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FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA | FACULTY OF COMPUTER AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
MAT406: FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
Course Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Identify the basic knowledge of the concept of algebra and equations. (C1)
2. Solve mathematical problems related to algebra and equations. (C4)
Course Description
Foundation mathematics is a main component in learning mathematics. This subject covers the
additional algebraic and trigonometric skills needed by the students before they venture into the
world of calculus. It consists of eight major parts: number system, indices and logarithmic,
functions, system of equations and inequalities, coordinate geometry, trigonometry, matrices,
and vectors.
Teaching Methodologies
Discussion
Lectures
Tutorial
Assessment
Continuous
Assessment: 40.00%
Quiz - 5%
Quiz - 5%
Test - 10%
Test - 10%
Test - 10%
Final Assessment: 60.00%
Final Examination - 60%
Duration: 180 minutes
Syllabus Content
1. Algebraic Topics
1.1 Review on Number System
1.2 Review on algebra
1.2.1 Basic operations
1.2.2 Fractions
1.2.3 Radicals
1.2.4 Absolute value
1.3 Indices and Logarithms
1.4 Absolute Value
1.4.1 Definition of absolute value
1.4.2 Equations involving absolute value
1.4.3 Inequalities involving absolute value
2. Functions
2.1 Introduction to function
2.1.1 Domain and range
2.1.2 Even and odd functions
2.1.3 Operations on functions
2.2 Inverse function
2.3 Composite function
2.4 Solution to Equations
2.4.1 Linear, quadratic and cubic equations
2.5 Logarithmic and exponential functions
3. Quadratic Functions
3.1 Introduction to Quadratic Functions
3.1.1 Graphs of quadratic functions
3.2 Solving quadratic equations
3.2.1 Factorization, completing square
3.3 Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation
4. Equations and Inequalities
4.1 System of Equations
4.1.1 Solving simultaneous equations with two variables for linear
4.1.2 Solving simultaneous equations with two variables for non-linear equation
4.2 System of inequalities
4.2.1 Properties of inequalities
4.2.2 Solving inequalities – linear and quadratic
5. Coordinate Geometry
5.1 Cartesian coordinates
5.1.1 Basic graphs
5.1.2 Gradient, Distance and midpoint
5.1.3 Equation of a circle
5.2 The equation of a straight line in the form y=mx+c or ax+by+c=0
5.3 The equation of a straight line of the form y-y1=m(x-x1)
5.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines
5.5 Intersection between two lines
6. Trigonometry
6.1 Basic angle, Radian and Degree
6.2 Trigonometric Ratios
6.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations (Linear and Quadratic Equations)
6.4 Graphs of trigonometric functions
6.5 Basic Trigonometric Identities
6.5.1 Double angle formula
6.5.2 Half angle identities
7. Matrices
7.1 Introduction to matrices
7.1.1 Types of matrices
7.1.2 Basic operation of matrices
7.1.3 Properties of matrix operations
7.2 Inverse matrices
7.3 Solving system of Linear Equations using Matrices
8. Vectors
8.1 Introduction to vectors
8.1.1 Position vectors
8.2 Basic operation of vectors
Recommended Text
1. Ling Siew Eng, FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS, UiTM Press, 2018, ISBN: 9789673635139
2. James Stewart, Daniel K. Clegg and Saleem Watson, Calculus, 9, Cengage Learning, 2020,
ISBN: 9781337624183
References
1. Ron Larson and Bruce H. Edwards, Calculus, 11, Cengage Learning, 2018,
ISBN:9781337275347
2. Ron Larson, Algebra and Trigonometry, 10, Cengage Learning, 2016, ISBN: 9781337271172
3. James Stewart, Lothar Redlin and Saleem Watson, Algebra and Trigonometry, 4, Cengage
Learning, 2016, ISBN:9781305071742
4. Ron Larson, Precalculus, 10, Cengage Learning, 2017, ISBN: 9781337271073
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
FACULTY OF COMPUTER AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
SCHEME OF WORK
Code : MAT406
Course : Foundation Mathematics
Level : Bachelor
Contact Hour : 4 (3 hr. Lecture, 1 hr. Tutorial)
Part : 1
SCHEME OF WORK SEMESTER OCT 2021 – FEB 2022
Week Topics Hours Remark
1 1. ALGEBRAIC TOPICS 10/10/2021-
3 16/10/2021
1.1 Review on Number System
Sets
Classification of numbers: ℕ, ℤ, ℝ, ℚ
Real Number Line
Intervals of Real Number: Finite, Infinite
1.2 Review on algebra
Basic operations
Fractions
Radicals: Definition, algebraic operation
and Rationalizing the
denominator/numerator
Tutorial 1
2 2. FUNCTIONS 17/10/2021-
3 23/10/2021
2.1 Introduction to function
Relation and function
Domain and range:
Notation of a function, Finding values of a
function
Graph of function (linear, quadratic, cubic)
Algebraic operations on function: +,-,*,/ 1
Tutorial
i
3 2.2 Composite function 24/10/2021-
2.3 Inverse function 3 30/10/2021
2.4 Solution to Equations
2.4.1 Linear equation
2.4.2 Quadratic equation
Introduction to Quadratic Functions
Discriminant
Graphs of quadratic functions
Solving quadratic equations
(factorization, completing square,
quadratic formula)
2.4.3 Cubic equation 1
Tutorial
4 2.5 Logarithmic and indices functions 3 31/10/2021-
2.5.1 Indices 06/11/2021
Positive, negative, zero, rational
index
Law of Indices
2.5.2 Logarithm
Laws of Logarithm
Conversion of indices and logarithm
2.5.3 Solving equations involving indices
and logarithm.
Tutorial
1
07/11/2021-
5 3. INEQUALITIES 13/11/2021
3
3.1 Introduction of inequalities
Definition
Interval notation
Properties of inequalities
3.2 Solving Inequalities
3.2.1 Linear
3.2.2 Compound
3.2.3 Quadratic
3.2.4 Rational
1
Tutorial
ii
6 14/11/2021-
3.2.5 Absolute value 1 20/11/2021
Definition of absolute value
Equations involving absolute value
Inequalities involving absolute value
4. SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS AND
INEQUALITIES
2
4.1 System of Linear Equations
Solving simultaneous equations with
two variables for linear equation
(elimination, substitution)
Tutorial 1
MID TERM BREAK
21/11/2021-27/11/2021
7 4.2 System of Non-Linear Equations 28/11/2021-
Solving simultaneous equations with 3 04/12/2021
two variables:
One linear equation and one non-linear
equation
4.3 System of inequalities
Definition
Inequalities of 2 variables
Graphing techniques
1
Tutorial
8 5. COORDINATE GEOMETRY 3 05/12/2021-
11/12/2021
5.1 Cartesian coordinates
Basic graphs: straight line, parabola,
cubic
Gradient, Distance and midpoint
5.2 The equation of a straight line in the form
y mx c or ax by c 0 and 1
y y1 m ( x x1 )
Tutorial
iii
9 12/12/2021-
5.3 Intersection between 2 lines 3 18/12/2021
5.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines
5.5 Equation of circle
6. TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Circular Measure
Basic angle, Radian and Degree
Arc Length
Area of a sector
Tutorial 1
10 6.2 Drawing angle 1 19/12/2021-
Coterminal angle 23/12/2021
Reference angle
6.3 Trigonometric Ratios
Special angle
Negative angles
1
Tutorial
CUTI KHAS PERAYAAN
24/12/2021-01/01/2022
11 02/01/2022-
6.4 Trigonometric functions (Sin, Cos, Tan) 3 08/01/2022
Basic Trigonometric Identities: Proof simple
identities
Solution to Trigonometric Functions
Tutorial 1
12 7. MATRICES 09/01/2022-
3 15/02/2022
7.1 Introduction to matrices
Types of matrices
Basic operation of matrices (equal
matrices, Addition and Subtraction of
matrices) and its properties
7.2 Determinant of matrices (order 1, 2 and 3)
Diagonal expansion and cofactor
expansion
Properties of determinant
1
Tutorial
iv
13 16/01/2022-
7.3 Inverse matrix using Adjoint method 3 22/01/2022
7.4 Solving system of Linear Equations using
Inverse Matrices
Tutorial
1
14 8. VECTORS 3 23/01/2022-
29/01/2022
8.1 Introduction to vectors
Position vectors in two-dimensional
Standard based vector in ℝ2
Magnitude of a vector
Types of vectors
8.2 Basic operation of vectors: equal, addition,
subtraction, dot product
1
Tutorial
STUDY WEEK (30/01/2022-06/02/2022)
FINAL ASSESSMENT (07/02/2022-23/02/2022)
Textbook : Larson, R, Precalculus, 10th edition, Cengage Learning, 2018, ISBN:
9781337271073.
References : 1. Ron Larson, Algebra & Trigonometry, Cengage Learning, 2016,
ISBN: 133751425X.
2. James Stewart, Lothar Redlin, Saleem Watson, Algebra and
Trigonometry, Cengage Learning, 2015, ISBN: 1305537033.
3. Ron Larson,Bruce H. Edwards, Calculus, Cengage Learning,
2016, ISBN: 1337275344.
4. Ron Larson, Trigonometry, Cengage Learning, 2016, ISBN:
1337517496.
v
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.1 Review on Number System
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.1 Review on Number System
Everyday numbers can be classified into sets. In this lesson, we'll look at some of the most
common number sets and a few of their characteristics.
Sets
What is a set? Well, simply put, it's a collection. When we define a set, we must specify a
common characteristic.
Notation Method
There is a simple notation for sets. We simply list each element (or "member") separated by a
comma, and then put some curly brackets around the whole thing:
The curly brackets { } are called “set brackets” or “braces”.
Examples:
Set of even numbers, D= {..., −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, ...}
Set of odd numbers, K={..., −3, −1, 1, 3, ...}
Set of prime numbers, S= {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...}
Set-Builder Notation
Another method to write a set by saying what properties its members have.
Example:
D=
this is read as “D is the set of all x, such that x is greater than 0”. (In other word any value
greater than 0)
Subsets
“take pieces of that set”
Example: B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A= {1, 2, 3}
⇒A is a subset of B, write
* If A is not a subset of B, write
1
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.1 Review on Number System
Classification of Numbers
1. NATURAL NUMBER, N – for counting things or object.
N = {1,2,3, …}
2. WHOLE NUMBER, W – natural numbers together with 0.
W = {0,1,2,3, …}
3. INTEGER NUMBER, Z – the negative natural numbers together with 0 and the naturals
numbers.
Z = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3, …}
4. RATIONAL NUMBER, Q numbers which can be expressed as a ratio between two integers
(fraction form).
Q = Rational number = {p/q; p,q≠ 0 are integers}
- repeating:
- terminating:
5. IRRATIONAL NUMBER – number that cannot be written as a ratio (or fraction). In decimal
form, it never ends or repeats.
I = {cannot be written as p/q}
6. Real numbers, R – the set of numbers containing all of the rational numbers and all of the
irrational numbers.
7. Complex numbers,C – the set {a+bi ; a and b are real, i = √−1}. i = √−1 is Imaginary
number.
2
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.1 Review on Number System
The Real Number Line
Represented geometrically by points on a straight line.
A point is chosen on the line to be the "origin". Points to the right are positive, and points to the
left are negative.
Intervals of real numbers
Given any two real numbers a and b, the three possibilities are
𝑎=𝑏 a is equal to b
𝑎>𝑏 a is greater than b
𝑎<𝑏 a is less than b
Interval Notation
The conventions of interval notation:
• The smallest term from the interval is written first.
• The largest term in the interval is written second, following a comma.
• Parentheses, (), are used to signify that an endpoint is not included, called exclusive.
• Brackets, [], are used to indicate that an endpoint is included, called inclusive.
3
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.1 Review on Number System
Finite intervals
a and b are real numbers,
*the points a and b are called the end point of the interval.
