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Julius Nyerere (1922 – 1999), an African Philosopher, Re-envisions Teacher

Education to Escape Colonialism

Article · September 2009

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Thenjiwe Major Thalia M. Mulvihill

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New Proposals: Journal of Marxism and Interdisciplinary Inquiry
Vol. 3, No. 1 (October 2009) Pp. 15-22

Julius Nyerere (1922-1999), an African Philosopher,

Re-envisions Teacher Education to Escape Colonialism

Thenjiwe Major and Thalia M. Mulvihill
Ball State University

ABSTRACT: Before the introduction of the Western system of education into Africa (18th century), the aim of indig-
enous education was to preserve the cultural heritage of the family, the clan, and the larger groups. Indigenous education
was meant for every member of the society because it was believed that every member of society had a role to play in edu-
cating the child, thus the proverb “It takes a village to raise a child.” This paper addresses the philosophy of self-reliance
as advocated by Julius Nyerere (1922-1999) when he became president of Tanzania in 1962. Nyerere was highly criti-
cal of the social, political, economic and cultural value system imposed on his country during the period of colonization,
and he worked relentlessly to go back to the traditional African values. He believed that the Africans should decolonize
their minds in order to accept themselves as Africans. He believed that the education system introduced by the British
in 1900, when they colonized Tanzania, did not address the needs of the Tanzanian people, therefore Nyerere advocated
for education that he believed was more culturally relevant. Nyerere’s philosophy of education has had a great impact
on many African countries. This paper explores his educational philosophy of self-reliance and the impact of African
Socialism on the African education system today. Furthermore, the paper critically discusses the reasons for the down-
fall of Nyerere while reemphasizing the power that educational ideas hold for transforming societies.

Keywords: African philosopher, colonialism, teacher education, social justice, socialism

Introduction

M walimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere (1922-

1999) was the first president of Tanganyika,
presently known as Tanzania. He was given the title
learned the concept of Socialism that he later con-
nected to African communal living.
When Western education was introduced to
“Mwalimu” as a mark of honour for being a teacher. African countries, most African people viewed it
Nyerere was a secondary school teacher and when as a form of “civilization.” Some people like Henry
he became the president of Tanzania, he led his peo- Carr (Akinpelu 1998) were very grateful for the
ple wisely and firmly like a good teacher guides his introduction of western education to Africa during
pupil (Akinpelu 1998). Julius Nyerere studied at the period of colonization from 1800 to late 1900.
Edinburgh, in Britain. He was the first Tanzanian Nyerere had a different view of Western education
to study at a British university and only the second to being imposed on Africans. He believed that Western
gain a university degree outside Africa. He obtained education was alienating Africans from their own
his Masters of Arts degree in Economics and History values and thus reinforcing western values. Nyerere
in 1952. It is at Edinburgh University where Nyerere (1968a:269) stated colonial education “was not
16 • T. MAJOR AND T. MULVIHILL

