LANGUAGE ENHANCEMENT

Trainee Guide Steria Training

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Table of Content

S no.

Lesson

Page

Introduction

Subject Verb Agreement

4 to 7

Articles

8 to 13

Prepositions

14 to 20

Tenses

21 to 50

Active Passive

51 to 60

Punctuation

61 to 75

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The World of Grammar

Grammar is the cornerstone to good and effective communication skills. Effectively communicating ideas, information and emotions is fundamental to our daily lives The purpose of this session is to better our language and communication skills in order to be able to expand our active business vocabulary and use English, at work, with greater confidence. By the end of this training session, delegates will be able to: Identify the grammatical rules of the language Implement these rules in constructing accurate and appropriate sentences, both in speech and writing Use universally accepted words and phrases

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Chapter 1: Subject Verb Agreement Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

1.

When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.

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4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

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6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.

Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)

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9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family. In very few cases, the plural verb is used if the individuals in the group are thought of and specifically referred to.

11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.

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Steria Easy Reference Articles Definition of articles English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use of these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or to a specific member of a group: 1. Indefinite Articles: a and an A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general; the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general nouns. The rule is:

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoozer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used) some + plural noun: some girls

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immedately follows the article:

a broken egg an unusual problem a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)

Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a profession, nation, or religion.

I am a teacher. Brian is an Irishman. Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.

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2. Definite Article: the The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is particular or specific. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. Compare the indefinite and definite articles in the following examples: Indefinite (a or an) a dog (any dog) an apple (any apple) some dogs (any dogs) some apples (any apples) Definite (the) the dog (that specific dog) the apple (that specific apple) the dogs (those specific dogs) the apples (those specific apples)

Singular Plural

The is not used with non countable nouns referring to something in a general sense: [no article] Coffee is a popular drink. [no article] Japanese was his native language. [no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify. The is used with non countable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting modifying phrase or clause: The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink. The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside. The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable. The is also used when a noun refers to something unique: the White House the theory of relativity the 1999 federal budget Note: Geographical uses of the Do not use the before:

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names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and the US names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba, Miami) names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St.) names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn names of continents (Asia, Europe) names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before:

names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Pacific) points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole) geographical areas (the Middle East, the West) deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula)

Further Uses of Articles In addition, use of a, an, and the also depends on whether the noun following the article possesses one of these paired qualities:

Countable vs. non countable First vs. subsequent mention General vs. specific 1. Countable vs. Non countable

A and an are used if the noun can be counted.

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one. Therefore, use a.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)

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I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

The must be used when the noun cannot be counted.

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The question doesn't make any sense because water is noncountable. Therefore, use the.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted)

2. First vs. Subsequent Mention A or an is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a piece of writing. The is used afterward each time you mention that same noun. An awards ceremony at the Kremlin would not normally have attracted so much attention. But when it was leaked that Soviet President Konstantin Chernenko would be presenting medals to three cosmonauts, interest in the ceremony intensified. Time, Sept. 17, 1984. Note: There is and there are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at the beginning of a paragraph or essay. There is a robin in the tree outside my window. When my cat jumps up on the desk, the robin flies away.

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3. General vs. Specific A, an, and the can all be used to indicate that a noun refers to the whole class to which individual countable nouns belong. This use of articles is called generic, from the Latin word meaning "class." A tiger is a dangerous animal. (any individual tiger) The tiger is a dangerous animal. (all tigers: tiger as a generic category) The difference between the indefinite a and an and the generic a and an is that the former means any one member of a class while the latter means all of the members of a class. The omission of articles also expresses a generic (or general) meaning: no article with a plural noun: Tigers are dangerous animals. (all tigers) no article with a noncountable noun: Anger is a destructive emotion. (any kind of anger) Omission of Articles While some nouns combine with one article or the other based on whether they are countable or noncountable, others simply never take either article. Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are: 1. Names of languages and nationalities
.

Chinese
. English . Spanish . Russian

2. Names of sports
. . hockey . baseball

volleyball

3. Names of academic subjects

. . biology . history . computer science

mathematics

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Chapter 3: Prepositions English Grammar - Prepositions of time

Preposition Use Examples in months year In seasons part of the day duration part of the day At time of day Celebrations fixed phrases days of the week Date On special holidays a special part of a day after ago before between by during for
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in July; in September in 1985; in 1999 in summer; in the summer of 69 in the morning; in the afternoon; in the evening in a minute; in two weeks at night at 6 o'clock; at midnight at Christmas; at Easter at the same time on Sunday; on Friday on the 25th of December* on Good Friday; on Easter Sunday; on my birthday on the morning of September the 11th* after school

later than something

how far something happened 6 years ago (in the past) earlier than something time that separates two points through the whole of a period of time period of time before Christmas between Monday and Friday

not later than a special time by Thursday during the holidays for three weeks

from ... to from... till/until past since till/until to up to within

two points form a period

from Monday to Wednesday from Monday till Wednesday from Monday until Wednesday 23 minutes past 6 (6:23) since Monday till tomorrow until tomorrow 23 minutes to 6 (5:37)

time of the day point of time no later than a special time time of the day during a period of time

not more than a special time up to 6 hours a day

within a day

* The words in italic are only spoken, not written

English Grammar - Prepositions at, in, on preposition in examples We sit in the room. I see a house in the picture. There are trouts in the river. He lives in Paris. I found the picture in the paper. He sits in the corner of the room. He sits in the back of the car. We arrive in Madrid. He gets in the car. She likes walking in the rain. My cousin lives in the country. There are kites in the sky. He plays in the street. (BE) She lives in a hotel. The boys stand in a line. He is in town. I have to stay in bed.
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The robber is in prison now.

