I.

Types of Research
Based on the purpose and characteristics of the research process it is categorized as follows,

Basic Research
• Basic research is also known as fundamental or pure research. It is mainly towards seeking knowledge
and not application based. It helps us understand something and it mainly done for academic purposes.
• It is either concerned with the formulation of theory or contributes to the existing body of knowledge.
Thus, pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the
future.
• The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge
of research methods. Generally this type of research demands a very high order of intellectual calibre;
intuition also plays an important role in this type of research.
• Those who are involved in basic research devote their efforts to the formulation or reformulation of theories
and may not be concerned at all with their practical application. The knowledge obtained thus expands the
theoretical base of a subject. Generally, basic research is conducted by intellectuals at academic
institutions who are specially commissioned for this purpose.

Applied Research
• Applied research aims at improving a theory, product or process. It is testing of theoretical concepts in
specific problem situations. Its concern is generally with the solution for problems.
• Applied Research is usually conducted for industries or governments by universities or by specialised
research laboratories or institutions. Applied Research is always for development purposes. It is
generally referred to as Research and Development (R& D)

Action Research
• Action research is not much concerned with the development of theory or its general application. It
concerns itself with an immediate problem in a specific setting.
• Action research aims at improving the social reality.
• Commonly used in education, those practices could be related to instructional methods, classroom
practices, or school organizational matters.

II. Research Approach

Quantitative is measurable. Quantitative designs are based on probabilities or likelihood—it utilizes ‘p’
values, power analysis, and other scientific methods to ensure the rigor and reproducibility of the results to other
populations. Quantitative designs can be experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, or correlational.

Qualitative is usually more subjective, although like quantitative research, it also uses a systematic approach.
Qualitative research is generally preferred when the clinical question centers around life experiences or
meaning. Qualitative research explores the complexity, depth, and richness of a particular situation from the
perspective of the informants—referring to the person or persons providing the information. At the heart of
qualitative research is the belief that reality is based on perceptions and can be different for each person,
often changing over time.

III. Qualitative Research Methodology

According to its definition, Qualitative research is a type of research that provides deep understanding of the
problem by asking participants their experiences, perceptions, and understanding in relation to a particular
problem.
Qualitative study deals with the universe of meanings, beliefs, motivations, aspirations, values, perceptions
and human feelings obtained with research participants in their subjectivity and living contexts .
Types of Qualitative Methodology
There are various methodological approaches in qualitative study. Each methodology has explicit criteria for
the collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Qualitative studies are flexible and iterative, but it should
be under the methodological approach. The “big three” qualitative approaches are:

1. Grounded Theory
2. Phenomenology
3. Ethnography

Qualitative research question examples

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?

• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the PH?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the

• The Hawthorne effect refers to people’s tendency to behave differently when they become aware that
they are being observed. You are researching the smoking rates among bank employees as part of a
smoking cessation program. You collect your data by watching the employees during their work breaks. If
employees are aware that you are observing them, this can affect your study’s results.
• Observer bias happens when a researcher’s expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what they
perceive or record in a study. It often affects studies where observers are aware of the research aims
and hypotheses.
• Recall bias refers to systematic difference in the ability of participant groups to accurately recall
information. Parents whose children have developed asthma are likely to be quite concerned about what
may have contributed to their child’s condition. As a result, if asked by a researcher, these parents are more
likely to recall relevant details, such as changes in their children’s breathing when active or resting, than
parents of children without any health issues. They’ve also already associated possible triggers, such as
certain foods, environments, or other allergens, with their child’s asthma. This difference in the ability to
recall information results in recall bias.
• Social desirability bias occurs when respondents give answers to questions that they believe will
make them look good to others, concealing their true opinions or experiences. It often affects
studies that focus on sensitive or personal topics, such as politics, drug use, or sexual behavior. While
not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can
prevent them from impacting your work too much. You are conducting a study about the relationship
between gambling and drug use. You ask participants to fill out a survey where you ask about their
habits regarding the use of cocaine and casino gambling. These types of questions require participants
to admit to attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors that may violate social norms. Due to t his, participants may
downplay how often they visit casinos or use cocaine. In other words, they may give answers they
consider to be socially desirable in order to project a favorable image of themselves, or to avoid
being perceived negatively.