Interval
Inequality Number line Examples
notation
i) Open interval from a to b 1<𝑥 <4
𝑎<𝑥<𝑏
1<𝑥<4
ii) Closed interval from a to b 𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏
iii) Half-open / Half-closed 1<𝑥<4
𝑎<𝑥≤𝑏
interval from a to b
iv) Half-open interval from a 1<𝑥<4
𝑎≤𝑥<𝑏
to b
4
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.1 Review on Number System
Infinite interval
5
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.2 Review on Algebra
1.2 Review on Algebra
Basic Operations on Real Numbers
Two real number can be combined by using the operation of +, −,×,÷ .
The result is also a real number, except for division by 0.
Arithmetic Operations
The real numbers have the following properties:
If we use the Distributive Law three times, we get
EXAMPLE: Solve the following equations.
1. 2𝑥 + 3𝑥
2. (3𝑥 + 3𝑥) + 4𝑥
3. 2 (2𝑥 + 5𝑦)
6
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.2 Review on Algebra
4. (3𝑥𝑦)(−4𝑥)
5. 2𝑡 (7𝑥 + 2𝑡𝑥 − 11)
6. 4 − 3(𝑥 − 2)
7. (2𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 − 5)
8. (𝑥 + 3) 2
7
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.2 Review on Algebra
Fractions
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
Numerator / Denominator:
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
Adding/ Subtracting Fractions
𝑎 𝑐 (𝑎+𝑐 )
Same denominator: + =
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑎 𝑐 (𝑎𝑑+𝑐𝑏)
Different Denominator: + =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
Multiplication Fractions: × =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
−𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
In particular, it is true that =− =
𝑏 𝑏 −𝑏
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑
Division Fractions: ÷ = ×
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐
8
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.2 Review on Algebra
Examples: Simplify the following equations.
𝑥+3
1.
𝑥
2 3
2. +
𝑥+1 𝑥−4
𝑥
+2
𝑦
3. 𝑦
1−
𝑥
9
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.2 Review on Algebra
Radicals / Surd
Algebraic operation on Radicals
1. Addition and subtraction
Example: 7√3 − 5√2 =
3√8 + 2√7 =
2. Multiplication
√𝑎 × √𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏 for all positive real numbers, a and b.
Example: √2 × √5 = √10
3. Division
√𝑎 𝑎
= √ for all positive real numbers, a and b.
√𝑏 𝑏
√27 27
Example: = √ = √9 = 3
√3 3
10
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.2 Review on Algebra
Rationalizing the numerator/denominator
To rationalize a numerator and denominator that contains an expression such as √𝑎 − √𝑏 , we
multiply both the numerator and the denominator with the conjugate radical √𝑎 + √𝑏. Then we
can take advantage of the formula for a difference of squares:
2 2
(√𝑎 − √𝑏)(√𝑎 + √𝑏) = (√𝑎) − (√𝑏) = 𝑎 − 𝑏
√𝑥 +4 − 2
Example: Rationalize the numerator in the expression
𝑥
11
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
1.3 ABSOLUTE VALUE
The absolute value of a real number a is denoted by |a| and it is the distance from a to
the origin 0 on the number line. The absolute value is always positive. We can give a
formula for the absolute value of the number, which depends on whether a is positive or
negative. Because of this we must make two statements to describe the formula.
Definition:
If 𝑎 is real number, the absolute value of 𝑎 is
𝑎 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 0
|𝑎| = {
−𝑎 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0
Absolute Value
The absolute value of x, denoted by |x|, is the distance from x to 0 on the number line.
Since distances are always positive of 0, we have
|𝑥| ≥ 0
Example:
In general, we have
Example: Solve |𝑥 + 2| = 5
Graphically: |𝑥 + 2| = 5
12
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
Example: Evaluate |2|, |-10|, |5-8|, |7-4|.
Equations involving Absolute Value
Example:
1. Solve 3x 5 9 .
13
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
2. Solve 2 3x x 7 .
3. Solve 2x 7 3 x 3 .
x4
4. Solve 8 .
5 2x
14
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
Inequalities involving Absolute Value
Example:
1. Solve the inequality 3x 8 4 and express the solution in real number line, interval notation,
inequality form and set notation.
15
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
2. Solve the inequality 2x 4 7 and express the solution in real number line, interval notation,
inequality form and set notation.
3 11
(Ans: For interval notation : , , )
2 2
16
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
3. Solve the inequality 3p 4 2p 1 and express the solution in real number line, interval
notation, inequality form and set notation.
17
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
2x 3
4. Solve the inequality 4 and express the solution in real number line, interval notation,
3
inequality form and set notation.
18
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
y
5. Solve the inequality 5 1 25 and express the solution in real number line, interval
3
notation, inequality form and set notation.
19
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Absolute Value
6. Solve the inequality 2 4x 5 2 6 and express the solution in real number line, interval
notation, inequality form and set notation.
3 7
(Ans: For interval notation : , )
4 4
20
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
1.3.1 Indices
If a is any real number, 𝑎 ∈ ℜ (𝑎 > 0) and n is a positive integer, then 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 ×. ..
The integer n is called the index or exponent and a is the base.
a) Positive indices: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 ×. ..
Example:
i) 34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 81
ii) (−3)2
iii) (0.2)3
1 3
iv) ( )
5
1
b) Negative indices: 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
Example:
1
i) 2−1 =
2
ii) 3−2
iii) 4−2
c) Zero index: 𝑎0 = 1
𝑎𝑚
From Law of indices, 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑚 = 𝑎0 . But by division 𝑎𝑚 = 1, therefore, 𝑎0 = 1.
Any number with zero index is equal to 1.
Example:
21
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
1
𝑛
d) Rational/Fractional indices: 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎
1 1 1 1 1
+
From law of indices, 𝑎2 × 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 2 = 𝑎1 , this means that 𝑎2 = √𝑎
1 1 1 1
3
Also, 𝑎3 × 𝑎3 × 𝑎3 = 𝑎1 , this means that 𝑎3 = √𝑎 .
1
𝑛
So, in general 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎 .
3 3 3 3 3
Also, 𝑎4 × 𝑎4 × 𝑎4 × 𝑎4 = 𝑎3 ; this means that 𝑎4 is the fourth root of
3
4
𝑎3 𝑜𝑟 𝑎4 𝑜𝑟 √𝑎3 .
𝑚
In general, 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑛√𝑎𝑚
Example:
1 2 2
3
i) 4 = √4 = 2
2 iv) 273 = (√27) = 32 = 9
1 2
ii) 164 v) 83
1 3
iii) 325 vi) 164
22
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
Exercise:
23
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
Example:
1.
1 2 1
2. 𝑎3 × 𝑎5 ÷ 𝑎2
3. 92𝑥 × 27 𝑥−3 ÷ 35−𝑥
24
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
Exercise:
25
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
1.3.2 Logarithm
Definition:
Example:
26
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
27
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
Example:
28
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
29
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
Exercise:
30
MAT406
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRAIC TOPICS
1.3 Indices and Logarithm
31
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Functions
2.1.1 Relation
A relation is a correspondence between two sets, X and Y.
If x is an element in X, and y is the element in Y, and if relation exist between x and y, then
we say that x is corresponds to y, or that y depends on x.
In a relation, the member of the first set, X will correspond to at least one member of the
second set, Y.
The object of the relation is x and the image is y.
A relation between two sets can be represented by:
o Arrow diagram
o Ordered pairs
o graphs
For example: Let X={2,3,4} and Y={6,8}, and consider the relation ‘is a factor of’, then the
relation can represented using an arrow diagram as shown below.
X Y
Object Image/Range
2
6
3
8
4
Domain Codomain
The relation can also represent by ordered pairs, {(2,6), (2,8), (3,6), (4,8)}.
Relation can be classified as: one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, and many-to-many.
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MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
33
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
Example:
34
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
Definition of Functions
A function is defined as a correspondence between two sets, X and Y, such that each
member of X associates to exactly one member of Y.
In other word, if the relation is one-to-one or many-to-one, then it is a FUNCTION.
Example:
35
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
2.1.2 Domain and Range
Definition: Consider a function from the set X to the set Y.
X Y
f
x y
The set X is the domain of the function.
The set of all elements of Y is called the codomain.
The set of images in Y is the range of f.
Example 1:
36
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
Example 2:
Example 3:
37
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
a) Notation of a Function
Example 1: State the domain, objects, images, and range.
Example 2: Find the image of f(x) = x + 4, given that x = {-1, 1, 3}. State the domain, object and
range.
38
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
b) Finding values of a function
The value for f(b) is obtained by replacing x with b in the function f(x).
Example 1:
Example 2:
𝑥−2 1
a) Given a function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+3, find the value of 𝑓(4𝑥), 𝑓 (𝑥) , 𝑓(𝑥 + 1).
b) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 + 2𝑥, find 𝑓(2x 2 ), and f(f(x)).
39
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
Exercise:
40
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
c) Graphs of Functions
The graph of a function consists of points (x, f(x)) for x in the domain f.
The domain and range of the function can be found from the graph of a function as follows.
The domain of a function consists of values of x where the graph is defined (refer x-axis)
The range of a function consists of values of y where the graph is defined (refer y-axis)
A. Linear Function
General graph f(x) = mx + c where m is the gradient/slope and c is y-intercept.
Example: State the domain and range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4 and sketch its graph.
41
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
B. Quadratic Function
General equation of quadratic function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where a≠0.
Example: Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1.
42
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
C. Cubic Function
General equation: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑; 𝑎 ≠ 0
Basic graph
Cases a > 0, b=c=d=0 a < 0, b=c=d=0
Domain 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥| − ∞ < 𝑥 < ∞} = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ} = (−∞, ∞)
Range 𝑅𝑓 = {𝑓(𝑥)| − ∞ < 𝑓(𝑥) < ∞} = {𝑓(𝑥) ∈ ℝ} = (−∞, ∞)
Example: Sketch the graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 . Hence, find the domain and range.
43
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
D. Square Root Function
General equation: 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏
Basic graph
Cases a > 0, b=0
Domain Let x > 0, 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 0} = [0, ∞)
Range 𝑅𝑓 = {𝑓(𝑥)| 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) < ∞} = [0, ∞)
Example: State the domain and range for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1
44
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
2.1.3 Algebraic Operations of Functions
Example 1:
𝑓
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 + 4𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1. Find (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥), (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥), (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) and (𝑔) (𝑥).
45
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction to Function
Example 2:
𝑓
Find (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥), (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) and (𝑔) (𝑥).
46
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.2 Composite Functions
2.2 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Definition: Consider two functions f(x) and g(x). We define (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)], read
as the composite function of g and f.
Note:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓 3 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥)
Example: Find gf(x) and fg(x). Hence, evaluate gf(4) and fg(1/3).
1. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3.
47
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.2 Composite Functions
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3.
3. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4.
5
4. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 − 2𝑥.
6. Function f and g are defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4 respectively. Find
a) 𝑓 2 (𝑥), 𝑓 2 (2)
b) 𝑔2 (𝑥), 𝑔2 (3)
48
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.2 Composite Functions
Exercise:
49
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.3. Inverse Functions
2.3 INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Definition: Suppose we have function defined by a set of ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
This means that f matches each element of X to exactly one y, and f-1 matches those same
elements of Y back to the original values of X.
f has an inverse function if and only if f is one-to-one function.
The standard notation for inverse f is f-1
The function 𝑓 −1 with domain R and range D is the inverse of f if
o 𝑓 −1 [𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
o 𝑓[𝑓 −1 (𝑦)] = 𝑦, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
Definition: A function is one-to-one if no two ordered pairs of the function have the same
component from different first components.
f g h
Domain Range Domain Range Domain Range
1 a
a 2 a 2
3 b c 1
b 5
b 2 c 3
f is NOT a function g is a function but h is a one-to-one
NOT one-to-one function
Function f is said to be one-to-one function if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) and 𝑓(𝑥2 ) are equal implies 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 and vice
versa. Horizontal line test also can be used to determine whether a function is one-to-one function.
50
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.3. Inverse Functions
Horizontal line test: A function has an inverse if and only if no horizontal line intersects the graphs
at more that one point.
Example:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
Not one-to-one One-to-one
Example: Determine whether the following functions are one-to-one.
