Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Introduction
● Definition of operating systems
● Single and multi-processor systems
● Operating system services
● System commands and system calls
● Interrupt
● System boot
● Operating system structure
● Types of OS
● Multi-user
● Multitasking
● Embedded
● Real-time
● Network
● Distributed

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 Definition of Operating Systems
• Definition and Purpose:
• Operating systems (OS) act as an intermediary between computer
hardware and user applications.
• They manage system resources, provide a user interface, and ensure the
smooth execution of programs.
• Functions:
• Process management, memory management, file system management,
and device management.
• Security and protection of resources.
• User interface and application support.
• Examples:
• Windows: Widely used for personal computers.
• Linux: Open-source and popular for servers.
• macOS: Apple's operating system for Macintosh computers.

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 Operating system goals

● Execute user programs and make solving user

problems easier
● Make the computer system convenient to use
● Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

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 Computer System Structure

● Computer system can be divided into four components:

● Hardware – provides basic computing resources
4 CPU, memory, I/O devices
● Operating system
4 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
● Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
4 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems,
video games
● Users
4 People, machines, other computers

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 Four Components of a Computer System

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 What Operating Systems Do

● Depends on the point of view

● Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
● Don’t care about resource utilization
● But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must
keep all users happy
● Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
● Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability
and battery life
● Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles

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 Single and Multi-Processor Systems
• Single Processor Systems:
• Utilizes a single central processing unit (CPU).
• Sequential execution of instructions.
• Multi-Processor Systems:
• Multiple CPUs work simultaneously.
• Improved performance and parallel processing.
• Challenges include synchronization and coordination.
• Parallel Processing:
• Simultaneous execution of multiple tasks or processes.
• Enhances overall system performance.

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 Operating System Services
● Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs
and services to programs and users
● One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:
● User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI).
4 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI), Batch
● Program execution - The system must be able to load a
program into memory and to run that program, end execution,
either normally or abnormally (indicating error)
● I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device

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 Operating System Services (Cont.)

● One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to

the user (Cont.):
● File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Programs need to read and write files and directories, create and delete
them, search them, list file Information, permission management.
● Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same
computer or between computers over a network
4 Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
● Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
4 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
4 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
4 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system

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 Operating System Services (Cont.)
● Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing
● Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
4 Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file storage,
I/O devices.
● Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources
● Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a
multiuser or networked computer system may want to control use of
that information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each
other
4 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
4 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access
attempts

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 A View of Operating System Services

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 System Commands and System Calls
• System Commands:
• Definition: System commands are user-initiated actions that instruct the
operating system to perform specific tasks.
• User Interaction: Users interact with the operating system through the
command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI) to execute
commands.
• Examples:
● ls: List the contents of a directory.
● cd: Change the current working directory.
● mkdir: Create a new directory.
● rm: Remove/delete files or directories.

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 System Commands and System Calls
• System Calls:
• Definition: System calls are a mechanism that provides an interface between
applications (user-level programs) and the operating system kernel. They
allow processes to request services from the OS.
• Purpose: System calls enable processes to perform tasks that require
privileged access or interaction with hardware, which is restricted in
user-mode.
• Examples of System Calls:
● read(): Reads data from a file or input device.
● write(): Writes data to a file or output device.
● open(): Opens a file.
● fork(): Creates a new process (used for process creation).
● exec(): Executes a new program within the current process.

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 Example of System Calls

● System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

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 Example of Standard API

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 System Commands and System Calls
• Execution Process:
• User-level programs use high-level language constructs (functions).
• These functions map to system calls when compiled.
• During runtime, the system call invokes a specific kernel routine.
• Kernel Interaction: The operating system kernel performs privileged
operations on behalf of user-level processes, ensuring security and controlled
access to system resources.
• System Call Examples in C:
// Example of 'write' system call in C
#include <unistd.h>
int main() {
char message[] = "Hello, Operating Systems!";
write(1, message, sizeof(message)-1);
// '1' corresponds to standard output
return 0;
}

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 API – System Call – OS Relationship

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 Types of System Calls
● Process control
● create process, terminate process
● end, abort
● load, execute
● get process attributes, set process attributes
● wait for time
● wait event, signal event
● allocate and free memory
● Dump memory if error
● Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
● Locks for managing access to shared data between processes