1. Grounded Theory
History
This methodology was developed by Glaser and Strauss from the University of California in the 1960s and is rooted
in sociology.
Aim
It aims to generate a theory that explains a social process, action or interaction. The theory is constructed or
‘grounded’ from the data of participants who have experienced the phenomenon under study.
For example, one grounded theory study tested several theoretical constructs to build a theory on autonomy in
diabetes patients. In developing the theory, the researchers started by purposefully sampling participants with
diabetes differing in age, onset of diabetes and social roles, for example, employees, housewives, and retired
people. After the first analysis, researchers continued with theoretically sampling, for example, participants who
differed in the treatment they received, with different degrees of care dependency, and participants who receive
care from a general practitioner (GP), at a hospital or from a specialist nurse, etc.
Data Analysis
Grounded theory generates a theory that explains how a basic social problem that emerged from the data is
processed in a social setting. It uses the ‘constant comparison’ method, which involves comparing elements
that are present in one data source (e.g., an interview) with elements in another source, to identify
commonalities.

The steps in the analysis are known as open, axial and selective coding. Throughout the analysis, you document
your ideas about the data in methodological and theoretical memos. The outcome of a grounded theory study is
a theory.

2. Phenomenology
History
This methodology originated from Germany at the start of the 20th century and has its roots in psychology and
philosophy. Edmund Husserl (1859) and Martin Heidegger (1889) – pivotal German philosophers involved in
foundation and development of phenomenology.
There are two main variants:
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Descriptive Phenomenological Method

Developed by Jonathan Smith in 1990s. Developed by Amedeo Giorgi in 1970s.

Heideggerian approach. Husserlian approach

Double hermeneutics – attempting to understand how the Avoids theoretical or speculative interpretations –
individual interprets and attempts to understand their stays close to the descriptions provided by
world. participants

Active role of researcher Researcher “brackets” own assumptions

Aim
The aim is to understand the unique lived experience of individuals by exploring the meaning of a
phenomenon. It enables the researcher to uncover a description of the ‘essence’ of the phenomenon; the
universal meaning for individuals.
Sampling
Phenomenology uses criterion sampling, in which participants meet predefined criteria. The most prominent
criterion is the participant’s experience with the phenomenon under study. The researchers look for participants
who have shared an experience but vary in characteristics and in their individual experiences.
For example, a phenomenological study on the lived experiences of pregnant women with psychosocial support
from primary care midwives will recruit pregnant women varying in age, parity and educational level in primary
midwifery practices.

Analysis
In phenomenology, analysis aims to describe and interpret the meaning of an experience, often by identifying
essential subordinate and major themes. Search for common themes featuring within an interview and across
interviews, sometimes involving the study participants or other experts in the analysis process.
Researchers put their own views of the phenomenon, referred to as bracketing or reflexivity, in order to deepen
their understanding. The outcome of a phenomenological study is a detailed description of themes that
capture the essential meaning of a ‘lived’ experience.[6]
 3. Ethnography
History
It came from comparative cultural anthropology in the early 20th century. [3]
Aim
To examine the shared patterns of behaviour, beliefs and language within a cultural group and to do this
requires extended times of observation by the researcher.[3]
Sampling
The main strategy is purposive sampling of a variety of key informants, who are most knowledgeable about a
culture and are able and willing to act as representatives in revealing and interpreting the culture.
For example, an ethnographic study on the cultural influences of communication in maternity care will recruit key
informants from among a variety of parents-to-be, midwives and obstetricians in midwifery care practices and
hospitals.
Analysis
In ethnography, analysis begins from the moment that the researcher sets foot in the field. The analysis
involves continually looking for patterns in the behaviors and thoughts of the participants in everyday life, in order
to obtain an understanding of the culture under study.
When comparing one pattern with another and analyzing many patterns simultaneously, you may use
maps, flow charts, organizational charts and matrices to illustrate the comparisons graphically. The
outcome of an ethnographic study is a narrative description of a culture.