designed to prepare young people for the service not be reconciled with African values; therefore, he
of their own country; instead it was motivated advocated for Socialism.
by a desire to inculcate the values of the colonial Nyerere’s idea of African Socialism was based
society and to train individuals for the service of the on three principles: work by everyone and exploi-
colonial state.” The British (Tanzania was a British tation by none; fair sharing of resources which are
colony) system of education placed more emphasis produced by joint efforts; and equality and respect for
on the white-collar jobs and less on blue collar jobs. human dignity (Akinpelu 1981:115). Nyerere advo-
White-collar jobs are mainly office work related jobs cated for Socialism because he believed in the idea
while blue collar jobs are the manual jobs. Nyerere of Ujamaa or familyhood. By tradition, Africans are
(1968a:270) noted that the education system was people who work together for the benefit of all mem-
not transmitting the “values and knowledge of bers of the society (Nyerere 1968b). Many Africans
Tanzanian society from one generation to another; hold the value of sharing and assisting one another,
it was a deliberate attempt to change those values and which in Botswana is called letsema.
replace traditional knowledge by the knowledge from Ujamaa was to help restore the cooperative
a different society.” According to Mulenga (2001a), spirit that the African people had before the colo-
Nyerere refused to reject the African traditional way nizers introduced the idea of individualism. Mulenga
of life from his first year of education. He wanted (2001a:17) stated, “Nyerere’s aim was to transform the
to restore the African traditional value system that colonial value system which had alienated Africans
was despised by the colonizers. He wanted people to from their past into one group of attitudes based
appreciate themselves as Africans. on past African values and attitudes of self-esteem,
cooperation, and family.” The idea of unity and coop-
Nyerere: African Socialist eration in African tradition is further supported by
Achebe’s Things Fall Apart. Achebe describes how
In traditional society, Nyerere maintains, the indi-
Okonkwo pleaded for communal unity involving
vidual and the families were rich or poor accord-
ing to whether the whole tribe was rich or poor. feasts in which he said:
Nobody starved, either of food or human dignity. A man who calls his kinsmen to a feast does
[Civille 1976:171] not do so to save them from starving. They all
have food in their own homes. When we gather
Nyerere was against the economic and social ideas together in the moonlight village ground it is not
that the colonizers introduced in Africa. He believed because of the moon. Every man can see it in his
that the economic system introduced by colonizers own compound. We come together because it is
was a capitalist system that encouraged individual- good for the kinsmen to do so… I fear for you
ism at the expense of the community. Nyerere noted young people because you do not understand how
(Akinpelu 1981:115), “Capitalism fosters excessive strong the bond of kinsmen is. [Adeyemi and
Adeyinka 2003:431]
individualism; promotes the competitive rather than
the cooperative instinct in man; exploits the weak; Unity was one of the principles that Nyerere
divides the society into hostile groups and gener- advocated among Africans. He believed that when
ally promotes inequality in the society.” He believed the society is united, they can help one another.
that capitalism regarded some individuals as supe- Nyerere believed that people of Tanzania had to live
rior (the rich) and others as inferior (the poor). He as a family.
further asserted that the major aim of capitalism was Nyerere emphasized equality among the society.
the production of goods and profits, not human sat- He believed that social justice could not be achieved
isfaction or the interest of the consumer. Capitalism if there was no human equality. People were not to be
encouraged inequality since each person was allowed judged by skin colour, material wealth or intellectual
to acquire as much as one can (Nyerere 1968b). ability, but “each individual should be assessed by her
According to Nyerere, these capitalist ideas could or his worth as a person” (Mulenga 2001a:15). Each
 JULIUS NYERERE • 17