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
2. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥 ∈ [0,3]
3. ℎ(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 1|, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
51
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.3. Inverse Functions
1
NOTE: 𝑓 −1 ≠ 𝑓
Procedure finding the inverse function.
1. Write the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
2. Express x as a function of y
3. The resulting equation will be 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
4. Interchange x and y in the equation 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) to obtain 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
To check: 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
The relationship between the domain and range of f and f-1 are:
Domain of 𝑓 −1 = range of f
Range of 𝑓 −1 = domain of f
Example 2.3:
Hence verify your answer.
𝑥+3
2. Find the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑥−5
52
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.3. Inverse Functions
3.
53
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.3. Inverse Functions
Exercise:
6. Given f x 3x 5 and g x 7x 2 . Find
a) Domain and range of f x b) Domain and range of g x
Domain : Domain :
Range : Range :
c) f g x (sum) d) f g x (difference)
e) f g x (product) f) f
x (quotient)
g
g) f g x (composite) h) g f x
54
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.3. Inverse Functions
i) inverse of f x j) g2 x
4. Given f x 2x 3 and g x x 9 . Find
a) Domain and range of f x b) Domain and range of g x
Df : x , Rf : f x Dg : x , Rg : g x
c) f g x d) f g x
x 6 3x 12
e) f g x f) f
x
g
2x 3
2x2 21x 27 x 9
g) f g x h) g f x
2x 21 2x 9
i) inverse of f x j) inverse of g x
x 3
2 x9
k) g x
2 l) g f 1
0
15
x 18
2
3x 1 2 3x
5. Given f x , gx and h x x 4 . Find
x 1 2x 1
a) Domain and range of f x b) Domain and range of g x
Domain :
Range of f x :
55
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.3. Inverse Functions
f x but f x 3 or ,3 3, Dg : x but x
1
2
3
Rg : g x but g x
2
c) f h x d) g h x
2x2 12x 6
2x 1
e) f h x f) g h x
2x2 6x 2
2x 1
g) f h x h) g h x
3x 14
2x 9
i) f 1
g 2 j) g 1
h 3
f 1
g 2 f g 2
1
4x
6. Consider the function f x 5x 4 , g x 3x 6 , k x 2x 5 and h x
3 2x
. Find
a) Domain and range of f x b) Domain and range of g x and k x
Domain :
Dg : x but x 2
Rg : g x but g x 0
Range :
5
Dk : x but x
2
Rk : k x but k x 0
c) f 1 x d) g1 x
x2 6
3
56
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.3. Inverse Functions
e) f 1 h 2 f) f g h3
2.930
g) f 1
g 1 h) g1
h 1
19
3
57
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
2.4 SOLUTION TO EQUATIONS
2.4.1 Linear Equations in One Variable
A linear equation is an equation of a straight line, written in one variable. The only power of the
variable is 1. Linear equations in one variable may take the form of 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 (where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
real numbers, and 𝑎 ≠ 0) and are solved using basic algebra equations. Linear equations can be
in the form of Rational functions.
Example: Solve the value of 𝑥.
1. 2𝑥 + 7 = 19
2. 2𝑥 + 1 = −9
3. −2(3𝑥 − 1) + 𝑥 = 14 − 𝑥
58
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
7 5 22 1
4. Solve the rational equation: − = . (Answer: 𝑥 = 4)
2𝑥 3𝑥 3
1 1 3 35
5. Solve the following rational equation: = − . (Answer: 𝑥 =
2
)
𝑥 10 4𝑥
59
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
2.4.2 Factorization of Cubic Functions
2.4.2.1 Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f x is divided by a linear divisor x a , the remainder is f a .
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑎)
An important and useful consequences of the Remainder Theorem is the Factor Theorem which
states that
If (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓(𝑎) = 0
Example:
1. Find the remainder if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 is divided by 𝑥 − 3.
Solution:
Using Remainder Theorem,
Let 𝑥 − 3 = 0
𝑥=3
Then, 𝑓(3) = 33 − 4(32 ) + 2(3) − 5 = −8
2. Find the remainder for the following.
Questions Remainder
a) 4x 3
5x 1 x 2
f 2 4 2 5 2 1 23
3
Let f x 4x 5x 1
3
Remainder 23
Let x 2 0
x2
b) 4x 3
5x 1 x 3
92
c) 4x 3
5x 1 2x 1
60
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
d) 2x 3
3x 2 4x 1 x
1
e) 2x 3 2
3x 4x 1 2x 1
5
2
f) 2x 3
3x 2 4x 1 x 4
97
g) Given f x 2x3 bx2 9x 38 , find h) Given f x 2x3 7x2 bx 4 , find the
the value of b if the remainder is 2 when value of b if the remainder is 20 when f x is
f x is divided by x 3
divided by x 3
SOLUTION x 3 0 x 3 SOLUTION
f 3 2
2 3 b 3 9 3 38 2
3 2
54 9b 27 38 2
9b 63
b 7 b 5
61
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
2.4.2.2 Factor Theorem
For a polynomial f x , x a is a factor of f x if and only if f a 0 . In other word, f x is
exactly divisible by x a .
Example:
1) Determine whether x 1 is the factor of 2) Determine whether x 1 is the factor
f x 3x x x 3x 2 .
4 3 2
of f x x6 2x x 1 4 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 1 0 x 1
f 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 2
4 3 2
0
x 1 is a factor of f x
Not a factor
3) Determine whether x 1 is the factor 4) Determine whether 2x 3 is the
of f x 3x 2x 7x 2 .
3 2
factor of f x 3x3 2x2 7x 2 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Factor Not a factor
5) Determine whether x 3 is the factor 6) Determine whether 2x 1 is the
of f x 2x3 7x2 5x 4 . factor of f x 2x3 3x2 2x 2 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Not a factor Factor
62
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
7) Find the value of k if 8) Find the value of k if
f x x3 2kx2 3x k is exactly divisible f x x 4 3x2 2kx 4 is exactly divisible
by x 2 . by x 1
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x20x 2
f 2 0
2 2k 2 3 2 k 0
3 2
8 8k 6 k 0
7k 14 0
k 2
k 1
63
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
2.4.2.3 Long Division
Example 1:
Find the quotient and remainder when P x 2x2 x5 7 4x3 is divided by x2 1 x .
Step 1:
Write the terms in the dividend and Dividend : x5 4x3 2x2 7
the divisor in descending powers of Divisor : x2 1 x
the variable.
Step 2 :
Insert terms with zero coefficients in x5 0x 4 4x3 2x 2 0x 7
the dividend for any missing powers of
the variable.
Step 3 :
Divide the first term in the dividend by x5
the first term in the divisor to obtain 2
x3
x
the first term in the quotient. x3
x 2 1 x x5 0x 4 4x3 2x 2 0x 7
Step 4 : x3
Multiply the divisor by the first term in
x2 1 x x5 0x 4 4x3 2x 2 0x 7
the quotient and subtract the product
from the dividend.
( ) x 5 x 4 x 3
x3 x 2 1 x
x 4 3x3 2x 2 0x 7 Remainder
Step 5 : x4
Treat the remainder obtained in Step 2
x2
x
4 as a new dividend and repeat Steps
x3 x2
3 and 4. Continue this process until a
remainder is obtained that is of lower x 2 1 x x5 0x 4 4x 3 2x 2 0x 7
degree than the divisor
( ) x 5 x 4 x 3
x3 x 2 1 x
x 3x 2x 0x 7
4 3 2
New dividend
( ) x 4 x 3 x 2
x2 x2 1 x
4x x 0x 7 Remainder
3 2
64
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
Repeat the process x3 x 2 4x 5 Quotient
Divisor
x 1 x x 0x 4x 2x 0x 7
2 5 4 3 2
( ) x 5 x 4 x 3
x 3x 2x 2 0x 7
4 3
( ) x 4 x 3 x 2
4x x 2 0x 7
3
( ) 4x3 4x 2 4x
5x 4x 7
2
( ) 5x 2 5x 5
x2 Remainder
Step 6 : Quotient : x x 4x 5 Remainder : x 2
3 2
Write the quotient and the remainder.
P x x 1 x x3 x 2 4x 5 x 2
2
65
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
Example 2:
Find the quotient and remainder if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 is divided by 𝑥 − 3.
Solution:
66
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
Example 3:
a) Use long division to find the quotient and b) Use long division to find the quotient
the remainder if P x 2x3 7x2 9x 38 and the remainder if
P x 2x3 x2 18x 9 is divided x 2 .
is divided x 3 .
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
2x 2 x 12
x 3 2x3 7x 2 9x 38
2x3 6x 2
x 2 9x
x 2 3x
12x 38
12x 36
2
Quotient : 2x2 x 12
Remainder : 2
P x 2x3 7x2 9x 38
Quotient : 2x 2 3x 12
x 3 2x2 x 12 2 Remainder : 15
c) Use long division to show that x 1 is d) Use long division to show that x 2 is
not a factor of P x 2x3 x2 1. Hence, not a factor of P x 3x3 2x2 5 . Hence,
state the quotient and remainder of P x . state the quotient and remainder of P x .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
2x x 1
2
x 1 2x3 x 2 0x 1
2x3 2x 2
x 2 0x
x2 x
x1
x 1
2
Quotient : 2x 2 x 1
Remainder : 2
Since remainder is 2 0 , so x 1 is not a
factor of P x .
67
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
P x 2x3 x2 1
: 3x 2 8x 16
x 1 2x2 x 1 2
Quotient
Remainder :27
e) Use long division to show that x 3 is f) Use long division to find the quotient
and the remainder if P x 2x3 3x2 4 is
not a factor of P x x3 3x 6 . Hence,
divided x 1 .
state the quotient and remainder of P x .
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Quotient : 2x2 5x 5
Quotient : x 2 3x 6
Remainder :1
Remainder : 12
g) Use long division to find the quotient h) Use long division to find the quotient
and the remainder if P x 2x3 x is and the remainder if P x 3x3 x 2 is
divided x 3 . divided x 5 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
68
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
Quotient : 2x2 6x 17 Quotient : 3x 2 15x 76
Remainder :51 Remainder :378
i) Show that 2x 3 is a factor of j) Show that x 1 is a factor of
P x 2x 5x x 6 and factorize P x
3 2
P x 3x3 7x2 18x 8 and factorize
completely using long division. Solve P x completely using long division. Solve
P x 0.
P x 0.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
By using factor theorem,
3 2
3 3 3 3
P 2 5 6 0
2 2 2 2
Since remainder is 0 , so 2x 3 is a factor
of P x .
x2 x 2
2x 3 2x 3 5x 2 x 6
2x3 3x 2
2x 2 x
2x 2 3x
4x 6
4x 6
0
Quotient : x2 x 2
Remainder : 0
P x 2x3 5x 2 x 6
2x 3 x 2 x 2
2x 3 x 1 x 2
P x x 1 3x2 10x 8
Solve P x 0. x 1 3x 2 x 4
2x 3 x 1 x 2 0 P x 0
3 x 1 3x 2 x 4 0
x , x 1, x 2
2 2
x 1, , 4
3
69
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.4 Solution to Equations
k) Show that x 5 is a factor of l) If x2 is the one of the roots of
P x bx 12x 4 , find b. Hence, use
2
P x x3 19x 30 and factorize P x
completely using long division. Solve long division to factorize P x completely.
P x 0. Solve P x 0.
SOLUTION SOLUTION
b5
P x 5x 2 12x 4
P x x 5 x 5x 6
2
x 2 5x 2
x 5 x 2 x 3
P x 0
P x 0
x 2 5x 2 0
x 5 x 2 x 3 0 2
x 2,
x 5,2,3 5
70
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
2.5 LOGARITHMIC AND INDICES FUNCTIONS
2.5.1 Introduction to Indices and Logarithm
2.5.1.1 Indices
If a is any real number, 𝑎 ∈ ℜ (𝑎 > 0) and n is a positive integer, then 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 ×. ..
The integer n is called the index or exponent and a is the base.
a) Positive indices: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 ×. ..