Qualitative data analysis

Approach When to use Example

Content To describe and categorize common A market researcher could perform content analysis to
analysis words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative find out what kind of language is used in descriptions
data. of therapeutic apps.

Thematic To identify and interpret patterns and A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel
analysis themes in qualitative data. blogs to explore how tourism shapes self-identity.

Textual To examine the content, structure, and A media researcher could use textual analysis to
analysis design of texts. understand how news coverage of celebrities has
changed in the past decade.

Discourse To study communication and how A political scientist could use discourse analysis to study
analysis language is used to achieve effects in how politicians generate trust in election campaigns.
specific contexts.
Content analysis is a research method used to identify patterns in recorded communication. To conduct content
analysis, you systematically collect data from a set of texts, which can be written, oral, or visual:

• Books, newspapers and magazines

• Speeches and interviews
• Web content and social media posts
• Photographs and films
Content analysis can be both quantitative (focused on counting and measuring) and qualitative (focused on
interpreting and understanding). In both types, you categorize or “code” words, themes, and concepts within the
texts and then analyze the results.
What is content analysis used for?
Researchers use content analysis to find out about the purposes, messages, and effects of communication content.
They can also make inferences about the producers and audience of the texts they analyze.
Content analysis can be used to quantify the occurrence of certain words, phrases, subjects or concepts in a set of
historical or contemporary texts.
Quantitative content analysis example
To research the importance of employment issues in political campaigns, you could analyze campaign speeches
for the frequency of terms such as unemployment, jobs, and work and use statistical analysis to find differences
over time or between candidates.
In addition, content analysis can be used to make qualitative inferences by analyzing the meaning and semantic
relationship of words and concepts.
Qualitative content analysis example
To gain a more qualitative understanding of employment issues in political campaigns, you could locate the word
unemployment in speeches, identify what other words or phrases appear next to it (such as economy, inequality
or laziness), and analyze the meanings of these relationships to better understand the intentions and targets of
different campaigns.

Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data. It is usually applied to a set of texts, such as an
interview or transcripts. The researcher closely examines the data to identify common themes – topics, ideas and
patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.

• There are various approaches to conducting thematic analysis, but the most common form follows a six-
step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming
themes, and writing up.

• This process was originally developed for psychology research by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke.
However, thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be adapted to many different kinds of research.

When to use thematic analysis

Thematic analysis is a good approach to research where you’re trying to find out something about people’s
views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of qualitative data – for example, interview
transcripts, social media profiles, or survey responses.

Some types of research questions you might use thematic analysis to answer:

• What are young women’s experiences on dating sites?

• How is gender constructed in high school history teaching?
To answer any of these questions, you would collect data from a group of relevant participants and then analyze it.
Thematic analysis allows you a lot of flexibility in interpreting the data, and allows you to approach large data
sets more easily by sorting them into broad themes.

However, it also involves the risk of missing nuances in the data. Thematic analysis is often quite subjective and
relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your own choices and
interpretations.

Different approaches to thematic analysis

Once you’ve decided to use thematic analysis, there are different approaches to consider. There’s the distinction
between inductive and deductive approaches:

• An inductive approach involves allowing the data to determine your themes.

• A deductive approach involves coming to the data with some preconceived themes you expect to find
reflected there, based on theory or existing knowledge.

Ask yourself: Does my theoretical framework give me a strong idea of what kind of themes I expect to find in the
data (deductive), or am I planning to develop my own framework based on what I find (inductive)?

There’s also the distinction between a semantic and a latent approach:

• A semantic approach involves analyzing the explicit content of the data.