individual person was to be respected and valued his own decisions, by increasing his understand-
for who he or she was. This idea encouraged respect ing of what he is doing and why; by increasing his
among members of the society. own knowledge and ability and by his full partici-
pation as an equal in the life of the community he
lives in. [Akinpelu 1981:118]
Nyerere: Educational Philosopher
Before the introduction of the Western system of The idea of one being able to recognize the con-
education into Africa, the aim of the indigenous edu- dition of oppression and being able to participate
cation was to preserve the cultural heritage of the in transformation was highly emphasized by both
family, the clan, and larger groups. The indigenous Nyerere and Freire. These two philosophers believed
education was for every member of the society. Every that it is only genuine education that can help the
member of the society had a role to play in educating people to transform and become better citizens.
the child, thus the proverb “It takes a village to raise Genuine education, according to both Freire and
a child.” The advent of the Western formal education Nyerere, is the type of education that helps the indi-
changed the whole education system of the Africans. vidual to think critically. It helps one to apply theory
Education became a privilege of the chosen few. It into practice.
also introduced western values and traditions that Nyerere’s educational philosophy can be
were in direct conflict with African values and tradi- approached under two main headings: education for
tions. Nyerere believed western education was a way self-reliance and adult education, lifelong learning
of colonizing the mind of the Africans. Therefore, he and education for liberation (Kassam 1995). A brief
wanted change in the education system. discussion of each of these aspects follows.
Nyerere believed that education is an instrument
of the society to reinforce its values and traditions. This Education for Self-Reliance
is supported by Adeyemi and Adeyinka (2003:426): Nyerere advocated that teachers and students should
“Education is the process of cultural transmission be engaged in productive activities and students
and renewal, the process whereby adult members of should participate in the planning and decision-mak-
a society carefully guide the development of infants ing process of organizing the activities (Kassam 1995).
and young children, initiating them into the culture Active participation of students has been greatly
of the society.” Nyerere believed that Africans acquire advocated by many philosophers such as Dewey
the attitude of the mind from socialization by the and Freire. Dewey believed in learning by doing. He
extended family. asserted “the first principle is that teaching must be
Nyerere believed that the purpose of edu- child-centered, that is, must take into consideration
cation should be to liberate a human-being the present needs, interests and ability of the child,
(Mulenga:2001b). He concurred with Paulo Freire’s and it must involve the child in the activity: learning
idea that education is a path to permanent liberation by doing” (Akinpelu 1981:151). Furthermore, Freire
and it should make people self-reliant. According to also noted that teachers should actively involve the
Freire (1970:67) “liberating education consists in students in the learning process. Freire believed that
acts of cognition, not transferals of information.” through dialogue, students become active investiga-
Education should help people to recognize their tors instead of passive listeners. Active participation
oppression and then participate in its transforma- encouraged the idea of self-reliance. Self-reliance in
tion. Nyerere stated that: education calls for a school curriculum that integrates
People can not be developed; they can only de- theory and practice. Nyerere as cited by Akinpelu
velop themselves. For while it is possible for an (1981:122) stated “the object of teaching must be the
outsider to build a man’s house, an outsider can- provision of knowledge, skills, and attitudes which
not give man pride of self-confidence in him as a will serve the student when he/she lives and works in
human-being. Those things man has to create in the changing socialist state, it must not be aimed at
himself by his own actions. He develops himself
university entrance.” Nyerere wanted education that
by what he does, he develops himself by making
18 • T. MAJOR AND T. MULVIHILL

students could apply to the real world and he advo- believed that when students complete their educa-
cated the following changes in the education system tion they should be able to go back and work in the
of Tanzania: villages. Education was geared towards the societal
1. It should be oriented to rural life. needs as compared to individual needs.
2. Teachers and students should engage together Nyerere valued social justice and communal
in productive activities and students should harmony. His emphasis on these values helped to
participate in the planning and decision- establish a new sense of community among many
making process of organizing these activities. tribes in Tanzania. He united 153 tribes by having
3. Productive work should become an integral one common language: Swahili. Nyerere believed
part of the school curriculum and provide that children should be proud of their roots and a
meaningful learning experience through the unifying language would help accomplish this goal.
integration of theory and practice. Education was not supposed to alienate children from
4. The importance of examinations should be their traditions but should make children appreciate
downgraded. themselves as Africans. Abosi and Kandjii-Murangi
5. Children should begin school at age 7 so that (1996:22) claim that colonial education divorced
they would be old enough and sufficiently pupils from their original society as it supposedly
mature to engage in self-reliant and produc- prepared them for a new social order. They stated “the
tive work when they leave school. school is always separate; it is not part of the soci-
6. Primary education should be complete in itself ety. It is a place children go to and which they and
rather than merely serving as a means to higher their parents hope will make it unnecessary for them
education. to become farmers and continue in the villages.” In
7. Students should become self-confident and effect, he was creating a new brand of Socialism.
co-operative, and develop critical and inquir- Nyerere also valued an egalitarian society. He
ing minds. [Kassam 1995:253] wanted to narrow the gap between the privileged
Nyerere’s ideas of education can be analyzed and the non-privileged. He also valued equality and
under three philosophical tools: metaphysics, axiol- cooperation. In education, working together as a team
ogy and epistemology. In his metaphysics, Nyerere would have been one of the methods that could fos-
believed that it is through Socialism that Africans ter the idea of cooperation.
can get the vision of what is life. He believed that Even though no documents exist that can
Africans had been exploited by colonizers and they unequivocally state what methods of teaching
no longer valued themselves as Africans. His idea was Nyerere advocated, it is widely believed (Akinpelu
to find ways to bring African people back to their 1981) that group work, with an emphasis on team
original values and traditions. For example, Nyerere building, was greatly valued in the education sys-
(1968b) stated that after independence, Tanzanian tem supported by Nyerere. One example of this is
schools should teach African history, and children his emphasis on the value of familyhood, part of his
learned national songs and language. This was to concept of Ujamaa. Group learning encourages coop-
help the young Tanzanians to appreciate their own eration among learners and it also teaches students
tradition. to value and respect one another. Students learn best
Nyerere believed that African minds should be when they are respected by both the teacher and other
decolonized and that there should be respect for students. Nyerere wanted the ideas of Socialism to be
manual as well as academic labour. Africans had instilled in the pupil’s mind. Respect for one another,
always valued manual work, but due to western edu- equality and cooperation were some of the values of
cation, they began to look down on blue collar jobs. Nyerere’s form of Socialism.
Within the schools, teachers were to encourage the Nyerere believed that knowledge gained should
combination of theory and practice. Practical subjects be linked to economic production and self-reliance
were highly emphasized in the curriculum as Nyerere (Akinpelu 1981). The curriculum emphasized both
 JULIUS NYERERE • 19