Example:
i) 34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 81
ii) (−3)2
iii) (0.2)3
1 3
iv) ( )
5
1
b) Negative indices: 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
Example:
1
i) 2−1 = 2
ii) 3−2
iii) 4−2
c) Zero index: 𝑎0 = 1
𝑎𝑚
From Law of indices, 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑚 = 𝑎0 . But by division 𝑎𝑚 = 1, therefore, 𝑎0 = 1.
71
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Any number with zero index is equal to 1.
Example:
1
𝑛
d) Rational/Fractional indices: 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎
1 1 1 1 1
+
From law of indices, 𝑎2 × 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 2 = 𝑎1 , this means that 𝑎2 = √𝑎
1 1 1 1
3
Also, 𝑎3 × 𝑎3 × 𝑎3 = 𝑎1 , this means that 𝑎3 = √𝑎 .
1
𝑛
So, in general 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎 .
3 3 3 3 3
Also, 𝑎4 × 𝑎4 × 𝑎4 × 𝑎4 = 𝑎3 ; this means that 𝑎4 is the fourth root of
3
4
𝑎3 𝑜𝑟 𝑎4 𝑜𝑟 √𝑎3 .
𝑚
In general, 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑛√𝑎𝑚
Example:
1 2 2
3
i) 4 = √4 = 2
2 iv) 273 = (√27) = 32 = 9
1 2
ii) 164 v) 83
1 3
iii) 325 vi) 164
72
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Exercise:
73
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example:
1.
1 2 1
2. 𝑎3 × 𝑎5 ÷ 𝑎2
3. 92𝑥 × 27 𝑥−3 ÷ 35−𝑥
74
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Exercise:
75
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
2.5.1.2 Logarithm
Definition:
Example:
76
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
77
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example:
78
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
79
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Exercise:
80
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
81
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
2.5.2 Solving Equations involving Indices
Equation involving indices (also known as exponential equations) can be solve by expressing the
equation to same bases and then comparing the indices.
2.5.2.1 Indices Equations: Linear Equation
Example 1:
Solve each of the following equations.
a) 32x 27 b) 4 x 32
SOLUTION SOLUTION
5
x
2
c) 23x 2 64 d) 52x 5 125
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x4
e) 160
5 2x
f) 54
2 3 x
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x3
1 1
g) 52x 3 h) 32x 1
25 9
SOLUTION SOLUTION
82
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
3
x
2
i) 92x 1 32x j) 25x 3 5x 2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x8
k) 8x 1 4x 1 0 l) 23x 1 82x 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
1
x
3
2 1 1
3x
m) n) 9x 2
8 272x 3
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x=1
Example 2:
Solve each of the following equations.
83
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
a) 2x 4x 3 8 b) 25x 52x 1
1
SOLUTION 125
SOLUTION
x 1
2x 2 2x
27 8 1
c) 9 d) x 1
3x 4 2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
8 3
x x
5 4
84
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example 3:
Solve each of the following equations.
a) 3n5 3n 4 2 b) 2x 2x3 7
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x3
2x 1 3x 1 3x 2
c) 7 7 2x
8 0 d) 5 5 40
SOLUTION SOLUTION
1 2
x x
2 3
e)
125 53m1 25m f)
27 32n5 93n
SOLUTION SOLUTION
1
n
m 2 2
85
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
2.5.2.2 Indices Equations: Quadratic Equation
Example 1:
Solve the following exponential equations.
a) 5x 1 1 b) 7x 4 1
2 2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 2
c) 2x 42 x 1 d) 7x 4962x
2 2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x2 x 2, 6
x2 6 x 1 x 1
e) 4 16 0 2 9
f) 3x
SOLUTION 27x
SOLUTION
x 4, 2 x 1, 2
86
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example 2:
Solve the following exponential equations.
a) Use the substitution u 2x to solve the b) Use the substitution u 2x to solve the
equation 22x 5 2x 4 0 .
equation 4x 16 5 2x 1 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 1,3
c) Use the substitution u 2x to solve the d) Use the substitution u 3x to solve the
equation 4x 4 10 2x 1 .
equation 9x 4 3x 1 27 0 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 0,2 x 1,2
87
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CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
e) Use an appropriate substitution to f) Use an appropriate substitution to solve
solve the equation 52x 6 5x 5 0 .
the equation 22x 10 2x 16 0 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 0,1 x 1,3
Example 3:
Use the substitution u 2x to solve the equation 4x 1 2 7 2x .
SOLUTION
88
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example 4:
Use the substitution u 3x to solve the equation 9x 1 6 3x 3 .
SOLUTION
x 1
89
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
2.5.2.3 Indices Equations: Simultaneous Equations
Example 1:
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
4x 2y 16 1
3y 1
x
2
27 3
SOLUTION
90
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example 2:
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
5x 252y 1
35x 9y
1
9
SOLUTION
4 1
x y
9 9
91
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example 3:
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
3x
9y
27
42x 26y
1
4
SOLUTION
x 1 y 1
92
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example 4:
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
2 4x 32y
125x
25y
625
SOLUTION
x2 y 1
93
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
2.5.3 Solving Logarithmic Equations
2.5.3.1 Logarithmic Equations: Linear Functions
Equation involving logarithms can be solved by expressing the equation as a single logarithmic
form to the same base.
Example 1:
Solve the following equations.
a) 4 x 9 b) 2x 5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 2.322
x 1 x2
c) 4 13 d) 6 21
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 0.8502 x 0.3008
2x 1 2x 3
e) 3 8 x
f) 5 9 x
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 4.726
94
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example 2:
Solve the following equations.
a) log2 3x 1 3
SOLUTION
b) log2 x 1 2
c) log3 4x 3 3
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x3 x 7.5
d) log4 2x 1 1
e) log3 1 3x 2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
3 8
x x
8 3
95
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
Example 3:
Solve the following equations.
a) log2 5x log2 2x 1 2 b) log2 3x log2 x 1 3
SOLUTION
8
x
5
96
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
2.5.3.2 Logarithmic Equations: Quadratic Functions
Example 1:
Solve the following equations.
a) log2 x 1 log2 x 4 log2 2x 6
Solution:
b) log3 x 3 log3 x log3 x 1
SOLUTION
x3
97
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
1
c) log3 2x log3 x 1
2
SOLUTION
3
x
2
d) log2 x log2 x 2 3
SOLUTION
x4
e) log3 x 1 log3 x 3 log3 x 1 1
SOLUTION
x3
98
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
f) log3 2 log3 x 4 2log3 x
SOLUTION
x4
99
MAT406
CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS
2.5 Logarithmic and Indices Functions
2.5.3.3 LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS: SIMULATENOUS EQUATIONS
EXAMPLE 1:
Solve the following equations.
4x 8y 42x 3
512 (1) b)
a) 2y log2 y log2 x 1
log5 x y 1 (2) SOLUTION
SOLUTION
x3, y 6
100
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CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.1 Introduction of Inequalities
INEQUALITIES
3.1 Introduction of Inequalities
Definition
An algebraic inequality is a solution for value of 𝑥 that satisfy the equation which expressing
them by graphing on number line and interval notation.
An Inclusive inequality denoted by closed dot on the number line and a square bracket in
interval notation.
A compound inequality is two or more inequalities in one statement joined by the word “and”
or by the word “or”. Compound inequalities with the logical “or” require that either condition
must be satisfied.
Properties of Inequalities
101
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CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
3.2 SOLVING INEQUALITIES
Type of Inequalities
3.2.1 Linear Inequality
a) An inequality is a relationship between two quantities that are unequal. The
relationship between quantities is expressed with the symbols and can be
represented in a number line.
Symbol Meaning Number Line
xy
xy x is greater than y
y
xy
xy x is less than y
y
x is greater than or equal xy
xy
to y
y
xy
xy x is less than or equal to y
y
b) Inequalities are solved in the same way as solving equations, except that the
direction of the inequality sign is reversed when both sides of an inequality is
multiplied or divided by a negative number.
c) When any number is added to, or is subtracted from both sides of an inequality,
the inequality sign remains unchanged.
d) When we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a positive number,
the inequality sign remains unchanged.
e) When we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative number,
the inequality sign must be reversed.
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the following inequalities.
a) x 2 5 b) 2x 10
c) x 6 x
d) 5
4
102
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CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
e) 2x 3 5 f) 2 3x 4
2
a) x 7 b) x 5 c) x 6 d) x 20 e) x 1 f) x
3
EXAMPLE 2
6 4x
Solve the inequality 10x 6 and express the solution in real number line, interval
3
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
EXAMPLE 3
3 2x
Solve the inequality 3x 8 and express the solution in real number line, interval
4
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
For inequality form : x 3.5
103
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CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
EXAMPLE 4
1 3x 9 1 2x
Solve the inequality and express the solution in real number line, interval
2 2 4
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
104
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
3.2.2 Compound Inequality
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the inequality x 1 10x 5 7 2x and express the solution in real number line,
interval notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
x 1 10x 5 7 2x
Number Line
Interval Notation:
Inequality Form:
Set Notation:
105
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CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the inequality x 9 2x 7 8 5x and express the solution in real number line,
interval notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
1
For inequality form : x
3
EXAMPLE 3
3 2p 1
Solve the inequality 3 and express the solution in real number line, interval
6 3
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
1 21
For interval notation : ,
2 2
106
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
EXAMPLE 4
2x 3 x 3
Solve the inequality 4 5x and express the solution in real number line,
3 3 2
interval notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
2x 3 x 3
4 5x
3 3 2
Number Line
Interval Notation:
Inequality Form:
Set Notation:
EXAMPLE 5
x
Solve the inequality x 3 2 5 3x and express the solution in real number line,
5
interval notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
25
For inequality form : x
6
107
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
EXAMPLE 6
1 5 3x
Solve the inequality 5 10 and express the solution in real number line, interval
2 6
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
38 52
For inequality form : x
3 3
108
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
3.2.3 Quadratic Inequality
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the inequality x2 4x 5 and express the solution in real number line, interval notation,
inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
Interval
Test Value
x 5
x 1
x 5 x 1
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the inequality 3 2x 49 and express the solution in real number line, interval
2
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
Interval
Test Value
x 2
x 5
x 2 x 5
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
109
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the inequality x 1 4 x 3 and express the solution in real number line, interval
2 2
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
Interval
Test Value
3x 5
x 7
3x 5 x 7
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the inequality 1 x 2x 3 and express the solution in real number line, interval
2 2
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
For inequality form : 4 x 32
110
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
3.2.4 Rational Inequality
EXAMPLE 1
x3
Solve the inequality 5 and express the solution in real number line, interval notation,
x2
inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
Interval
Test Value
4x 13
x 2
4x 13
x2
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
111
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
EXAMPLE 2
4x 8
Solve the inequality 2 and express the solution in real number line, interval notation,
x4
inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
Interval
Test Value
x 8
x 4
x8
x4
Number Line
Interval Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
EXAMPLE 3
5
Solve the inequality 1 and express the solution in real number line, interval notation,
x3
inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
For inequality form : x 3 2 x
112
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
EXAMPLE 4
x6
Solve the inequality 3x 4 0 and express the solution in real number line, interval
x
notation, inequality form and set notation.
SOLUTION
Interval
Test Value
x 1
x 2
x 1 x 2
x
Number Line
Interval Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
113
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CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
3.2.5 Absolute Value
The absolute value of a real number a is denoted by |a| and it is the distance from a
to the origin 0 on the number line. The absolute value is always positive. We can give
a formula for the absolute value of the number, which depends on whether a is positive
or negative. Because of this we must make two statements to describe the formula.
Definition:
If 𝑎 is real number, the absolute value of 𝑎 is
𝑎 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 0
|𝑎| = {
−𝑎 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0
Absolute Value
The absolute value of x, denoted by |x|, is the distance from x to 0 on the number line.
Since distances are always positive of 0, we have
|𝑥| ≥ 0
Example:
In general, we have
Example: Solve |𝑥 + 2| = 5
114
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CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
Graphically: |𝑥 + 2| = 5
Example: Evaluate |2|, |-10|, |5-8|, |7-4|.