She sits at the desk. Open your books at page 10. The bus stops at Graz. I stay at my grandmother's. I stand at the door. Look at the top of the page. The car stands at the end of the street. at You mustn't park your car at the front of the school. Can we meet at the corner of the street? I met John at a party. Pat wasn't at home yesterday. I study economics at university. The children are at grandmother's. He's looking at the park. He always arrives late at school. The map lies on the desk. The picture is on page 10. The photo hangs on the wall. He lives on a farm. on Dresden lies on the river Elbe. Men's clothes are on the second floor. He lives on Heligoland. The shop is on the left. My friend is on the way to Moscow. Write this information on the front of the letter.

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English Grammar - Prepositions of place and direction preposition above across after against along among around behind below beside between by close to down from in front of inside into near next to off onto opposite out of outside use from one side to the other side one follows the other directed towards sth. in a line; from one point to another in a group in a circular way at the back of lower than sth. next to sth./sb. is on each side near near from high to low the place where it starts the part that is in the direction it faces opposite of outside entering sth. close to beside away from sth. moving to a place on the other side leaving sth. opposite of inside examples You mustn't go across this road here. There isn't a bridge across the river. The cat ran after the dog. After you. The bird flew against the window. They're walking along the beach. I like being among people. We're sitting around the campfire. Our house is behind the supermarket. Death Valley is 86 metres below sea level. Our house is beside the supermarket. Our house is between the supermarket and the school. He lives in the house by the river. Our house is close to the supermarket. He came down the hill. Do you come from Tokyo? Our house is in front of the supermarket. You shouldn't stay inside the castle. You shouldn't go into the castle. Our house is near the supermarket. Our house is next to the supermarket. The cat jumped off the roof. The cat jumped onto the roof. Our house is opposite the supermarket. The cat jumped out of the window. Can you wait outside? higher than something The picture hangs above my bed.

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over past round through

above sth./sb. going near sth./sb. in a circle going from one point to the other point towards sth./sb.

The cat jumped over the wall. Go past the post office. We're sitting round the campfire. You shouldn't walk through the forest. I like going to Australia.

to towards under up

Can you come to me? I've never been to Africa. The cat is under the table. He went up the hill.

in the direction of sth. They walk towards the castle. below sth. from low to high

Exercises Fill in the appropriate prepositions:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

I went to bed _______ nine o'clock. It rained last night _______ Ottawa. I turned __________ the radio and listened to music. I work out _______ my spare time. I phoned ______ and said I would be late. I hope to work full time ______ the office. It was a hectic day ______ work yesterday. The cat ran _______ the house when it started to rain. I saved my file _______ the computer. The store had very good sales _______ shoes. ________ the mall I saw an old friend of mine. I watched a movie _________ the movie theatre with a friend. I asked a girl for her phone number ________ work. I bought three tickets _________ the ticket office. The kids played games _________ the computer. The store _____ the corner opens _____ six o'clock ______ weekdays.

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17. 18. 19.

There's not a lot of work _________ Ottawa. I went fishing _________ Lake Ontario last summer. I hope to go to the winter Powwow ________ the Ottawa Friendship

Centre.

20. __________ the party everybody had fun all through the night.
21. He was _____ prison _________ two years. ___________ that time, he became interested _________ pigeons. 22. As the child was too young to travel ____ herself, they arranged _______ her to travel _____ the guards van _____________ the care of _____ guard. 23. Im very sorry _________ being late. It was very good ______ you to wait _______ me. 24. Remember to be _____ good time ______ the opera because if youre late, they wont let you ______. 25. He was wounded _____ the shoulder _________ a bullet, fired _________ an upstairs window. 26. He is not independent _______ any means. He depends _______ his father _________ everything. 27. He said he was ______ debt and asked me ______ a loan _______ Rs 1000. 28. I was horrified ____ his appearance. He looked as if he hadnt slept in weeks. 29. Whats the best way _______ cooking a lobster? Cook it ______ boiling salted water, and serve it cold ________ mayonnaise. 30. He died _____ heart failure______ Tuesday. His wife is still ______ shock. 31. I thought he would offer Ann the job but he offered it _____ me. 32. When you have lunch _____ the restaurant, who pays the bill? Oh, each _______ us pays _________ for what hes had. 33. How are you getting _______ at school. 34. They succeeded ________ escaping __________ the burning house. 35. Im very bad ___________ French, Ill have to work harder _____ it and spend some more time ________ it. 36. You cant rely __________ him. Hes almost always late _________ appointments.
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37. I dont object _______ lending you my pen, but shouldnt you have one ________ your own?