• A latent approach involves reading into the subtext and assumptions underlying the data.

Ask yourself: Am I interested in people’s stated opinions (semantic) or in what their statements reveal about their
assumptions and social context (latent)?

PROCESS
After you’ve decided thematic analysis is the right method for analyzing your data, and you’ve thought
about the approach you’re going to take, you can follow the six steps developed by Braun and Clarke.

Step 1: Familiarization
The first step is to get to know our data. It’s important to get a thorough overview of all the data we collected before
we start analyzing individual items.

This might involve transcribing audio, reading through the text and taking initial notes, and generally looking
through the data to get familiar with it.

Step 2: Coding
Next up, we need to code the data. Coding means highlighting sections of our text – usually phrases or sentences
– and coming up with shorthand labels or “codes” to describe their content.

Coding qualitative data

In this extract, we’ve highlighted various phrases in different colors corresponding to different codes. Each code
describes the idea or feeling expressed in that part of the text.

Step 3: Generating themes

Next, we look over the codes we’ve created, identify patterns among them, and start coming up with themes.

Themes are generally broader than codes. Most of the time, you’ll combine several codes into a single theme.
In our example, we might start combining codes into themes like this:

At this stage, we might decide that some of our codes are too vague or not relevant enough (for example, because
they don’t appear very often in the data), so they can be discarded.

Other codes might become themes in their own right. In our example, we decided that the code “uncertainty” made
sense as a theme, with some other codes incorporated into it. Again, what we decide will vary according to what
we’re trying to find out. We want to create potential themes that tell us something helpful about the data for our
purposes.

Step 4: Reviewing themes

Now we have to make sure that our themes are useful and accurate representations of the data. Here, we return to
the data set and compare our themes against it. Are we missing anything? Are these themes really present in the
data? What can we change to make our themes work better?

If we encounter problems with our themes, we might split them up, combine them, discard them or create new
ones: whatever makes them more useful and accurate.

For example, we might decide upon looking through the data that “changing terminology” fits better under the
“uncertainty” theme than under “distrust of experts,” since the data labelled with this code involves confusion, not
necessarily distrust.
Step 5: Defining and naming themes
Now that you have a final list of themes, it’s time to name and define each of them.

Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by each theme and figuring out how it helps us
understand the data.

Naming themes involves coming up with a succinct and easily understandable name for each theme.

For example, we might look at “distrust of experts” and determine exactly who we mean by “experts” in this
theme. We might decide that a better name for the theme is “distrust of authority” or “conspiracy thinking”.

Step 6: Writing up
Finally, we’ll write up our analysis of the data. Like all academic texts, writing up a thematic analysis requires an
introduction to establish our research question, aims and approach.

• We should also include a methodology section, describing how we collected the data (e.g. through semi-
structured interviews or open-ended survey questions)
• and explaining how we conducted the thematic analysis itself.

Textual analysis is a broad term for various research methods used to describe, interpret and understand texts. All
kinds of information can be gleaned from a text – from its literal meaning to the subtext, symbolism, assumptions,
and values it reveals.

The methods used to conduct textual analysis depend on the field and the aims of the research. It often aims to
connect the text to a broader social, political, cultural, or artistic context. Relatedly, it’s good to be careful of
confirmation bias when conducting these sorts of analyses, grounding your observations in clear and plausible
ways.

What is a text?
The term “text” is broader than it seems. A text can be a piece of writing, such as a book, an email, or a transcribed
conversation. But in this context, a text can also be any object whose meaning and significance you want to
interpret in depth: a film, an image, an artifact, even a place.

The methods you use to analyze a text will vary according to the type of object and the purpose of your analysis:

• Analysis of a short story might focus on the imagery, narrative perspective and structure of the text.
• To analyze a film, not only the dialogue but also the cinematography and use of sound could be relevant
to the analysis.
• A building might be analyzed in terms of its architectural features and how it is navigated by visitors.
• You could analyze the rules of a game and what kind of behaviour they are designed to encourage in
players.

