocity. Take C = 60
Solution. Given :
Discharge, Q = 150 litres/s = 0.15 m3/s
Dia. of channel, D = 0.6 m
Value of C= 60
Let the slope of the bed of channel for maximum velocity = i
For maximum velocity through a circular channel, depth of flow is given by equation (16.18) as
d = 0.81 x D = 0.81 x 0.6 = .486 m

and e= 128° 45' or

128.75 x ~ = 2.247 radians
180
From equation (16.19), hydraulic mean depth for maximum velocity is given as
m = 0.3 x D = 0.3 x 0.6 = 0.18 m
Wetted perimeter for circular pipe is given by equation (16.16),
P = 2R0 = D x 0 = 0.6 x 2.247 = 1.3482 m
A
But m= - = 0.18 m
p
Area, A= 0.18 x P = 0.18 x 1.3482 = 0.2426 m2
For discharge, using the relation
Q = ACJ;J or 0.15 = 0.2426 x 60 x -J0.81 xi = 6.175,JT

0.15
i = ( 6.175
J 2 1
= 1694.7 · Ans.
Bed slope is 1 in 1694.7.
Problem 16.31 Determine the maximum discharge of water through a circular channel of diameter
1.5 m when the bed slope of the channel is 1 in 1000. Take C = 60.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of channel, D = 1.5 m
1.5
R = - = 0.75 m
2
. 1
Bed slope, l=--
1000
Value of C= 60
154
For maximum discharge, e= 154° or x n = 2.6878 radians.
180
Wetted perimeter for a circular channel is given by equation (16.16) as
D 1.5
P = 2R0 = 2 x - x 2.6878 = 2 x - x 2.6878 = 4.0317 m
2 2
Wetted area A is given by equation ( 16.17) as

A= R2( 0 _ sin/0) = 0_752 [ 2_6878 _ sin (2; 154)°]

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I 776 Fluid Mechanics

= 0.752 [2.6878 - sin ;080] = .752 [2.6878 - sin (36io - 520)]

= 0.752[2.6878+ sin:20] = 1.7335

Hydraulic mean depth, m = A = 1.7335 = 0.4299

P 4.0317
1
Maximum discharge is given by Q = AC.J;J = 1.7335 x 60 x 0.4299 x --
1000
= 2.1565 m3/s. Ans.
Problem 16.32 A concrete lined circular channel of diameter 3 m has a bed slope of 1 in 500.
Work out the velocity and flow rate for the conditions of (i) maximum velocity and (ii) maximum
discharge. Assume Chery 's C = 50.
Solution. Given :
Dia of channel, D=3m
. 1
Bed slope, l= --
500
Value of C= 50
(i) Velocity and discharge for maximum velocity
For maximum velocity, 0 = 128° 45' = 128.75°

= 128.75 x ~ radians= 2.247 radians

180
Wetted perimeter, P=2xRx0

= 2

= 6.741 m
x 1.5 x 2.24 7 (-: R< =f=l.5)

Area of flow, A = R2( 0 _ sin/0) = 1.52 [ 2247 _ sin (2 x;28. 75°)]

= 2.25 [2.247 - (- 0.488)] = 6.1537 m2

6.1537
Hydraulic mean depth m* = A= = 0.912
P 6.741
0.912 x 1
Now velocity, V= C m .J x i = 50 x
500
= 2.135 mis. Ans.

and discharge, Q = A x V = 6.1537 x 2.135 = 13.138 m3/s. Ans.

(ii) Velocity and discharge for maximum discharge
154
For maximum discharge, e= 154° = x 1t radians= 2.6878 radians
180

* From equation (16.19), mis also equal to 0.3055 D.

Hence m = 0.3055 x 3 = 0.9165

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Flow in Open Channels 777 I

A = R2 [ 0 _ sin/0] = 1.52 [2_6878_ sin(2; 154)]

= 2.25 [2.6878 - (- 0.394)] = 6.934

P = 2R x 0 = 2 x 1.5 x 2.6878 = 8.0634
6·934
and m= A = = 0.8599
P 8.0634
1
Now velocity v = cJ;J = 0.8599 x -
50 x = 2.0735 mis. Ans.
500
and discharge, Q = A x V = 6.934 x 2.0735 = 14.377 m3/s. Ans.

llJll> 16.6 NON-UNIFORM FLOW THROUGH OPEN CHANNELS

We have defined uniform flow and non-uniform flow in Art. 16.2.2. A flow is said to be uniform if
the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of the bed of the channel and area of cross-section remain
constant for a given length of the channel. On the other hand, if velocity of flow, depth of flow, area
of cross-section and slope of the bed of channel do not remain constant for a given length of pipe, the
flow is said to be non-uniform.
Non-uniform is further divided into Rapidly Varied Flow (R.V.F.), and Gradually Varied Flow
(G.V.F.) depending upon the change of depth of flow over the length of the channel. If the depth of
flow changes abruptly over a small length of the channel, the flow is said as rapidly varied flow. And
if the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of channel, the flow is said to be
gradually varied flow.

llJll> 16. 7 SPECIFIC ENERGY AND SPECIFIC ENERGY CURVE

The total energy of a flowing liquid per unit weight is given by,
v2
Total Energy = z+ h+ -
2g
where z= Height of the bottom of channel above datum,
h = Depth of liquid, and V = Mean velocity of flow.
If the channel bottom is taken as the datum as shown in Fig. 16.25, then the total energy per unit weight
of liquid will be,

Fig. 16.25 Specific energy.

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