Chapter 4: Tenses TENSES

In English, there are 3 basic tenses - Present, Past and Future. The following shows what each form of the tense indicates: Perfect Form Continuous Form Perfect Continuous Form Completed Action Ongoing Action Ongoing Action that will be completed at a definite time

Simple Forms Continuous Forms Perfect Forms Perfect Continuous Forms Present Past Future take/s took am/is/are taking was/were taking have/has taken have/has been taking had taken had been taking

will/shall take will be taking

will have taken will have been taking

Lets take a look:

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SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE I sing

How do we make the Simple Present Tense? subject + auxiliary verb do There are three important exceptions: + main verb base

1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary. 2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the
auxiliary.

3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and
negatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like: subject I, you, we, they + He, she, it I, you, we, they He, she, it Do ? Does he, she, it like coffee? does I, you, we, they not like like coffee. coffee? do not likes like coffee. coffee. auxiliary verb main verb like coffee.

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary: subject main verb

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I You, we, they He, she, it I

am are is am are is I you, we, they he, she, it not not not

French. French. French. old. old. old. late? late? late?

You, we, they He, she, it

Am Are Is

How do we use the Simple Present Tense? We use the simple present tense when:

the the the the

action is general action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future action is not only happening now statement is always true John drives a taxi. past present future

It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.

Look at these examples:

I live in New York. The Moon goes round the Earth. John drives a taxi. He does not drive a bus. We do not work at night.

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Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tensesome of them are general, some of them are now: Am I right? Tara is not at home. You are happy. past present The situation is now. future

I am not fat. Why are you so beautiful? Ram is tall. past present The situation is general. Past, present and future. future

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE I am singing We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the simple present tense, both in structure and in use. In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense How do we make the Present Continuous Tense? The structure of the present continuous tense is: subject + auxiliary verb be Look at these examples:
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main verb base + ing

subject + + ? ? I You She We Is Are

auxiliary verb am are is are he they not not

main verb speaking reading staying playing watching waiting to you. this. in London. football. TV? for John?

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense? We use the present continuous tense to talk about:

action happening now action in the future

Present continuous tense for action happening now a) for action happening exactly now I am eating my lunch. past present The action is happening now. Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time... future

...the pages are turning.

...the candle is burning.

...the numbers are spinning.

b) for action happening around now

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The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual John is going out with Mary. past present The action is happening around now. Look at these examples:

future

Muriel is learning to drive. I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Present continuous tense for the future We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the futureif we add a future word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking. I am taking my exam next month. past present A firm plan or programme exists now. future The action is in the future.

Look at these examples:

We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table.. They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working. When are you starting your new job?

In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking.

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How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense? We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simplewe just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.

Basic rule

Just add -ing to the base verb: work play assist see be > > > > > working playing assisting seeing being

Exception 1

If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter: s t o p stressed consonant consonant vowel (vowels = a, e, i, o, u) stop run begin > > > stopping running beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed: open Exception 2 > opening

If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y: lie > lying

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die

>

dying

Exception 3

If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e: come mistake > > coming mistaking

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE I have sung The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense. In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English. In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect How do we make the Present Perfect Tense? The structure of the present perfect tense is: subject + auxiliary verb + main verb have past participle

Here are some examples of the present perfect tense: subject + I auxiliary verb have main verb seen ET.

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+ ? ?

You She We Have Have

have has have you they not not

eaten been played finished? done

mine. to Rome. football.

it?

Contractions with the present perfect tense When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this when we write. I have You have He has She has It has John has The car has We have They have Here are some examples:

I've You've He's She's It's John's The car's We've They've

I've finished my work. John's seen ET. They've gone home.

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How do we use the Present Perfect Tense? This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense: 1. experience 2. change 3. continuing situation 1. Present perfect tense for experience We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it: I have seen ET. He has lived in Bangkok. Have you been there? We have never eaten caviar. past The action or state was in the past. present In my head, I have a memory now. future

Connection with past: the event was in the past. Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about the event; I have experience of it. 2. Present perfect tense for change We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information: I have bought a car. past Last week I didn't have a car. present + Now I have a car. future

John has broken his leg.

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past + Yesterday John had a good leg.

present Now he has a bad leg.

future

Has the price gone up? past + Was the price $1.50 yesterday? present Is the price $1.70 today? future

The police have arrested the killer. past Yesterday the killer was free. present + Now he is in prison. future

Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present. Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past. 3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure. I have worked here since June. He has been ill for 2 days. How long have you known Tara? past present future

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The situation started in the past.

It continues up to now.

(It will probably continue into the future.)

Connection with past: the situation started in the past. Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.

For & Since with Present Perfect Tense We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.

We use for to talk about a period of time5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. We use since to talk about a point in past time9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday. for a period of time since a point in past time x-----------20 minutes three days 6 months 4 years 2 centuries a long time ever etc 6.15pm Monday January 1994 1800 I left school the beginning of time etc

Here are some examples:

I have been here for 20 minutes. I have been here since 9 o'clock. John hasn't called for 6 months. John hasn't called since February. He has worked in New York for a long time.

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He has worked in New York since he left school.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE I sang The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often. In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense How do we make the Simple Past Tense? To make the simple past tense, we use:

past form only or auxiliary did + base form

Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and regular verbs: V1 base regular verb work explode like go see sing V2 past worked exploded liked went saw sang V3 past participle worked exploded liked gone seen sung The past form for all regular verbs ends in -ed. The past form for irregular verbs is variable. You need to learn it by heart.

irregular verb

You do not need the past participle form to make the simple past tense. It is shown here for completeness only.