Textual analysis in cultural and media studies

In the fields of cultural studies and media studies, textual analysis is a key component of research. Researchers in
these fields take media and cultural objects – for example, music videos, social media content, billboard
advertising – and treat them as texts to be analyzed.
Usually working within a particular theoretical framework (for example, using postcolonial theory, media theory,
or semiotics), researchers seek to connect elements of their texts with issues in contemporary politics and culture.
They might analyze many different aspects of the text:
• Word choice
• Design elements
• Location of the text
• Target audience
• Relationship with other texts

Textual analysis in literary studies

Textual analysis is the most important method in literary studies. Almost all work in this field involves in-depth
analysis of texts – in this context, usually novels, poems, stories or plays.

Because it deals with literary writing, this type of textual analysis places greater emphasis on the deliberately
constructed elements of a text: for example, rhyme and meter in a poem, or narrative perspective in a novel.
Researchers aim to understand and explain how these elements contribute to the text’s meaning.

Critical discourse analysis (or discourse analysis) is a research method for studying written or spoken language
in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real life situations.

When you conduct discourse analysis, you might focus on:

• How language use relates to its social, political and historical context

How is discourse analysis different from other methods?

Unlike linguistic approaches that focus only on the rules of language use, discourse analysis emphasizes the
contextual meaning of language.

It focuses on the social aspects of communication and the ways people use language to achieve specific effects
(e.g. to build trust, to create doubt, to evoke emotions, or to manage conflict).

Instead of focusing on smaller units of language, such as sounds, words or phrases, discourse analysis is used to
study larger chunks of language, such as entire conversations, texts, or collections of texts. The selected sources
can be analyzed on multiple levels.
Step 1: Define the research question and select the content of analysis
• To do discourse analysis, you begin with a clearly defined research question. Once you have developed
your question, select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.

You want to study how a particular regime change from dictatorship to democracy has affected the public
relations rhetoric of businesses in the country. You decide to examine the mission statements and marketing
material of the 10 largest companies within five years of the regime change.

Step 2: Gather information and theory on the context

• Next, Gather factual details of when and where the content was created, who the author is, who published
it, and whom it was disseminated to.

• you can also conduct a literature review on the topic and construct a theoretical framework to guide your
analysis.

You research factual information on the politics and history of the country and on the businesses you are
studying. You also research theory on democratic transitions and the relationship between government and
business.

Step 3: Analyze the content for themes and patterns

• This step involves closely examining various elements of the material – such as words, sentences,
paragraphs, and overall structure – and relating them to attributes, themes, and patterns relevant to
your research question.

You analyze the selected material for wording and statements that reflect or relate to authoritarian and
democratic political ideologies, including attitudes toward authority, liberal values, and popular opinion.
Step 4: Review your results and draw conclusions
• Once you have assigned particular attributes to elements of the material, reflect on your results to
examine the function and meaning of the language used.

Your analysis shows that the material published before the regime change used language that emphasized the
quality and necessity of its services and products, while the material published after the shift to a democratic
regime emphasized the needs and values of the consumer. You compare the results with your research on the
ideology and rhetoric of the political regimes, and infer that the shifting political context shaped the
communication strategies of national businesses.

Sampling Technique

Nonprobability sampling refers to sampling techniques for which a person’s likelihood of being selected for
membership in the sample is unknown. Since we don’t know the likelihood of selection, we don’t know whether a
nonprobability sample is truly representative of a larger population.

Purposive Researcher seeks out participants with specific characteristics.