Equations involving Absolute Value
Example:
1. Solve 3x 5 9 .
3x 5 9
115
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
2. Solve 2 3x x 7 .
2 3x x 7
3. Solve 2x 7 3 x 3 .
2x 7 3 x 3
x4
4. Solve 8 .
5 2x
x4
8
5 2x
116
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
Inequalities involving Absolute Value
Example:
1. Solve the inequality 3x 8 4 and express the solution in real number line, interval
notation, inequality form and set notation.
3x 8 4
Number Line
Interval Notation:
Inequality Form:
Set Notation:
117
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
2. Solve the inequality 2x 4 7 and express the solution in real number line, interval
notation, inequality form and set notation.
3 11
(Ans: For interval notation : , , )
2 2
3. Solve the inequality 3p 4 2p 1 and express the solution in real number line, interval
notation, inequality form and set notation.
3p 4 2p 1
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
118
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
2x 3
4. Solve the inequality 4 and express the solution in real number line, interval
3
notation, inequality form and set notation.
2x 3
4
3
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
119
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
y
5. Solve the inequality 5 1 25 and express the solution in real number line, interval
3
notation, inequality form and set notation.
y
5 1 25
3
y 25
1
3 5
y
1 5
3
Number Line
Interval
Notation
Inequality Form
Set Notation
6. Solve the inequality 2 4x 5 2 6 and express the solution in real number line, interval
notation, inequality form and set notation.
3 7
(Ans: For interval notation : , )
4 4
3
7. Solve the inequality 5 and express the solution in real number line, interval
x 1
notation, inequality form and set notation.
(Ans: For inequality form : x 85 52 x ,x 1 )
120
MAT406
CHAPTER 3: INEQUALITIES
3.2 Solving Inequalities
121
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
CHAPTER 4: SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
A system of equations is one where there is more than one unknown and more than
one equation presented simultaneously.
Solving a system of equations is means to find all the possible values for all the
unknowns that satisfied the system.
Type of solution Description Graphical Illustration
The system has exactly one The graph of the system is a pair
solution of lines that intersect in a point.
The solution of the 2x2 linear
system is the intersection point.
The system has infinitely many The graph of the system is a
solution single line
The system has no solution The graph of the system is a pair
of parallel lines (same slope)
and not intersect
122
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CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.1 Solving Simultaneous Equations with Two Variables: Linear Equations
There are two methods to solve simultaneous equation in two variable which are substitution
method and elimination method.
4.1.1 Substitution Method
To solve by substitution method, there must be two unknowns to two lines of equations. In this
method, solve an equation for one variable, then substitute in the other equations and solve.
Example: Solve the following simultaneous equations using substitution method.
1. m 4, 3m 2n 8
SOLUTION
m 4, n 2
2. x y 1, 3 y 2x
SOLUTION
x 4, y 5
123
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
3. 5m 2n 8, 3m n 7
SOLUTION
m 2,n 1
1
4. x y 4, 4x y 8
2
SOLUTION
x 0, y 8
1
5. x y 1, 4x 3y 2
2
SOLUTION
2 6
x ,y
5 5
124
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.1.2 Elimination Method
To solve by elimination, one of the unknowns has to be made equal to the other and eliminated
by addition or subtraction, leaving a simple equation to solve for the other unknown.
Example:
EXAMPLE 1 (coefficient equal in size but EXAMPLE 2
opposite in sign) Solve the following simultaneous equations.
Solve the following simultaneous 4x y 32
equations. 2x y 2
4x 3y 2
SOLUTION
x 3y 8
SOLUTION
x 5,y 12
x 2, y 2
EXAMPLE 3 (coefficient the same) EXAMPLE 4
Solve the following simultaneous Solve the following simultaneous equations.
equations. 5x 3y 1
3p q 5 5x 4y 2
3p 2q 11 SOLUTION
SOLUTION
125
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
7
p , q 2 x 2,y 3
3
EXAMPLE 5 (coefficient not equal in size) EXAMPLE 6
Solve the following simultaneous Solve the following simultaneous equations.
equations. 2x 5y 7
2x y 9 6x 6y 4
x 3y 6 SOLUTION
SOLUTION
31 17
x ,y
21 21
x 3, y 3
EXAMPLE 7 (coefficient not equal in size) EXAMPLE 8
Solve the following simultaneous Solve the following simultaneous equations.
equations. 2r 6s 9
1
v w 1 1
r 2s 3
2 2
2v w 10 SOLUTION
SOLUTION
v 3, w 4
126
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
36 3
r ,y
7 14
EXAMPLE 9 (coefficient not equal in size) EXAMPLE 10
Solve the following simultaneous Solve the following simultaneous equations.
equations. 3x 4y 2
4x 3y 18 5x 5y 15
3x 2y 5 SOLUTION
SOLUTION
x 3, y 2
x 2,y 1
EXAMPLE 11 EXAMPLE 12
Solve the following simultaneous Solve the following simultaneous equations.
equations. 6x 7y 6
x 3y 18 5x 12y 18
2 SOLUTION
x y 1
3
SOLUTION
198 78
x ,y
107 107
11
x 7,y
13
127
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.2 Solving Simultaneous Equations with Two Variables: Linear and Non-
Linear Equations
An equation with terms has a variable degree 2 or higher is called a nonlinear equation.
When solving a system is which one equation is linear, it is usually easiest to use the
substitution method. Solve the linear equation for either 𝑥 or 𝑦, then substitute the
resulting expression into the nonlinear equation.
Example 1: Solve the following simultaneous equations.
xy3
x y2 9
2
SOLUTION
x 3, y 0 or x 0, y 3
EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3
Solve the following simultaneous equations. Solve the following simultaneous
x2 y2 5 equations.
x 4y 9 11 x 2 y
SOLUTION y 2 6x
SOLUTION
1 38 x 3 ,y 20
x , y x 1,y 2
17 17
128
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
EXAMPLE 4 EXAMPLE 5
Solve the following simultaneous equations. Solve the following simultaneous
y x2 7 5x equations.
3x y 7
4y 8x 21
SOLUTION x xy y2 7
2
SOLUTION
7 7
x , y
2 4
x 3, y 2 x 2 ,y 1
EXAMPLE 6
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
x 2y 2
x 6y
5
y x
SOLUTION
x 6 ,y 2
129
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
EXAMPLE 8 EXAMPLE 9
Solve the following simultaneous equations Solve the following simultaneous
where x,y 0 . equations.
3
16
2
2x 4 y
2
1
128 4 x 2y
x
9x 3
27 3y
27y 81
SOLUTION SOLUTION
For x,y 0, x 3 , y 1 x 3 ,y 1
130
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
4.3 System of Inequalities
The easiest way to solve systems of inequalities is to solve by graphing.
The graph of an inequality is a half-plane.
The graph of a system of inequalities is the graph of all solutions of the system or it is
shown as the region common to all of the half-planes.
To graph a system of linear inequalities:
1. Graph the line that corresponds to the inequality. Use dashed line for an inequality
with < or > and a solid line for an inequality with ≤ or ≥.
2. Lightly shade the half-plane that is the graph of the inequality.
A system of inequalities is a set of two or more inequalities in one or more variables.
Systems of inequalities follow much of the same notation as linear inequalities.
is the greater than symbol.
is the less than symbol.
is the greater than or equal to symbol.
is the less than or equal to symbol.
is the not equal to symbol.
131
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CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
132
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
1. Solving Systems of LINEAR Inequalities
133
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example:
The solution of the both inequalities is
134
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example:
The solution of these inequalities is
135
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 1: Graph the following inequalities and shade the feasible region.
𝑦≤𝑥
Solution:
First graph the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Next, test a point that is located above the line and one that is below the line. Any point you
pick above the line, such as (0,2), y is greater than x, so points above the line are not included
in the solution.
Points below the line, such as (3,-3) have a y value that is less than the x value, so all points
below the line are included in the solution.
Example 2:
Graph the following inequalities and shade the feasible region.
a) x 3 b) x 2 c) x 5 d) x 1
136
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 3:
Graph the following inequalities and shade the feasible region.
a) y 5 b) y 3 c) y 2 d) y 9
Example 4:
Graph the following inequalities and shade the feasible region.
a) y x b) y x c) y x d) y x
Example 5:
Graph the following inequalities and shade the feasible region.
a) y x b) y x c) y x d) y x
137
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 6:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
x2 y x 1 y 4x 1
a) c)
y x 1 b) 1 y x 2
y x2
2
138
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 7:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
3y 15 2x
yx2
y2
y0
SOLUTION
139
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 8:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
x0
y0
x 2y 12
yx4
SOLUTION
140
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 9:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
3x 4y
2y 2 x
0y5
x9
SOLUTION
141
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example10:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
4x 3y 12
2x 3y 6
y5
SOLUTION
142
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
2. Solving Systems of NONLINEAR Inequalities
Similarly, to solve a system of linear inequalities, need to solve each individual inequality.
Then, find the overlap area. Because the overlap area region satisfies all the inequalities which
is the solution of the system. If there is no overlapped area, then the solution does not exist.
Example:
Example:
143
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 1:
Graph the following inequalities and shade the feasible region.
a) x2 y2 9 b) x2 y2 16 c) x2 y2 4 d) x2 y2 25
Example 2:
Solve the following system of inequalities.
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 < 4, 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 5, 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≥ 12
Solution:
144
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CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 3:
Solve the system of inequalities: 𝑦 − 1 ≥ (𝑥 − 2)2 , 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 + 1
Solution:
145
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 4:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
x 3 y 2
2 2
25
y 2x 6
y x
SOLUTION
146
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 5:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
y0
x 1 y 4
2 2
9
yx60
SOLUTION
147
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 6:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
y 3x 3
x 1
2
y2 4
y0
SOLUTION
148
MAT406
CHAPTER 4: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
4.3 System of Inequalities
Example 7:
Graph the following system of inequalities and shade the feasible region.
y 2x 2
x2 y2 9
x2
SOLUTION
149
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
CHAPTER 5
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
The Cartesian coordinates also known as Rectangular coordinates system consists of the 𝑥 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (horizontal line) and the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (vertical line) that intersect at the origin (0,0). The
ordered pair of (𝑎, 𝑏) is a point in the system with 𝑎 on the x-axis and 𝑏 on the y-axis.
P(a,b)
5.1.1 Slope/Gradient of a line
Definition: If 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are any points on a line, then the slope/gradient of the
line passing through 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 is given by
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= , 𝑥2 ≠ 𝑥1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Types of slope/gradient:
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
Example 1: Find the gradient of the straight line joining the following points.
a) A 1,5 , B 4, 7 b) P 3, 4 , Q 9,5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
c) C 4, 5 , D 5, 2 d) R 1,6 , S 8,5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
e) E 2,8 , F 8,2 f) G 0, 5 , H 3,2 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
g) T 7,3 , U14,3 h) V 8,12 , W 8, 3
SOLUTION SOLUTION
3 1 7
b) c) 3 d) e)1 f ) g)0 h) undefined
4 9 3
151
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
Example 2:
(Answer: h=-3)
Example 3:
2 3
(Answer: 𝑎) 3 , 𝑏) 5)
Example 4:
(Answer: A(4,0))
152
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
5.1.2 The distance between two points
Example 1:
Find the distance between each of the following pairs of points.
a) A 1,5 , B 4, 7 b) P 3, 4 , Q 9,5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
c) C 4, 5 , D 5, 2 d) R 1,6 , S 8,5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
e) E 2,8 , F 8,2 f) T 7,3 , U14,3
SOLUTION SOLUTION
g) G 0, 5 , H 3,2 h) V 8,12 , W 8, 3
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Answer: b) 15 c) 3.162 d) 9.055 e) 8.485 f) 7 g) 7.616 h) 15
153
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
Exercise:
154
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
5.1.3 Midpoint
1) Midpoints of two point
B x2,y2
x x2 y1 y2
M 1 ,
M 2 2
A x1,y1
Example 1:
a) A 1,5 , B 4, 7 b) P 3, 4 , Q 9,5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
155
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
c) C 4, 5 , D 5, 2 d) R 1,6 , S 8,5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
e) E 2,8 , F 8,2 f) T 7,3 , U14,3
SOLUTION SOLUTION
g) G 0, 5 , H 3,2 h) V 8,12 , W 8, 3
SOLUTION SOLUTION
1 9 7 7 11 21 3 3 9
Answer: b) 3, c) , d) , e) 5,5 f) ,3 g) , h) 8,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Example 2: Find the midpoint of the two given points:
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.1 Cartesian Coordinates
Example 3:
The coordinates of points R and S are (-4,3) and (x,y) respectively. Point P(-1,2) is the
midpoint of RS. Find the values of x and y.