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The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is: subject + main verb past The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is: subject + auxiliary verb did The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is: auxiliary verb did + subject + main verb base + not + main verb base

The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work: subject I + You She We Did ? Did they work at home? did you not work go yesterday. to London? did not worked go very hard. with me. auxiliary verb main verb went to school.

Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples: subject I, he/she/it + You, we, they were in London. main verb was here.

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I, he/she/it You, we, they Was

was were I, he/she/it you, we, they

not not

there. happy. right? late?

? Were

How do we use the Simple Past Tense? We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situationan eventin the past. The event can be short or long. Here are some short events with the simple past tense: The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday. She went to the door. We did not hear the telephone. Did you see that car? past The action is in the past. present future

Here are some long events with the simple past tense: I lived in Bangkok for 10 years. The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years. We did not sing at the concert. Did you watch TV last night? past The action is in the past. present future

Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:

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the event is in the past the event is completely finished we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event

Here are some more examples:

I lived in that house when I was young. He didn't like the movie. What did you eat for dinner? John drove to London on Monday. Mary did not go to work yesterday. Did you play tennis last week? I was at work yesterday. We were not late (for the train). Were you angry?

Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story: "The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..."

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE I was singing The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past. In this lesson we look at the structure and the use of the past continuouse tense How do we make the Past Continuous Tense? The structure of the past continuous tense is: subject + auxiliary verb BE + main verb

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conjugated in simple past tense was were

present participle

base + ing

For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past continuous tense: subject + + ? ? I You He, she, it We Were Were auxiliary verb was were was were you they not not main verb watching working helping joking. being playing silly? football? TV. hard. Mary.

How do we use the Past Continuous Tense? The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm. At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV. past 8pm At 8pm, I was in the middle of watching TV. present future

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When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:

I was working at 10pm last night. They were not playing football at 9am this morning. What were you doing at 10pm last night? What were you doing when he arrived? She was cooking when I telephoned her. We were having dinner when it started to rain. Ram went home early because it was snowing.

We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use it to describe the background situation at the moment when the action begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and then moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example: James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephone box..." Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the past continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while. In the following example, we have two actions: 1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense 2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense past Long action. present future

I was watching TV at 8pm.

8pm

You telephoned at 8pm.

Short action.

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We can join these two actions with when:

I was watching TV when you telephoned.

(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time [8pm].) We use:

when + short action (simple past tense) while + long action (past continuous tense)

There are four basic combinations: I was walking past the car When the car exploded The car exploded While I was walking past the car while when it exploded. I was walking past it. I was walking past it. it exploded.

Notice that the long action and short action are relative.

"Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds. "Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few milliseconds

PAST PERFECT TENSE I had sung The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about the "past in the past". In this lesson we look at: How do we make the Past Perfect Tense? The structure of the past perfect tense is:

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subject

auxiliary verb HAVE conjugated in simple past tense had

main verb past participle V3

For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect tense: subject + + ? ? I You She We Had Had auxiliary verb had had had had you they not not main verb finished stopped gone left. arrived? eaten dinner? my work. before me. to school.

When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb: I had you had he had she had it had we had they had I'd you'd he'd she'd it'd we'd they'd

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The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we'd can mean:

We had or We would

But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:

We had arrived (past participle) We would arrive (base)

It is always clear from the context.

How do we use the Past Perfect Tense? The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This is the past in the past. For example:

The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left. The train had left when we arrived. past present future

Train leaves in past at 9am. 9 9.15

We arrive in past at 9.15am.

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Look at some more examples:

I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten. They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours. I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before. "Mary wasn't at home when I arrived." "Really? Where had she gone?"

You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past. past perfect tense had | done | >| past now future present perfect tense have | done | >| past now future

For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster says to you:

"You are too late. The train has left."

Later, you tell your friends:

"We were too late. The train had left."

We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told, asked, thought, wondered: Look at these examples:

He told us that the train had left. I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong. He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain. I wondered if I had been there before. I asked them why they had not finished.

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For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this: I will not you will not he will not she will not it will not we will not they will not I won't you won't he won't she won't it won't we won't they won't

How do we use the Simple Future Tense? No Plan We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:

Hold on. I'll get a pen. We will see what we can do to help you. Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.

In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking. We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:

I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. I think I will have a holiday next year. I don't think I'll buy that car.

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Prediction We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:

It will rain tomorrow. People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century. Who do you think will get the job?

Be When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:

I'll be in London tomorrow. I'm going shopping. I won't be very long. Will you be at work tomorrow?

FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE I will be singing How do we make the Future Continuous Tense? The structure of the future continuous tense is: subject + auxiliary verb WILL invariable will + auxiliary verb BE invariable be + main verb present participle base + ing

For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will and be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future continuous tense: subject + I auxiliary verb will auxiliary verb be main verb working at 10am.

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+ ? ?

You She We Will Will

will will will you they not not

be be be be be

lying using having playing watching

on a beach tomorrow. the car. dinner at home. football? TV?

When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and will: I will you will he will she will it will we will they will I'll you'll he'll she'll it'll we'll they'll

For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this: I will not you will not he will not she will not it will not we will not they will not I won't you won't he won't she won't it won't we won't they won't

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How do we use the Future Continuous Tense? The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm: At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working. past present future 4pm At 4pm, I will be in the middle of working.