theory and practice. The knowledge that students working toward another collective good, this time in
were receiving was to be applicable to the real world. service of higher education.
Because most Africans were agriculturalists, educa- Other forms of self-reliance were also observable.
tion was supposed to be geared towards agriculture. For example, in the classroom, teachers were expected
Students were to learn the content, then go out to do to be self-reliant and when necessary improvise some
the real hands on experience. Nyerere stated, teaching aids in order to make teaching effective. The
Agricultural progress is indeed the basis of Tanzan- teachers were supported in these actions by public
ian development…. We need in this country more documents. For example, according to the National
citizens who know modern productive agriculture, Commission on Education, which issued a public
and are prepared to undertake hard work which report in 1977, “teachers can be inventive in produc-
is involved in increasing our agricultural output. ing their own teaching materials” (1977:29). Students
[Nyerere (1968a:105] were also encouraged to do self-study. They should
Nyerere emphasized that when students com- be able to find out information from a variety of
plete their education, especially in agriculture, it was sources instead of looking at the teacher as the sole
important for them to go and practice the skills in provider of knowledge. The idea of self-reliance is
the villages. The learned should teach the villagers the still very much in practice in most African countries.
new methods of farming by applying the knowledge Most African countries still value community over
into practice and by being examples. the individual. Community members in most areas
Nyerere’s idea of education for self-reliance has like Botswana have established different projects
been adopted by many countries in Africa. Botswana involving, for example, poultry, gardening and brick
has widely adopted the idea that education should molding for living as well as for creating employment
develop citizens who are self-reliant. One of the five for other people in the village. The government sup-
national principles of Botswana is self-reliance. The ports such projects but overall the whole project is
National Commission on Education (NCE) stated managed by the community people.
Self-reliance is important for the nation, for in-
stitutions, and for individuals… self-reliance for Adult Education: Life Long Learning
the nation means freeing the country from de- Nyerere concurred with the idea that education is
pendence on expatriates… for institutions and in- what one learns from birth to death. He advocated
dividuals involved to take initiatives and to seize for adult learning that was to be continuous through-
opportunities without waiting for Government out one’s life. According to Nyerere adult education
orders, or for government to provide a service was not supposed to be offered only in the class-
which community or individuals could organise
room setting. He stated “Anything which enlarges
for themselves. [Botswana 1977:28]
men’s understanding activates them, helps them to
Most villages in Botswana have been able to make their own decisions, and to implement those
build junior secondary schools through this idea of decisions for themselves” (Nyerere 1978:30). Adults
self-reliance. One other example is the University of have to learn new ideas throughout their entire lives
Botswana. In 1976 the first president of Botswana in order to improve in life.
spearheaded a fundraising movement known as “One Nyerere advocated the learner-centred approach
Man, One Beast” for the purpose of raising money to for educating adults. He believed that the teacher
construct the campus. The people of Botswana made should guide the adults in learning rather than being
all types of contributions toward this campaign such the dispenser of knowledge. Nyerere’s idea is similar
as money, beasts, sorghum, beans and eggs in order to to Freire’s ideas stated in Pedagogy of the Oppressed
build the university. The belief was that all had some- that emphasizes student centered approach to
thing of value to contribute and each person ought learning. Freire (1970:67) stated “through dialogue,
to make a contribution for the good of the whole. the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-
This was a demonstration of the spirit of self-reliance the-teacher cease to exist and a new term emerges:
20 • T. MAJOR AND T. MULVIHILL