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 Types of System Calls

● File management
● create file, delete file
● open, close file
● read, write, reposition
● get and set file attributes
● Device management
● request device, release device
● read, write, reposition
● get device attributes, set device attributes
● logically attach or detach devices

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 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

● Information maintenance
● get time or date, set time or date
● get system data, set system data
● get and set process, file, or device attributes
● Communications
● create, delete communication connection
● send, receive messages if message passing model to host
name or process name
4 From client to server
● Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory
regions
● transfer status information
● attach and detach remote devices

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 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

● Protection
● Control access to resources
● Get and set permissions
● Allow and deny user access

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 Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

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 Standard C Library Example
● C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

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 System Commands and System Calls
Differences Between System Commands and System Calls:
User vs. Kernel Space:
• System Commands: Executed in user space.
• System Calls: Transition from user space to kernel space.
Privilege:
• System Commands: Executed with user-level privileges.
• System Calls: Invoked to perform privileged operations with
kernel-level access.
Implementation:
• System Commands: Implemented by utilities or programs in user
space.
• System Calls: Directly interact with the operating system kernel.

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 System Commands and System Calls
Examples of System Commands and Their Corresponding System
Calls:
Command `ls`:
System Call Equivalent: opendir(), readdir(), closedir().
Command `cp`:
System Call Equivalent: open(), read(), write(), close().
Command `fork()`:
System Call Equivalent: fork().
Command `exec()`:
System Call Equivalent: exec().

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Interrupt
• Definition:
• An interrupt is a is a mechanism that allows external devices or
processes to interrupt the normal execution flow of the CPU. It is a
signal to the operating system to stop its current activity and
respond to an event.
• Types of Interrupts:
• Hardware interrupts (e.g., keyboard input).
• Software interrupts (e.g., system calls).
• Exception interrupts (e.g., division by zero).

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 Interrupt
• Hardware Interrupts:
• Definition: Generated by external hardware devices to
signal that they need attention.
• Examples:
• Input/Output operations completion.
• Timer interrupts for scheduling tasks.
• Hardware errors.
• Handling: The operating system kernel has interrupt
service routines (ISRs) to handle hardware interrupts.

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 Interrupt
• Software Interrupts:
• Definition: Generated by executing a specific instruction
in the code.
• Examples:
• System calls initiated by user programs.
• Software-generated exceptions.
• Handling: The kernel has specific handlers for software
interrupts.

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 Interrupt
• Exception Interrupts:
• Definition: Generated by the CPU when it encounters an
exceptional condition during execution.
• Examples:
• Division by zero.
• Page faults in memory access.
• Handling: Exception handlers in the kernel deal with
exceptional conditions.

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 Interrupt
Handling Process
•Interrupt Request (IRQ):
• Devices or processes generate IRQs to signal interrupts.
• IRQs are assigned specific priority levels.
•Interrupt Vector Table (IVT):
• A table in memory that maps interrupt numbers to their corresponding interrupt service routines
(ISRs).
•Interrupt Service Routine (ISR):
• A specific routine in the operating system kernel that is executed in response to an interrupt.
• Handles the interrupt and performs necessary actions.
•Context Switch:
• The operating system performs a context switch to save the current state of the CPU and
execute the ISR.
•Interrupt Acknowledgment:
• The CPU acknowledges the interrupt, and the ISR is executed.
•Restoration of State:
• After ISR execution, the operating system restores the saved state, and normal execution
continues.

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 Interrupt
Uses and Significance
•Event Handling:
• Allows the operating system to respond promptly to external events.
•Efficiency:
• Enables asynchronous processing, improving system efficiency.
•Real-Time Systems:
• Essential for real-time operating systems where timely responses to events are critical.
Examples of Interrupts:
•Keyboard Interrupt:
• Generated when a key is pressed.
• OS responds to update the keyboard buffer.
•Timer Interrupt:
• Generated periodically by a system timer.
• Used for time-slicing in multitasking environments.
•Device Interrupt:
• Generated by peripheral devices upon completion of an operation.
• Allows the OS to manage multiple I/O operations concurrently.