When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:

I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow. They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight. What will you be doing at 10pm tonight? What will you be doing when I arrive? She will not be sleeping when you telephone her. We 'll be having dinner when the film starts. Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE I will have sung The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future. How do we make the Future Perfect Tense? The structure of the future perfect tense is: subject + auxiliary verb WILL invariable + auxiliary verb HAVE invariable + main verb past participle

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will

have

V3

Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense: subject + + ? ? I You She We Will Will auxiliary verb will will will will you they not not auxiliary verb have have have have have have main verb finished forgotten gone left. arrived? received it? by 10am. me by then. to school.

In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will. Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together: I will have you will have he will have she will have it will have we will have they will have I'll have you'll have he'll have she'll have it'll have we'll have they'll have I'll've you'll've he'll've she'll've it'll've we'll've they'll've

How do we use the Future Perfect Tense? The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:

The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.

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The train will have left when you arrive. past present future Train leaves in future at 9am. 9 9.15

You arrive in future at 9.15am.

Look at some more examples:

You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8. They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time. "Mary won't be at home when you arrive." "Really? Where will she have gone?"

You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future: present perfect tense | have | done | >| past now future past now future perfect tense will | have | done | >| future

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Exercises Tenses Practise: 1. Alex didn't come to see the film last night because he _____ it before. saw had seen has seen was seen 2. A cold wind _____ for the last three days. has been blowing Blows is blowing Blew 3. I _____ as ill as I do now for a long time. wasn't feeling haven't been feeling didn't feel haven't felt 4. I wish I _____ younger. had been would be Were have been 5. She said she _____ to me, but she didn't. would have written will have written would write will write 6. If he _____ lucky, he could get the job. is had been would be would have been 7. She told him that if he _____ his promise, she _____ speak to him again. break - would never break - will never broke - will never
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broke - would never

8. You _____ a six-month contract, when you are offered a permanent position elsewhere. What will you do? have just started had started were starting Started 9. I'll see you in August when I _____ back. will come came will have come come 10. They claimed they _____ the law. haven't broken were not breaking hadn't broken wouldn't breaking 11. My friend _____ when the lesson started. hasn't arrived wasn't arrived hadn't arrived wasn't arriving 12. He _____ on the bank fishing when he _____ a man's hat floating down the river.

has sat - had seen was sitting - saw sat - was seeing was sitting - has seen

13. July 10th is my wedding anniversary. Next month, my husband and I will _____ for twenty years. marry have married be married have been married 14. Who _____ the boss tell him that?
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did hear does hear hears heard

15. Something extremely strange _____ yesterday while we were out jogging. was happened happened has been happening has happened 16. I _____ this letter around for days and haven't even looked at it. carry have been carrying am carrying was carrying 17. Ouch! I _____ my thumb! have cut am to cut had cut had been cut 18. I _____ the flowers yesterday morning. have been watering watered have watered did watered 19. As soon as you _____ that, I'd like you to go to bed. did will do will have done have done 20. By then I _____ my driving test, I hope. pass will have passed will be passed have passed More Exercise 1. The red file_________ to me. Yours is the grey one. (BELONG)

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2. Look at that car! It _______ too fast. (GO)

3. If you wait here, the Director_______ you in a minute. (SEE) 4. At the moment he _______ to travel to Brussels on business every day. (HAVE)
5. When the courier _______ back, please give him the pack. (COME)

6. She _______well attend the conference, she is not sure. (MAY) 7. I _______ with this supplier for over a year now . (DEAL)
8. They _______ in Leeds from 1995 until 1999. (WORK)

9. We _______ to Greece on holiday last summer. (GO) 10. If I _______ in charge now, I would change the Managing Director. (BE)

The usage of For/Since : Usually we use the word for with the Perfect tense. For example: 1. I have studied for 3 hours. 2. I had/have lived there for 10 years. Usually we use the word Since with the continuous tense. For example: 1. I have been studying since the morning. 2. I have been living here since 1994. Fill in the blanks with either For/Since: 1. Ive worked here _______ I left Harvard Business School. 2. You should visit the Empire State Building _________ you are in New York. 3. Ive been looking at these documents ______________ you were at the meeting. 4. Ive been jogging daily _____________ the last two years. 5. Could you hold on _____a few minutes while I check this with my boss? 6. Its all been going much better _______ we reorganized the department. 7. Theyll be stuck in customs awaiting clearance ________ at least three weeks.
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8. Its gone much better ______ John was sacked. 9. We hope you will stay with us _______ a long time. 10. Ive worked here ______ ten years. 11. Ive lived here _________ six years. 12. Ive been ill _______ last night. 13. I have known about that _________ yesterday. 14. My family has lived in this house ________ over a century. 15. Ive been in my job ________ September

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Chapter 6: Active Passive Writers are often advised to use active verbs because they are more direct, more emphatic, and more concise than passive verbs. Passive verbs are necessary, however, when writers do not know the "doer" of the verb, the "doer" of the verb is not important, or there are too many "doers" of the same verb. Active Form In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active. [Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action] Examples:

Passive Form In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action. [Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action] Examples:

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Active / Passive Overview Active Simple Present Present Continuous Simple Past Once a week, Tom cleans the house. Right now, Sarah is writing the letter. Sam repaired the car. Passive Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom. Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah. The car was repaired by Sam.