Solution:
157
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.2 The equation of a Straight Line
5.2 The Equation of a Straight Line
5.2.1 The 𝒙-intercept and 𝒚-intercept of a line
Figure below shows that, 𝑎 as the 𝑥 – intercept and it is the point when the line
intersects the 𝑥-axis.
While 𝑏 is the 𝑦-intercept and it is the point when the line intersects the 𝑦-axis.
5.2.2 The equation of a line
Given Equation
Gradient/slope = 𝑚 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Point = (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
Where 𝑚 is the gradient and 𝑐 is y-
intercept
Points: (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
=
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
General form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are
constants.
𝑥 𝑦
Intercept form + = 1, where a is the x–intercept and b
𝑎 𝑏
is the y–intercept.
158
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.2 The equation of a Straight Line
Example 1:
Write the following equations in the gradient form and general form.
a) 4 b) 3
2x 6 y 3x 1 y
5 7
SOLUTION SOLUTION
7
Gradient Form : y 3x
3
General Form : 7x 3y 21 0
c) x y d) x y
2 1
2 5 2 8
SOLUTION SOLUTION
159
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.2 The equation of a Straight Line
5
Gradient Form : y x 10 Gradient Form : y 4x 8
2
General Form : 5x 2y 20 0 General Form : 4x y 8 0
e) 7 f) 2
y 3x 2 y 4x 3
8 7
SOLUTION SOLUTION
24 16 21
Gradient Form : y x Gradient Form : y 14x
7 7 2
General Form : 24x 7y 16 0 General Form : 28x 2y 21 0
160
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.2 The equation of a Straight Line
Example 2:
Find the equation of the straight line with a gradient of m and passes through the given point.
a) b) m 3 passes through 3,8
m passes through 5, 3
1
4 SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Gradient Form : y 3x 17
General Form : 3x y 17 0
c) 5 d)
m
1
passes through 9, 2
m 2 passes through 7,
9 5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
1 19
Gradient Form : y 2x
121 Gradient Form : y x
9 5 5
General Form : 18x 9y 121 0 General Form : x 5y 19 0
161
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.2 The equation of a Straight Line
Example 3:
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through each of the following pairs of
points.
a) 3,5 , 2,1 b) 4,6 , 3, 3
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Gradient Form : y 9x 30
General Form : 9x y 30 0
162
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.2 The equation of a Straight Line
c) 9,2 , 3,6 d) 2, 4 , 5, 6
SOLUTION SOLUTION
2 8
Gradient Form : y x
1 3 3
Gradient Form : y x 5
3 General Form : 2x 3y 8 0
General Form : x 3y 15 0
163
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.3 Intersection between Two Lines
5.3 INTERSECTION BETWEEN 2 LINES
When two lines intersect, the point of intersection lies on both lines. This means that
the coordinates of the point satisfy both the equations of the lines. Therefore, we need
to solve the equation simultaneously to determine the point of intersection.
Example 1:
Find the point of intersection of the lines 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 17 = 0 and 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 0.
Solution:
Example 2:
Solution:
164
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.3 Intersection between Two Lines
Example 3:
A straight line passes through points (1, 5) and (6, 0) and intersects with the straight
line 2y = 5x – 16 at point P. Find the coordinates of point P.
Solution:
165
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
5.4 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
5.4.1 Parallel Lines
m2
If two straight lines are parallel,
then their gradients are equal, that
is m1 m2 , and vice versa
Example 1:
Determine whether each of the following pairs of straight lines are parallel.
a) y 3x 10 , y 3x 5 b) y 5x 8 , 5x y 7
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Not parallel
c) y 7x 9 , 2y 14x 1 d) 1
4y x 2 , y x 7
4
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Parallel Parallel
166
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Example 2:
Given that each of the following pairs of straight lines are parallel. Find the value of k.
a) 2x ky 5 , 3y x 8 0 b) 3x ky 2 , 2y x 9
SOLUTION SOLUTION
6
c) kx 4y 2 , 5y x 7 d) kx 9y 3 , 2y 3x 8
SOLUTION SOLUTION
4 27
5 2
167
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Example 3:
Find the equation of the straight line that is parallel to the given straight line and passes
through point P.
a) 2x y 6 , P 4,5 b) 4x 2y 7 0 , P 3, 7
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Gradient Form : y 2x 1
General Form : 2x y 1 0
c) 2y 5x 6 0 , P 2,3 d) 2x 5y 3 , P 1,3
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
5
Gradient Form : y x8
2
General Form : 5x 2y 16 0
2 13
Gradient Form : y x
5 5
General Form : 2x 5y 13 0
168
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
5.4.2 Perpendicular Lines
m1 m1 m2
m2 If two straight lines are perpendicular,
then m1m2 1 and vice versa
Example 1:
Determine whether each of the following pairs of straight lines are perpendicular.
a) y 4x 4 0 , 4y x 5 b) 3y 18x 3 , 6y x 5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Perpendicular
c) y 3x 8 , 3y x 11 d) x 2y 10 , y 2x 0
(SEPTEMBER 2013)
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Perpendicular Not Perpendicular
169
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Example 2:
Find the equation of the straight line that is perpendicular to the given straight line and
passes through point P.
a) x 4y 6 , P 3,5 b) 6x 3y 2 0 , P 4,1
SOLUTION SOLUTION
170
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
1
Gradient Form : y x 3
2
General Form : 2x 2y 6 0
c) 2y 3x 2 0 , P 2,1 d) 9y 6x 8 0 , P 1,2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
2 1 3 1
Gradient Form : y x Gradient Form : y x
3 3 2 2
General Form : 2x 3y 1 0 General Form : 3x 2y 1 0
171
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Example 3:
a) Find the general equation of a straight b) Find the general equation of a straight
line which is y-intercept equal to 6 and is line which is y-intercept equal to 4 and is
perpendicular to y 5x 9 0 . perpendicular to y 3x 2 0 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
1
1 Gradient Form : y x4
Gradient Form : y x 6 3
5 General Form : x 3y 12 0
General Form : x 5y 30 0
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
c) Given two points B 3,5 and C 8,10 . d) The coordinates of points A and B are
Find an equation of the straight line passing 1,2 and 1,1 respectively. A straight line
through C and perpendicular to BC. BC is perpendicular to the straight line AB.
Find the equation of the straight line BC.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Gradient Form : y 2x 1
General Form : 2x y 1 0
173
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
5.5.3 The equation of Parabola
Definition:
A parabola is the set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line.
The fixed-point F is called the focus, and the fixed line L is c called directrix.
A line through the focus is called axis of symmetry and the point between the directrix and
focus is called vertex.
Axis of symmetry
Parabola
Focus
Vertex Directrix
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Standard form of equation of parabola whose axis is parallel to the x–axis.
y k 4p x h y k 4p x h
2 2
Standard Equation
Axis of symmetry y k y k
Opens right Opens left
(If the sign in front of p is (If the sign in front of p is
Description
positive, then parabola opens to negative, then parabola opens
the right) to the left)
Vertex V h,k V h,k
Focus F h p,k F h p,k
Directrix x hp x hp
Graph
Example 1:
Find the vertex, focus and directrix of each parabola.
Parabola Vertex Find p Focus Directrix
4p 2
a) y 1 2 x 1
2
1
p
2
y 2 8 x 3
2
b)
y 1 6 x 2
2
c)
y 2 12 x 3
2
d)
175
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Example 2:
Write the equation of a parabola y2 2y 16x 49 0 in the standard form. Identify the axis
of symmetry, vertex, focus and directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola.
SOLUTION
Completing the square
Example 3:
Write the equation of a parabola y2 2y 12x 23 0 in the standard form. Identify the axis
of symmetry, vertex, focus and directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola.
AOS,y 1,V 2,1,F 1,1,x 5
176
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Example 4:
Write the equation of a parabola y2 2y 12x 35 0 in the standard form. Identify the axis
of symmetry, vertex, focus and directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola.
SOLUTION
Completing the square
Example 5:
Sketch the graph of parabola y2 2y 12x 23 . Hence, state the vertex, focus and the
directrix line.
AOS,y 1,V 2,1,F 1,1,x 5
177
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
178
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Example 6:
Given the equation y2 6y 8x 25 0 , find the standard form of the parabola, the vertex
and the equation of directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola with the correct vertex and directrix.
AOS,y 3,V 2, 3,F 4, 3,x 0
Example 7:
Sketch the graph of x 4y2 . Label the vertex, focus and the directrix line.
SOLUTION
179
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Standard form of equation of parabola whose axis is parallel to the y–axis.
x h 4p y k x h 4p y k
2 2
Standard Equation
Axis of symmetry x h x h
Opens downward
Opens upward
(If the sign in front of p is
Description (If the sign in front of p is positive,
negative, then parabola opens
then parabola opens upward)
downward)
Vertex V h,k V h,k
Focus F h,k p F h,k p
Directrix y k p y k p
Graph
Example 1:
Find the vertex, focus and directrix of each parabola.
Parabola Vertex Find p Focus Directrix
4p 3
x 2 3 y 2
2
a) 3
p
4
x 3 4 y 1
2
b)
x 1 10 y 3
2
c)
x 2 8 y 3
2
d)
180
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Example 2:
Given a parabola with the equation x2 4x 4y . Determine its vertex, focus and equation of
directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola.
SOLUTION
Completing the square
Example 3:
Given a parabola with the equation x 2 6x 4y 0 . Determine its vertex, focus and equation
of directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola.
181
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
9 5 13
AOS, x 3, V 3, ,F 3, , y
4 4 4
Example 4:
Given a parabola with the equation x2 2x 16y 63 0 . Determine its vertex, focus and
equation of directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola.
SOLUTION
Completing the square
182
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Example 5:
Given a parabola with the equation x2 2x 8y 1 0 . Determine its vertex, focus and
equation of directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola.
AOS,x 1,V 1,0,F 1, 2,y 2
Example 6:
Sketch parabola with directrix y 2 and focus point 1, 2 . Then write the standard form
equation of the parabola.
SOLUTION
183
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Example 7:
Sketch parabola with directrix y 2 and focus point 2,0 . Then write the standard form
equation of the parabola.
AOS,x 2,p 1, V 2, 1 , x 2 4 y 1
2
EXAMPLE 8 EXAMPLE 9
Sketch parabola with directrix x 2 and Sketch parabola with directrix x 6 and
focus point 0,2 . Then write the standard focus point 2,3 . Then write the standard
form equation of the parabola. form equation of the parabola.
SOLUTION SOLUTION
AOS,y 2,p 1, V 1,2 , y 2 4 x 1 AOS,y 3,p 2, V 4,3 , y 3 8 x 4
2 2
184
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
EXAMPLE 10 EXAMPLE 11
Sketch parabola with vertex 4, 7 and Sketch parabola with vertex 1,4 and focus
focus point 4, 4 . Then write the standard point 1,0 . Then write the standard form
form equation of the parabola. equation of the parabola.
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Sketch the given information.
F 4, 4
V 4, 7
AOS,x 1,p 4, y 8, x 1 16 y 4
2
185
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
EXAMPLE 12 EXAMPLE 13
Sketch parabola with vertex 3, 2 and Sketch parabola with vertex 3, 1 and
focus point 5, 2 . Then write the focus point 2, 1 . Then write the standard
standard form equation of the parabola. form equation of the parabola.
SOLUTION SOLUTION
AOS,y 2,p 2, x 1, y 2 8 x 3 AOS,y 1,p 5, x 8, y 1 20 x 3
2 2
186
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
TUTORIAL
1. Write the following equations in the standard form. Identify the axis of symmetry, vertex,
focus and directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola.
a) y2 6y 4x 1 0 e) y2 2y 20x 59 0
b) x2 2x 8y 9 0 f) y2 10y 4x 13 0
c) y2 4y 4x 0 g) x2 2x 8y 1 0
d) x2 8y 24 0
2. Sketch parabola by using the information below. Then write the standard form equation
of the parabola.
a) Directrix, x 1 and focus point 3, 3 .