teacher-student with student-teacher. The teacher emphasized the need for Black people to unite
is no longer merely the one-who-teaches, but one regardless of where they live. The Pan-Africanism
who is himself taught in dialogue with the students.” movement wanted to empower Black people
Furthermore, Smith accurately summarizes Nyerere’s and to help them overcome racial discrimination
ideas with the following: and oppression. Many argue that because of his
Educators do not give to another something they efforts, Nyerere was indeed one of the greatest of
possess. Rather, they help learners to develop their African leaders. Mulenga (2001:446) stated that
own potential and capacity. Those that educators Julius Kambarage Nyerere was “one of the greatest
work with have experience and knowledge about African political leaders and respected postcolonial
the subjects they are interested in—although they thinkers… he was a rare intellectual who was open
may not realize it. [Smith 2005] to new ideas and criticism and yet displayed an
From this quotation, one can see the connections independent mindedness that was unique among
between contemporary ideas of constructivism and African thinkers.” Nyerere’s ideas of adult learning
the ideas espoused by Nyerere. According to Brooks and self-reliance are still relevant to the education
and Brooks (1993), the constructivist theory encour- system in most African countries.
ages students’ autonomy and initiatives, higher level
thinking, teachers to ask open-ended questions, stu- Why the Down Fall?
dents to engage in dialogue with the teacher and with When Nyerere took over as first president of Tanzania
one another. Nyerere believed that adult learners have in 1962, he decided to terminate the employment of
experience, so the teacher should guide them to learn most of the British people who were holding very
from their own experiences. high posts during the colonial period. He chose young
The idea of adults being actively involved in educated African men to take over positions like head
their learning process was also advocated by Paulo of civil service, commissioner of police, etc. According
Freire. Freire believed that through dialogue, adults to Sadleir (1999:254), “within a few months in 1962,
can share ideas and learning can be more meaning- as these changes were gradually introduced, the whole
ful to them. He stated that in dialogue the teacher provincial administration was turned upside-down.”
is no longer the one who teaches, but one who also Even though it seems like a good idea to replace the
learns through dialogue. British people in higher positions with the Tanzanian
people, the change was too drastic. Sadleir further
Outside Tanzania asserted that the politicians who were given these
Nyerere did not only work to liberate his country posts were not really good commissioners. One may
Tanzania. In the 1970s he assisted many African assume that these people were less experienced in
countries including Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), these positions. Nyerere could have allowed the
South Africa, and Mozambique to gain their Africans to learn the skills and to gain experience by
independence from the colonial masters. He was also working with the British people who were in these
one of the founders of the Organization of Africa positions. The immediate removal of the British
Unity (OAU) in 1963. THE OAU, presently known officials in posts of responsibility seems to have had
as African Union, is an organization of independent a great impact on the downfall of Nyerere.
African states established to promote unity, co- Another reason that could have led to the
ordinate policies, and protect the independence of downfall Nyerere is the powers that he invested in
the continent. Moreover, he was an instigator and himself.
leader of the “Front Line States,” which provided Nyerere had drawn up a new constitution, which
uncompromising support for the campaign for Black gave him powers even more sweeping than those
Majority Rule in South Africa. held by the US president. He would be both the
Nyerere was a Pan-Africanist. He was also head of state and commander-in-chief of the
involved in the Pan-Africanism movement that armed forces, would have full executive author-
 JULIUS NYERERE • 21