Past Continuous

The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. Many tourists have visited that castle. George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license. Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris. Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.

The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. That castle has been visited by many tourists. Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license. The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris. The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.

Present Perfect Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous

Simple Future
WILL

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Simple Future
BE GOING TO

Sally is going to make a

A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.

Future Continuous
WILL

At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.

Future Continuous
BE GOING TO

At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John.

Future Perfect
WILL

They will have completed the project before the deadline.

The project will have been completed before the deadline.

Future Perfect
BE GOING TO

They are going to have completed the project before the deadline. Jerry used to pay the bills. My mother would always make the pies. I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.

The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.

Used to Would Always

The bills used to be paid by Jerry. The pies would always be made by my mother. I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.

Future in the Past WOULD Future in the Past WAS GOING TO Active Voice

I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.

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In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb. Passive Voice In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted.

(agent performing action has been omitted.)

Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting.

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In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests. You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a beverb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase. Choosing Active Voice In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

passive (indirect)

active (direct):

Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive. passive (more wordy)
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active (more concise)

Changing passive to active If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context. Passive Voice Agent most of the class agent not specified; most likely agents such as "the researchers" the CIA director and his close advisors agent not specified; most likely agents such as "we" Changed to Active Voice

Choosing Passive Voice While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally
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use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.

Active The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have escaped. Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday.

passive Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped. A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday. "Authorities make rules to be broken," he "Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly. said defiantly. In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon. Changing active to passive If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional. Active Voice Agent The presiding officer Changed to Passive Voice

The leaders

The scientists

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In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.

Some suggestions 1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive. Unnecessary shift in voice Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently. He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the other students. Revised Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently. He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other students still laughed at him.

2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. Dangling modifier with passive voice To save time, the paper was written on a computer. (Who was saving time? The paper?) Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?) Revised To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer. Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.

3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgment, or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.

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Practice Exercises

shocked was shocked

Everybody ___ by the terrible news yesterday.

Mr. Green ___ at the University since 1989. has been teaching has been taught

Not much ___ about the accident since that time. has said has been said

A new book ___ by that company next year. will publish will be published

He ___ the girl's name now. remembers is remembered

The secretary ___ to her new boss yesterday. introduced was introduced

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Our plan ___ by the members of the committee. is being considered

is considered He ___ responsible for the accident. was holding was held

A prize ___ to whoever solves this equation. will be giving will be given

When the manager arrived, the problem ___ . had already been solved. had already solved

More Practice Change into Passive 1. I ate a piece of chocolate cake. 2. The librarian read the book to the students 3. The money was stolen 4. They are paid on Fridays 5. The movie is being made in Hollywood 6. I washed my car three weeks ago 7. His hair was cut by a professional 8. I will introduce you to my boss this week. 9. It would have been fixed on the weekend 10. The national anthem is being sung by Jason this time

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Chapter 7: Punctuation

Apostrophe:
The apostrophe is used to indicate the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns; to mark character omissions in contracted words and dates; and to form the plurals of symbols, abbreviations, and some dates and numbers.

1. Possessives: Use ans to indicate possession for a singular noun.

o Sarah's coat is black.

When more than one noun can demonstrate possession of an item, use the 's on the last noun in the list.

o Joe and Linda's house is being sold.

To demonstrate individual possession of similar items, apply thes to each noun.

o Mike's and Molly's grades have improved.

Singular nouns that are longer than one syllable and end ins, or ce may have either an apostrophe or an 's to designate possession. If the noun is only one syllable long, however, it must end in 's.

o Louis' candy is sticky. o Ross's cat is mean.

When a singular noun ends in s and the next word begins with an s, use the apostrophe to indicate possession.

o Denis' sweet tooth is legendary.

If the plural noun ends ins, only the apostrophe is needed to indicate possession.

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o George is at the teachers' meeting.

If a noun ends with repeated s or z sounds, or an eez sound, use only the apostrophe to indicate possession.

o Moses' mother hid him in the bulrushes. o Louise' tooth hurts her.

Do not use an apostrophe or an 's with possessive pronouns.

o Sheila, whose eyes are blue, wears green contacts.

You must use 's to indicate possession for an indefinite or an impersonal pronoun.

o I need someone's help with my homework.

When using compound nouns, put the 's on the noun closest to the object to indicate possession.

o The Surgeon General's report is due soon.

Often, names of places or institutions will not use the apostrophe to designate possession.

o He attended Johns Hopkins University.

2. Contractions: Contractions of words and dates can appear in informal writing. Use an apostrophe to indicate the place where characters have been omitted.

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o She wouldn't work for the gov't. in '93.

Omit the apostrophe in abbreviated names and titles.

o Lt. Wm. Jones visited us.

3. Plurals: No apostrophe is needed when a word reflects its meaning in a sentence.

o Don't give me any ifs, ands, or buts.

However, when the word is referred to only as a word, add an 's for clarity.

o He used twenty-five and's in one paragraph.

Dates, numbers, and acronyms that end with an upper case letter do not require an apostrophe with the s.

o Seven Ph.D.s lived in this building in the 1970s.