7 1
b) Directrix, y and focus point 1, 2 .
2
13 5
c) Directrix, y and focus point 3, .
4 4
d) Vertex 3,1 and focus point 4,1 .
e) Vertex 2, 1 and focus point 2,0 .
f) Vertex 1,1 and focus point 0,1 .
3. Find the standard equation of a parabola which the directrix line is x 3 and the focus
is 3,0 . Hence, sketch the parabola.
4. Given the equation 2y y 8 16 x 4 , find the standard form of the parabola, the
vertex and the equation directrix. Hence, sketch the parabola with the correct vertex and
directrix.
5. Sketch parabola with directrix y 1 and focus point 1,3 . Then write the standard form
equation of the parabola.
6. Sketch parabola with directrix y 2 and focus point 1, 2 . Then write the standard
form equation of the parabola.
ANSWER
1. AOS Vertex Focus Directrix
a) y 3 4 x 2
2
y 3 p 1 2, 3 1, 3 x 3
b) x 1 8 y 1
2
x 1 p2 1,1 1,3 y 1
c) y 2 4 x 1
2 y 2 p 1 1, 2 0, 2 x 2
d) x 8 y 3
2
x0 p2 0,3 0,5 y 1
e) y 1 20 x 3
2 y 1 p5 3, 1 2, 1 x 8
f) y 5 4 x 3
2 y 5 p 1 3, 5 2, 5 x 4
g) x 1 8y
2
x 1 p2 1,0 1, 2 y2
187
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
y 3 8 x 1
2
2a)
x 1 6 y 2
2
2b)
9
x 3 4 y
2
2c)
4
y 1 4 x 3
2
2d)
2e) x 2 4 y 1
2
2f) y 1 4 x 1
2
3. y2 12x
4. y 4 8 x 6 , AOS,y 4,V 6,4 ,F 4,4 ,x 8
2
5. AOS,x 1,p 2, V 1,1 , x 1 8 y 1
2
6. AOS,x 1,p 2, V 1,0 , x 1 8y
2
34
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
5.5 EQUATION OF CIRCLE
Definition:
A circle is the set of points in a plane equidistant from a given fixed point. The fixed point is
called the center. The line segment determined by the center and any point on the circle is
called radius of the circle.
5.5.1 Equation of Circle
Standard Form x h y k r 2 , with center h,k and radius r units.
2 2
General Form 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (−2ℎ𝑥) + (−2𝑘𝑦) + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑐 is ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑟 2
and the radius is √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑐.
Example 1:
Specify the center and the radius of each circle.
Circle Center Radius Circle Center Radius
a) x 4 y 6 36 c) x 6 y 1 10
2 2 2 2
b) x 2 y 5 16 d)
2 2 2 2
2 7 3
x 3 y 2 4
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MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Example 2:
Write down the standard and general form of the equations of a circle with the given center
and radius.
a) C 0,0 ,r 3 b) C 2, 3 ,r 4
SOLUTION SOLUTION
c) C 0, 1 ,r 6 d) C 1,3 ,r 5 . Sketch the circle.
SOLUTION SOLUTION
190
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
5.5.2 Completing the Square (𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎)
CASE 1: Cases in which the coefficient of x2 is equal to 1 a 1
Solve the quadratic equation by using completing the square, x2 2x 2 0
Step 1 : Identify your b
b
Step 2 : Compute
2
Step 3 : Substitute in the form of
2 2
b b
x 2 2 c 0
2 2
b b
x 2 c 2
Example:
Use completing the square to solve the following quadratic equations.
a) x2 4x 12 0 b) x2 4x 8 0 c) x2 5x 6 0
2, 6 1.464, 5.464 1, 6
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
CASE 2: Cases in which the coefficient of x is not equal to 1 a 1
2
Solve the quadratic equation by using completing the square, 3x2 9x 50 0
Step 1 : Factoring out the coefficient of x2
Step 2 : Identify your b
b
Step 3 : Compute
2
Step 4 : Substitute in the form of
2 2
b b
x 2 2 c 0
2 2
b b
x 2 c 2
Example:
Use completing the square to solve the following quadratic equations.
a) 10x2 7x 12 0 b) 2x2 8x 25 0 c) x2 6x 10 0
0.8, 1.5 2.0620, 6.0620 1.3589,7.3589
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MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Example 1:
Write the equation of a circle x2 y2 4x 6y 4 0 in the standard form. Hence, sketch
the circle with correct center and radius.
SOLUTION
Completing the square
EXAMPLE 2
Write the equation of a circle x2 y2 4x 0 in the standard form. Hence, sketch the circle
with correct center and radius.
SOLUTION
Completing the square
EXAMPLE 3
Write the equation of a circle x2 y2 4x 10y 20 0 in the standard form. Hence, sketch
the circle with correct center and radius.
193
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
Center 2, 5 , Radius 3
EXAMPLE 4
Write the equation of a circle x2 y2 4x 6y 12 0 in the standard form. Hence, sketch
the circle with correct center and radius.
SOLUTION
Completing the square
EXAMPLE 5
Write the equation of a circle 3x2 3y2 6x 12y 0 in the standard form. Hence, sketch
the circle with correct center and radius.
SOLUTION
Completing the square
194
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
EXAMPLE 6
Write the equation of a circle 4x2 4y2 16x 24y 3 0 in the standard form. Hence, sketch
the circle with correct center and radius.
Center 2, 5 , Radius 3
EXAMPLE 7
Determine the equation of a circle with center 7,3 that passes through the point 7,0 .
Hence, sketch the circle with correct center and radius.
SOLUTION
Let C 7,3 and A 7,0 .
Radius for this circle is the length of CA
195
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
EXAMPLE 8
Determine the equation of a circle with center 5, 10 that passes through the point 7, 5 .
Hence, sketch the circle with correct center and radius.
7
Center 2,3 , Radius
2
EXAMPLE 9
Find the standard equation of a circle which the diameter has endpoints 2,3 and 4,1 .
Hence, sketch the circle with correct center and radius.
SOLUTION
196
MAT406
CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
EXAMPLE 10
Find the standard equation and general equation of a circle which the diameter has endpoints
2, 3 and 6, 3 . Hence, sketch the circle with correct center and radius.
Center 2, 3 , Radius 4
TUTORIAL
1. Write down the standard and general form of the equations of a circle with the given center
and radius.
a) A 2,4 ,r 2
b) B 7,1 ,r 3
c) C 2, 6 ,r 5
2. Sketch the circle x2 y2 2x 8y 1 0 .
3. Sketch the circle 2x2 2y2 64x 3y 2 0 .
4. Sketch the circle 2x2 2y2 4x 1.
5. A circle x2 y2 6x 7y p 0 , where p is a constant has a radius of 5 units. Write the
equation in the standard form and find the value of p.
6. Find an equation of a circle whose diameter has endpoints 4, 1 and 6, 7 . Hence,
sketch the circle.
7. A circle centered at the origin and passes through the point 3,4 . Find the equation of
the circle in standard form. Hence, sketch the circle.
197
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CHAPTER 5: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.5 Equation of Circle
8. Determine the equation of a circle in the standard form with center 2, 3 that passes
through the point 6,0 . Hence, sketch the circle with correct center and radius.
9. Determine the equation of a circle in the standard form with center 2, 6 that passes
through the point 1,4 . Hence, sketch the circle with correct center and radius.
10. A circle is centered at 4, 2 and passes through the point 1,2 . Find the equation of
the circle in general form.
11. Given the equation of a circle 2x2 2y2 12x 16y 42 0 . Write the equation in the
form of x h y k r 2 . Hence, find the radius and the center of the circle.
2 2
ANSWER
SF : x 2 y 4 4
2 2 2
7 85 15
5. x 3 y
2
1a) p ,p
GF : x y 4x 8y 16 0
2 2
2 4 4
6. x 5 y 4 10
2 2
SF : x 7 y 1 9
2 2
1b)
GF : x2 y2 14x 2y 41 0 7. x 2 y 2 25
8. x 2 y 3 25
2 2
SF : x 2 y 6 25
2 2
1c)
9. x 2 y 6 101
2 2
GF : x2 y2 4x 12y 15 0
2. Center 1,4 r 4 10. x 2 y 2 8x 4y 5 0
11. x 3 y 4 4, center 3,4 radius 2
2 2
3 4121
3. Center 16, r
4 16
3
4. Center 1,0 r
2
198
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
CHAPTER 6
TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 ANGLES AND THEIR MEASUREMENTS
An angle normally being formed by rotating one ray away from a fixed ray as indicated
by 𝜃 as shown in figure below. The fixed ray is the initial side and the rotated ray is the
terminal side.
An angle whose vertex is the center of a circle is a central angle, and the arc of the
circle through which the terminal side moves is the intercepted arc.
An angle located in a rectangular coordinate system with the vertex at the origin and
the initial side on the positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 to be an angle in standard position.
Intercepted arc
Vertex 𝜃
x
Initial side
Angle in standard position
6.1.1 Degree Measure of Angle
Angle are often measured in degrees. In this system, a circle is divided into 360 equal parts,
each of which is called degree.
1
360
part of a circle
1 degree or 1o
199
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
6.1.2 Radian Measure of Angle
The radian is the Standard International (SI) unit of plane angular measure and SI symbol is
rad.
One radian is the measure of a central angle of a circle that is subtended by an arc whose
length is equal to the radius of a circle.
2 rad
1 rad
Note that the size of the circle does not affect the radian measure of the angle. The measure
is the ratio of intercepted arc length to the radius
180
Thus 2𝜋 radians equal 360 degrees. This means that 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = degree and 1 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
𝜋
𝜋
180
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠.
6.1.3 Converting Degree to Radian and Radian to Degree
To change degrees to radians
x x
180
rad.
To change radians to degrees
180
x radian x
EXAMPLE 1
Convert each of the following angles into radians.
a) 60 b) 130 c) 300
2.269 5.236
200
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
d) 45.7 e) 96.23 f) 350.23
0.798 1.680 6.113
EXAMPLE 2
Convert each of the following angles into degrees.
a) 1.235 rad. b) 0.723 rad. c) 2.156 rad.
41.42 123.53
7 9
d) rad. e) rad. f) rad.
9 8 4
140 202.5 45
6.1.4 Arc Length
Consider a circle of radius 𝑟 centered at origin. Then the angle 𝜃, measured in radians,
subtends an arc of length 𝑠 on the circle.
For one complete revolution which is 2𝜋 radians, the corresponding arc length is the
circumference of the circle, 2𝜋𝑟.
Characteristic of circles
ARC LENGTH Formula for arc length
s r
where
s arc length
r radius
angle in radians
201
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the minor arc length and major arc length for each of the following.
Minor Arc Length Major Arc Length
a)
b)
s 2.76cm s 4.78cm
c)
s 29.33cm s 71.2cm
Minor Arc Length Major Arc Length
d)
s 27.23cm s 48.17cm
e)
s 36.30cm s 45.38cm
f)
s 14.14cm s 98.96cm
202
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
EXAMPLE 2
Find the angle , in radians and perimeter in each of the following.
Perimeter
a)
b)
0.8 rad. P 28 cm
c)
2.114 rad. P 57.6 cm
d)
4.62 rad. P 99.3cm
EXAMPLE 3
Find the radius and perimeter in each of the following.
Radius Perimeter
a)
b)
r 8.5 cm P 24.82 cm
203
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
c)
r 16.3 cm P 101.06 cm
d)
r 16.8 cm P 127.43cm
6.1.5 Area of a Sector of a Circle
Formula
1 2
Area of sector r
2
where
r radius
angle in radians
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the area of minor and major sector for each of the following.
Area of Minor Area of Major
a)
b)
A 76.18cm2 A 189.73cm2
204
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
c)
A 171.93cm2 A 243.55cm2
d)
A 292.19cm2 A 759.85cm2
e)
A 81.06cm2 A 120cm2
f)
A 67.51cm2 A 186.97cm2
EXAMPLE 2
Find the angle , in radians and perimeter in each of the following.