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 System Boot
• Bootstrapping Process:
• Loading the operating system into memory.
• Initialization of system components.
• Boot Loaders:
• Software that manages the boot process.
• Examples: GRUB, LILO.
• Sequence of Steps:
• Power-on self-test (POST).
• Boot loader activation.
• Loading the kernel.
• Initializing the system.

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 Operating System Structure

1. Monolithic Architecture

2. Microkernel Architecture

3. Layered Design

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 Monolithic Architecture
• Definition:
• The monolithic operating system architecture has a single, large
codebase where all operating system services run as a single program in
kernel space.
• Characteristics:
• Advantages:
• Simple design and implementation.
• Direct communication between components.
• Disadvantages:
• Lack of modularity.
• Changes in one part may affect others.

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 Microkernel Architecture
• Definition:
• The microkernel architecture follows a modular design where the kernel
provides only essential services, and additional services are implemented
as separate user-space processes or modules.
• Characteristics:
• Advantages:
• Increased modularity and flexibility.
• Easier maintenance and extensibility.
• Disadvantages:
• Overhead due to inter-process communication (IPC).
• Potentially reduced performance compared to monolithic kernels.

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 Microkernel System Structure

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 Operating System Structure
Layered Design:
•Definition:
• The layered operating system design organizes the system into layers,
where each layer provides specific functionality, and each layer
communicates only with adjacent layers.
•Characteristics:
• Advantages:
• Modularity and ease of understanding.
• Layers can be added or modified independently.
• Disadvantages:
• Overhead due to layer interaction.
• Changes in one layer may impact others.

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 Layered Approach

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 Operating System Structure
Hybrid Architectures:
•Definition:
• Hybrid operating system architectures combine features from different
designs to achieve a balance between simplicity and modularity.
•Example:
• Windows operating systems use a hybrid architecture with a
microkernel-like structure for some components and a more traditional
monolithic kernel.

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 Operating System Structure
Monolithic vs. Microkernel Comparison:

Aspect Monolithic Kernel Microkernel

High; essential services
Low; all services in
Modularity in kernel, rest in user
kernel space.
space.
Limited; changes affect High; easier to add or
Flexibility
entire kernel. modify components.
Can be challenging due Easier due to separate
Maintenance to intertwined and replaceable
components. modules.
Overhead from
Potentially faster due to
Performance inter-process
direct communication.
communication (IPC).

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 Layered Design in Detail
• Kernel Layer:
• Core functionality like process management, memory management, and
device drivers.
• System Call Layer:
• Interface for user-level applications to request services.
• Utility Layer:
• Higher-level utilities and services.
• User Interface Layer:
• Interaction with users through command-line or graphical interface.

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 Importance of OS Structure
• Modularity:
• The structure influences how easily new features or changes can be
incorporated.
• Maintenance:
• A well-structured OS is easier to maintain and debug.
• Extensibility:
• Allows for the addition of new features without affecting existing
components.

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 Transition Between Layers in a Layered Design

• Communication:
• Layers communicate through well-defined interfaces.
• Data Flow:
• Data typically flows vertically through layers.
• Abstraction:
• Each layer provides an abstraction for the layer above.

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 Types of Operating Systems
a. Multi-User
•Characteristics:
• Supports multiple users simultaneously.
• Time-sharing and resource sharing.
•Examples:
• UNIX, Linux, Windows Server.
b. Multitasking
•Definition:
• Simultaneous execution of multiple tasks.
•Benefits:
• Improved system efficiency and resource utilization.
•Examples:
• Windows, macOS, Linux.

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 Types of Operating Systems (contd..)
c. Embedded
•Use Cases:
• Embedded in devices and systems.
• Real-time control and minimal resource usage.
•Examples:
• Android (for mobile devices), VxWorks (for embedded systems).
d. Real-Time
•Characteristics:
• Responds to events within a specific time frame.
• Critical for applications like aerospace and medical systems.
•Examples:
• RTLinux, FreeRTOS.

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 Types of Operating Systems (contd..)
e. Network
•Role:
• Manages network resources and communication.
• Facilitates file and printer sharing.
•Examples:
• Novell NetWare, Windows Server.
f. Distributed
•Characteristics:
• Spreads tasks across multiple interconnected computers.
• Enhances reliability and performance.
•Examples:
• Google's Chrome OS, Amoeba.

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