If the plural of an upper case letter could be misunderstood, use an 's to form the plural.

o The Roman Numerals for the number eight is a V followed by three I's.

Comma:
The comma is used to connect, separate, or highlight grammatical elements, and to indicate the omission of words or characters in sentences. 1. Connecting Elements:

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The comma is used before the coordinating conjunction when a sentence contains more than one main clause. The coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but, yet, for, nor, and so (i.e., therefore).

o He painted the exterior of the house, and she painted the interior.

2. Separating Elements: Use the comma to separate two or more coordinate modifying words. Be careful not to separate a modifying word from its own modifier.

o Sam looked up at the bright, yellow sun. o He ate a bright red apple.
Place a comma between an introductory phrase that modifies the subject, unless the phrase is short.

o While waiting for the bus on that cold rainy night, she started sneezing. o At 10 o'clock the bus arrived.
Place commas before and after Jr., Sr., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S., Inc., and similar designations, unless the designation is genitive.

o They identified him as Howard R. Williams, Jr., chairman of their board. o That is Howard R. Williams, Jr.'s company.
A comma separates an imperative or declarative clause from its tag question.

o Do it, won't you? o You know the answer, don't you?

An adverb or adverb phrase that begins a sentence must be followed by a comma if it serves as a link to the previous sentence.

o She believed he had the talent to succeed. Unfortunately, he was lazy.

Place a comma before the final and, or, or nor when it is part of a list of three or more words, phrases, or other members of a list.

o He promised to supply the pencils, pens, and notebooks for the class.
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Place a comma between words, phrases, or figures that would otherwise be ambiguous.

o That she knew where the money was, was news to me.
Use commas to separate direct quotations from the rest of the sentence.

o Maggie frowned and said, "You can't do that." o "Perhaps," Tom responded, "I will try anyway."

Place a comma after the name of someone being addressed.

o George, put out the garbage.

3. Highlighting Elements: Use commas to set off interjected words, phrases, or clauses.

o He knew, however, that no one would listen to his warning. o No, you may not come with us.

Words or phrases used in contrast should be set off with commas.

o Jane, not Shirley, will attend the meeting.

Set off nonrestrictive words or phrases with commas.

o Her husband, Bill, is a scientist.

4. Replacing Elements: When a word or phrase is missing from a sentence because its meaning can be inferred, a comma marks the omission.

o George was the hard worker; John, the lazy one.

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Ellipses:
Ellipses are a series of dots used to indicate the omission of words or paragraphs from quoted material. They can also be used to indicate hesitant speech. 1. Word Omission: When words are omitted from the beginning of a quotation, three periods are used as the ellipses. If the quotation begins in the middle of a sentence, the first word after the ellipses will be in lower case. ". . . into that good night." When words are omitted in the middle of the quotation, the ellipses appear as three periods to mark the omission. He agreed that prices were . . . reasonable. If the omitted words appear at the end of a sentence, four periods are used. She disagreed with the decision . . . .

2. Paragraph Omission: The omission of one or more paragraphs is designated by ellipses in the form of a single row of periods. o This is paragraph 1.

............... o This is paragraph 3.

If the paragraph preceding the omitted one ends in the middle, use four periods to indicate the omission of the remaining words.

o This is . . . .
...............
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This is paragraph 3.

If the paragraph following the omitted one starts in the middle, use three periods to indicate the omission opening words of the paragraph. o This is paragraph 1.

...............

o . . . is paragraph 3.

3. Speech Hesitation: The ellipses may be used between words to indicate where the natural flow of speech has been interrupted.

o Clutching at his throat, he gasped, " Help. . .help me."

Italics:
Italics can be used to print titles of complete works, to emphasize specific parts of a written passage, or to highlight unfamiliar words that may require some definition. 1. Titles: Italics can be used for the titles of complete works, such as books, magazines, or plays.

o The Journal of the American Medical Association is on your desk.

Italics can also be used for the abbreviated titles of complete works.

o The JAMA contains reports on medical research.

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2. Emphasis: Certain words may be printed in italics to emphasize a point.

o Maintaining normal blood pressure is extremely important.

3. Unfamiliar Words: Scientific words and foreign words not yet included in our vernacular are often set off in italics.

o The Escherichia coli 0157 is considered deadly.

Period:
Periods are used to end sentences; to signal the omission of words, sentences, or paragraphs; to form leaders that link information; and to end abbreviations. They also serve several different functions when used with numbers. 1. Ending Sentences: Use the period to end declarative and imperative sentences. Some interrogative sentences that are intended as imperatives may also end in a period.

o The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog. o Since when am I supposed to believe this.
It ends a quotation when it also ends the sentence, but not when the quote ends in the middle of the sentence 2. Omissions: The omission of words, sentences, or paragraphs may be indicated by a string of periods (see Ellipses).

3. Links:

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A string of periods may also be leaders, for example, to locate page numbers after headings in a Table of Contents:

o Chapter 2...........................................................page 30.

4. Abbreviations: A period may be found after an abbreviation, after each letter of a person's initials, and within some acronyms.

o Mr. Jones will see you now. o On the plaque were the initials W.R.K. o The Rosicrucians are identified by the acronym A.M.O.R.C.