Snowball Researcher relies on participant referrals to recruit new participants.
Quota Researcher selects cases from within several different subgroups.
Convenience Researcher gathers data from whatever cases happen to be convenient.
Types of nonprobability samples

1. To draw a purposive sample, a researcher selects participants from their sampling frame because
they have characteristics that the researcher desires. A researcher begins with specific
characteristics in mind that they wish to examine and then they seek out research participants who
cover that full range of characteristics. For example, if you are studying mental health supports
on your campus, you want to be sure to include not only students, but also mental health
practitioners and student affairs administrators. You might also select students who currently
use mental health supports, those who dropped out of supports, and those who are waiting to receive
supports. The ‘purposive’ part of purposive sampling comes from intentionally selecting specific
participants because you know they have characteristics that you need in your sample, like
being an administrator or dropping out of mental health supports.

Also, it is important to recognize that purposive sampling requires the researcher to have information about
the participants prior to recruitment. In other words, you need to know their perspectives or experiences before
you know whether you want them in your sample.

2. Quota sampling In this nonprobability sampling method, subgroups are created based on each
category, the researcher decides how many people to include from each subgroup, and then collects
data from that number for each subgroup. Let’s consider a study of student satisfaction with on-
campus housing. Perhaps there are two types of housing on your campus: apartments that include
full kitchens and dorm rooms where residents do not cook for themselves and instead eat in a dorm
cafeteria. As a researcher, you might wish to understand how satisfaction varies across these two
types of housing arrangements. Perhaps you have the time and resources to interview 20 campus
residents, so you decide to interview 10 from each housing type. In addition, it is possible that your
review of literature on the topic suggests that campus housing experiences vary by gender. If that
is that case, perhaps you’ll decide on four important subgroups: men who live in apartments,
 women who live in apartments, men who live in dorm rooms, and women who live in dorm rooms.
Your quota sample would include five people from each of the four subgroups.

3. Qualitative researchers can also use snowball sampling techniques to identify study participants.
In snowball sampling, a researcher identifies one or two people they would like to include in their
study but then relies on those initial participants to help identify additional study participants.
Thus, the researcher’s sample builds and becomes larger as the study continues, much as a snowball
builds and becomes larger as it rolls through the snow.

Snowball sampling is an especially useful strategy when a researcher wishes to study a

stigmatized group or behavior. For example, a researcher interested in studying how people with
genital herpes cope with their medical condition would be unlikely to find many participants
by posting an ad in the newspaper or by announcing the study at a social gathering. Instead,
the researcher might know someone with the condition, interview that person, and ask the person
to refer others they may know with the genital herpes to contact you to participate in the
study. Having a previous participant vouch for the researcher may help new potential participants
feel more comfortable about being included in the study.

Snowball sampling is sometimes referred to as chain referral sampling. One research participant refers another,
and that person refers another, and that person refers another—thus a chain of potential participants is identified.

Aside from being a useful strategy for stigmatized groups, snowball sampling is also useful when the interest
group may be difficult to find or the group may be relatively rare. This was the case for Steven Kogan and
colleagues (Kogan, Wejnert, Chen, Brody, & Slater, 2011) [4] who wished to study the sexual behaviors of non-
college-bound African American young adults who lived in high-poverty rural areas. The researchers initially
relied on their own networks to identify study participants, but members of the study’s target population were not
easy to find. Access to the networks of initial study participants was very important for identifying additional
participants in their situation. Initial participants were given coupons to pass on to others they knew who qualified
for the study. Participants were given an added incentive for referring eligible study participants; they received
$50 for participating in the study and an additional $20 for each person they recruited who also participated in the
study. Using this strategy, Kogan and colleagues succeeded in recruiting 292 study participants.

4. Finally, convenience sampling is another nonprobability sampling strategy that is employed by

both qualitative and quantitative researchers. To draw a convenience sample, a researcher simply
collects data from people or other relevant elements that they can access conveniently. Also known
as availability sampling, convenience sampling is the most useful in exploratory research or
student projects where probability sampling is too costly or difficult. If you’ve ever been
interviewed by a fellow student for a class project, you have likely been a part of a convenience
sample. While convenience samples offer one major benefit—convenience—they do not offer the
rigor needed to make conclusions about larger populations.