ity and would not even be bound to accept his Conclusions

cabinet’s advice. He would rule for seven years. Nyerere’s idea of lifelong learning is still very
[Sadleir 1999:257]
important. Adults in many parts of the world are
If one looks at the power that Nyerere gave continuously learning new ideas in order to cope
himself, one might suggest that he was “hungry” for with their present situations. Institutions of higher
power. It seems as if he wanted to be a dictator. A education have continued professional education as
head of state should have good advisors who will a part of adult education. Continuing adult educa-
greatly assist him in the ruling of the country well. If tion (life long learning) according to Nyerere was to
Nyerere was not prepared to accept advice from his help adults become more competent in their daily
cabinet, there is a great possibility that his executive work, especially learning the new techniques of bet-
authority lost trust in him and this may have led to ter farming.
his downfall. The idea of Socialism advocated by Nyerere was
The Tanzanian elite had adopted the capitalist an attempt to decolonize the African minds. Nyerere
ideas of individualism and of survival of the fittest. believed that Tanzanian people adopted the capitalist
Those in positions of power began to abuse their idea of individualism and competition, in part, due
powers in order to enrich themselves. They wanted to to an educational philosophy that wished to keep
live the “western” life like their colonizers. According the vast majority unreflective about their lives—he
to Sadleir (1999:290) Nyerere was “disillusioned by wanted them to regain the idea of cooperation as a
the increasing capitalist tendencies of many of the society. In his view, Tanzanians were to be self-reliant,
national leaders who sought to increase their personal self-reflective citizens able to construct education and
wealth by abuse of their positions in a variety of economic systems that were compatible and mutu-
ways.” Those in power built big houses, bought ally beneficial for all. Villagers were expected to work
expensive cars, etc. and did not welcome Nyerere’s together and build their own villages. Problems arose
idea of Socialism. The gap between the rich and because of the unwillingness of the elite (educated)
the poor widened. These privileged groups were not people in Tanzania to adopt his idea of Socialism,
interested in sharing their wealth. Nyerere’s idea of and the idea of practical subjects being emphasized
Socialism thus was unsuccessful because of the social in schools was not welcomed by the teachers. The
and economic capital held by the elite in Tanzanian teachers had been trained to believe that an educated
society. person cannot do manual work; therefore, the teach-
Another problem Nyerere faced involved the ers were not willing to teach practical subjects.
teachers themselves. Many did not welcome the Regardless of the weaknesses that Nyerere
emphasis on practical subjects. The teachers had encountered, his ideas are still very influential as the
been educated in the colonial system in which the social, economic and political arenas continue to be
male teacher was to be seen in a tie and jacket and shaped by the form and function of the educational
therefore was not prepared to do manual work. The environments in Africa. The idea of interdepen-
first author of this paper has spent time as a teacher dence and cooperation is greatly valued and educators
in Botswana and she reports that it was a common continue to be encouraged by the ideas of Nyerere
belief among teachers that doing manual labour, and others who held a vision for schools guided by
such as agricultural work, made them inferior. The African values. This re-envisioning of teacher edu-
teachers, along with other members of society, had cation to escape colonialism was an essential part of
been ‘indoctrinated’ by a functionalist approach to Nyerere’s political agenda. This paper hopes to con-
education where different forms of work are valued tribute to the understanding of Nyerere’s work and
differently, as are the people who perform the work to spotlight the notion that educational ideas, and
for the society. those who espouse them, hold the future for entire
societies.
 22 • T. MAJOR AND T. MULVIHILL

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