5. Numbers: A period can indicate the multiplication function in mathematical expressions.

o 3 . 5 means 3 times 5.
It is also used to separate dollars from cents in monetary expressions. o $13.50

Similarly, periods can be used to indicate decimal points.

o 11.9%, 25.3 C
The period is commonly found terminating numbers or letters tabulating a list.

o 1.(item 1) o 2. (item 2)

Quotation Marks:
Quotation marks enclose direct quotations, titles, technical terms, nicknames, and selected words for emphasis. 1. Direct Quotations:
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Short quotations are enclosed within a paragraph. If a dialogue between several people is being quoted, a new paragraph begins each time the speaker changes.

o "Did you do it?" he asked. o "No," she replied.

Quoted material is usually set off from the rest of a sentence with commas. However, if the quotation should end with an exclamation mark or a question mark, this punctuation will be used in place of the expected comma.

o "I'm finally tired enough to get to sleep," she yawned. o They shouted, "Congratulations!" through the door.

If the quotation ends the sentence, the end of the quotation will contain the ending punctuation for the sentence.

o He exclaimed, "I am the strongest man in Texas!"

If the quoted material would end with a period, but the sentence is not complete, a comma is placed at the end of the quote, inside the quotation mark.

o "I'm in here," he whispered.

If the body of the sentence is interrogatory or exclamatory, but the quoted material is not, and if the quotation ends the sentence, the ending punctuation is put outside the quotation mark.

o Did she really say, "I've heard it all before"?

If one quotation contains another expression that itself requires quote marks, the inner expression is enclosed in single quotation marks.

o George explained, "I heard her say, 'Go away!' so I left."

2. Titles: Titles of articles, reports, short stories, editorials, poems, plays, and films can be placed in quotation marks.
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o The poem "Trees" was written by Joyce Kilmer.

3. Special Words: When quotation marks are placed around technical words, or around words that are being emphasized, no comma is required before the first quotation mark. If the quotation is at the end of the sentence, the appropriate ending punctuation is placed before the final quotation mark.

o Doctors refer to the red blemish as an "hemangioma."

Colons:

1) A colon (:) is used to introduce series or lists.

o Questionnaires were sent to three states: New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and
Maine. o The steps are as follows: 1. Construct a triangle... 2. Connect the points... 2) A complete sentence, question, or long quotation is introduced with a colon.

o One rule is supreme: Do not fire until the order is given. o I quote from his recent speech: "In times such as this... our only option is to
declare war. 3) A colon is used to introduce speech into a dialog, and after the introductory address of a speaker.

o Father: Has he asked you yet? o Jan: No, he hasn't asked yet. o Ladies and Gentlemen: ...
4) Colons are used to punctuate indications of time, Bible references, volume and page references, and ratios.

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o o o o

At exactly 5:12 this afternoon... Genesis 1: 13 Sports Illustrated 12: 5-8 At a ratio of 3:1

5) Colons are used to separate the subtitle from the main part of the title.

o Homecoming: The Earth's Call o The Troubled Partnership: A Re-appraisal of the Atlantic Alliance

Parentheses:
The independent part of a sentence that is not directly related to the main statement is enclosed in parentheses.

o Three people (all in the fourth row) were talking loudly. o The pool will be open until Labor Day. (Last year it closed August 15.)
Parentheses are used to enclose letters or numbers to count items in a series, or with numbers or other symbols used appositively.

o She traced the development of the symphony by using examples from the works
of 1) Bach, 2) Beethoven, and 3) Mozart. o With each order of six (6), enclose a check or money order for three dollars ($3.00). A place name that is not part of an official name but is necessary in a sentence is enclosed in parentheses.

o The Springfield (Massachusetts) Museum shouldn't be confused as being the

Springfield (Illinois) Museum. When the parenthetical matter is a complete statement, the punctuation comes before the closing parentheses.

o The pool will be open until Labor Day. (Last year it closed August 15.)

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Question Marks:
A question mark (?) is placed after a direct question. o o Where are you going? What are you doing?

A question mark follows an interrogative sentence even if it is part of a larger sentence. o How could he do that? I wondered.

If a declarative or imperative sentence is intended to be interrogative, the sentence ends with a question mark. o This is what we've been waiting for?

A question mark put in between parentheses is used to indicate uncertainty. o She said she'll return July 11(?).

Semicolons:
Items in a series are separated by a semicolon (;) when the items already contain a comma or other form of internal punctuation. o The number of games played this season is: Green Team, 3; Blue Team, 2; and Red Team, 6. Two independent clauses which are not joined by a conjunction are separated by a semicolon. o The old stadiums I liked; the new ones are atrocious.

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If the clauses of a compound sentence are long or internally punctuated, a semicolon is used between the clauses, before the conjunction.

o The girls, who had been waiting for hours for a chance to see their favorite
movie star, pushed forward when he appeared; but their disappointment was great when he ran to his limo without even acknowledging their presence. A semicolon is used between the independent parts of a sentence that contain commas indicating omitted words. o In Iowa there are eight delegates; Indiana, eleven; Illinois, thirteen.

Use a semicolon preceding explanatory phrases introduced by words such as for example, that is, or namely when the writer wants a stronger break than a comma would provide. o Secretaries have many unpopular assignments; for example, typing and making coffee.

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