Perimeter
a)
b)
1.333 rad. s 20 cm, P 50cm
205
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
c)
4.5 rad. s 54 cm, P 78cm
d)
5.6 rad. s 89.6 cm, P 121.6cm
EXAMPLE 3
Find the radius and perimeter in each of the following.
Radius Perimeter
a)
Radius Perimeter
b)
r 22 s 55 cm ,P 99 cm
c)
r 17 s 13.6 cm ,P 47.6 cm
206
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
d)
r 19 s 98.81 cm ,P 136.81 cm
EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the angle at the center of a circle whose diameter is 10 cm and the area of the sector
is 5.5 cm2.
SOLUTION
0.44 rad
EXAMPLE 5
The area of a sector of a circle with diameter 12.5 cm and 25.34 cm 2. Find the length of the
major arc of the sector.
1.297 rad ,Major arc 31.16 cm
EXAMPLE 6
Figure 1 shows a circle with a center O. Given the
length of a major arc PQ is 19.42 cm.
If POQ 2.4 rad. , find
a) the radius of the circle.
b) the perimeter of POQR.
207
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
Figure 1 c) the area of the major sector POQ.
a) b) c)
r 5 cm P 22 cm A 48.54 cm2
EXAMPLE 7
Figure 2 shows a circle with radius 6 cm. The length
of the arc APB is 24 cm. Find
a) the angle in radians.
b) the area of the minor sector.
Figure 2
a) b)
4 rad. A 41.10 cm2
EXAMPLE 8
Figure 3 shows a right triangle PQR and a major arc
AB of a circle at R with diameter 10 cm. If
PQ 5cm and ARB 24 , find
a) the length of minor arc AB.
b) the perimeter of the shaded region.
c) the area of the shaded region.
Figure 3
a) b) c)
Minor arc AB 2.0944 cm P 39.322 cm A 73.304 cm2
EXAMPLE 9
208
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.1 Basic angle, radian, and degree
Figure 4 shows three arcs AF, BE and CD of three
circles centered at O with radius OA, OB and OC
respectively. Given OA AB 2.5 cm, OC 10 cm
and the arc length BE 9cm and CD 18 cm . Find
a) the angle AOF in radian.
b) the area of ABEF.
Figure 4 c) the perimeter ABEF.
a) b) c)
1.8 16.875 4.5, 18.5
EXAMPLE 10
Figure 5 shows AOB and B is the midpoint of
OD. Given AB 10 cm . If OD is 8 cm, find
a) in radian.
b) the parameter of the shaded region of ABCD.
c) the area of the major sector AOB.
Figure 5
a) b) c)
2.5 38 30.265
209
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.2 Drawing Angle
6.2 DRAWING ANGLE
The table below shows the positions of the terminal sides of some angles in standard
position with common positive measure between 0𝑜 and 360𝑜 .
Positive and negative
angle Acute angle Obtuse angle
𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝜃
0𝑜 < 𝜃 < 90𝑜 90𝑜 < 𝜃 < 180𝑜
𝜃 45𝑜 138𝑜
−𝜃
Straight angle
Right angle Quadrantal angles
𝜃 = 0𝑜 , 90𝑜 , 180𝑜 , 270𝑜 , 360𝑜
𝜃 = 180𝑜 𝜃 = 90𝑜
90𝑜
180𝑜
90𝑜 0𝑜
180𝑜
360𝑜
270𝑜
210
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.2 Drawing Angle
Example:
6.2.1 Coterminal Angle
To obtain the coterminal angle, we need to obtain a positive angle less than 360𝑜 by adding
or subtracting 360𝑜 .
Example:
Assume the following angles are in standard position. Find the positive angle less than 360𝑜
that is coterminal with:
a) 420𝑜
Solution:
b) −120𝑜
Solution:
211
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.2 Drawing Angle
6.2.2 Reference Angles
Let 𝜃 be a non-acute angle in standard position that lies in a quadrant. Its reference angle is
the positive acute angle 𝜃 formed by the terminal side of 𝜃 and x-axis.
Example:
Find the reference angle for:
a) 315𝑜
Solution:
b) 240𝑜
Solution:
212
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.2 Drawing Angle
5𝜋
c)
6
Solution:
3𝜋
d) −
2
Solution:
213
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
6.3 TRIGONOMETRY RATIOS
6.3.1 General angles
The six trigonometry ratios of an angle are listed below. Trigonometric functions of a right
triangle.
For any angle :
Pythagoras Theorem:
O
𝐻 2 = 𝑂2 + 𝐴2 SOH sin
H
A
CAH cos
H
O
TOA tan
A
Hypotenuse (H)
1 1 H
cosec
Opposite (O) sin O O
H
sec
1
1
H
cos A A
Adjacent (A) H
1 1 A
cot
tan O O
A
QUADRANT 2 QUADRANT 1
sin positive sin positive
cos negative cos positive
tan negative tan positive
sin negative sin negative
QUADRANT 3 cos negative cos positive QUADRANT 4
tan positive tan negative
214
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
Example 1: Use the following figure to find
B a) sin 𝜃 b) cos 𝜃
5 cm c) tan 𝜃 d) sec 𝜃
𝜃
A C
12 cm e) csc 𝜃 f) cot 𝜃
Example 2:
2
Given tan 𝜃 = − 3 and cos 𝜃 > 0. Find cos 𝜃 and csc 𝜃.
Solution:
215
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
6.3.2 Trigonometric Ratios of Special Angles (𝟑𝟎𝒐 , 𝟒𝟓𝒐 , 𝟔𝟎𝒐 )
√2 2 30𝑜 30𝑜 2
1
45𝑜 60𝑜 60𝑜
1 1 1
Figures above obtain the following values:
𝜃 30𝑜 45𝑜 600
sin 𝜃 1 1 √2 √3
2 =
√2 2 2
cos 𝜃 √3 1 √2 1
= 2
2 √2 2
tan 𝜃 1 √3 1 √3
=
√3 3
6.3.3 Trigonometric Identities
1. sin sin 1
5. sec
2. cos cos cos
1
3. tan tan 6. cosec
sin
1 cos
sin 7. cot
4. tan tan sin
cos
8. sin2 cos2 1
9. 1 tan2 sec2
10. 1 cot 2 cosec 2
216
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
6.3.4 Sum and Difference of Two angles
1. sin A B sin A cosB cos A sinB
2. cos A B cos A cosB sin A sinB
tan A tanB
3. tan A B
1 tan A tanB
6.3.5 Multiple Angles
1. sin2A 2sinA cos A
cos 2A cos2 A sin2 A
2. 2cos2 A 1
1 2sin2 A
2 tan A
3. tan2A
1 tan2 A
6.3.6 Identities expressing Trigonometric Functions in terms of their
Complements (Cofunction identities).
1. sin cos 2. cos sin
2 2
3. tan cot 4. cot tan
2 2
5. sec cosec 6. cosec sec
2 2
217
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
6.3.7 Triangle in each Quadrant
TYPE 1: is acute 0 90 Quadrant 1
EXAMPLE 1
12
Given that sin A and A is an acute angle. Find without using a calculator, the value of
13
following.
SOLUTION
Sketch triangle in the related quadrant.
a) cos A
13
12 b) tan A
A
c) cosec A
a2 b2 c 2
a2 12 13
2 2
d) sec A
a2 25
a 5
e) cot A
a 5
f) sin A
g) tan A
h) sec A
218
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 2
3
Given that cos A and A is an acute angle. Find without using a calculator, the value of
5
following.
SOLUTION
Sketch triangle in the related quadrant.
a) cos A
b) tan A
c) cosec A
A d) sec A
e) cot A
f) sin A
g) tan A
h) sec A
EXAMPLE 3
3
Given that tan A and A is an acute angle. Find without using a calculator, the value of
4
following.
SOLUTION
Sketch triangle in the related quadrant.
a) cos A
b) tan A
c) cosec A
A d) sec A
e) cot A
f) sin A
g) tan A
h) sec A
219
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
TYPE 2 : is obtuse 90 180 Quadrant 2
EXAMPLE 1
12
Given that cos A and A is an obtuse angle. Find without using a calculator, the value of
13
following.
SOLUTION
Sketch triangle in the related quadrant.
a) sin A
b) tan A
13
c) cosec A
A
12 d) sec A
e) cot A
a2 b2 c 2
a2 12 13 sin A
2 2
f)
a 25
2
g) sin2A
a 5
a 5 h) tan2A
220
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 2
5
Given that cosec A and A is an obtuse angle. Find without using a calculator, the value of
3
following.
SOLUTION
Sketch triangle in the related quadrant.
a) cos A
5
cosec A
3
b) tan A
1 5
sin A 3
c) cosec A
3
sin A
5 d) sec A
e) cot A
f) sin A
A
g) sin2A
h) cos2A
221
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 3
12
Given that tan A and A is an obtuse angle. Find without using a calculator, the value of
9
following.
SOLUTION
Sketch triangle in the related quadrant.
a) sin A
b) cos A
c) cosec A
A
d) sec A
e) cot A
f) sin A
g) cos A
h) tan2A
i) sin2A
222
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
TYPE 3 : is reflex 180 360 Quadrant 3 and Quadrant 4
EXAMPLE 1
3
Given that cos A where 180 A 270 . Find without using a calculator, the value of
5
following.
SOLUTION
Sketch triangle in the related quadrant.
a) sin A
b) tan A
A
c) cosec A
3
d) sec A
5 a2 b2 c 2
a2 3 5
2 2
e) cot A
a2 16
f) sin A
a 4
a 4 g) sin2A
h) tan2A
223
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 2
5
Given that sin A where 180 A 270 . Find without using a calculator, the value of
13
following.
SOLUTION
Sketch triangle in the related quadrant.
a) cos A
b) tan A
A
c) cosec A
d) sec A
e) cot A
f) sin A
g) sin2A
h) tan2A
224
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 3
6 12
Given that sin A is an obtuse angle and tanB is an acute angle. Determine the
10 9
exact value of
a) cos A B b) cos 2B sec A
SOLUTION
6 12
sin A tanB
10 9
A
B
cos A B cos 2B sec A
24 97
25 100
225
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 4
3 4
Given that tan A and sinB where A is an acute angle and B is an obtuse angle. Find
4 5
the values of
a) sec B sinA b) cos A B
SOLUTION
3 4
tan A sinB
4 5
A B
sec B sinA cos A B
16 24
15 25
226
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 5
3 5
Given that sin A where A is an obtuse angle and cotB where 180 B 270 . Find
5 12
the exact value of
a) tanA 3sinB b) cotB cos A
SOLUTION
tanA 3sinB cotB cos A
183 73
52 60
227
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 6
3 12
Given that sin A and cosB where A and B lie in the same quadrant. Find the exact
5 13
value of
a) sin2A cotB b) tan A B
SOLUTION
3
sin A (sin A negative in Q3 and Q4)
5
12
cosB (cos B negative in Q2 and Q3)
13
sin A and cos B lie in Q3.
sin2A cotB tan A B
84
16
25
63
228
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 7
2 3
Given that sin A and cosB where A and B lie in the same quadrant. Find the exact
3 5
value of
tan A tanB
a) cos2A tanB b)
1 tan A tanB
SOLUTION
cos2A tanB tan A tanB
1 tan A tanB
11
2.279
9
229
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
EXAMPLE 8
12 3
Given that sin A and cosB where A and B lie in the same quadrant. Find the exact
13 5
value of
a) tanA tanB b) sec B cosB
SOLUTION
tanA tanB sec B cosB
80
16 39
15
230
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.3 Trigonometry Ratios
231
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
6.4.3 SOLUTION TO TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
QUADRANT 2 QUADRANT 1
Degree 180 BA sin positive sin positive Degree
Radian BA cos negative cos positive Radian
tan negative tan positive
QUADRANT 4
QUADRANT 3 sin negative sin negative
cos negative cos positive
Degree 180 BA tan positive tan negative Degree 360 BA
Radian BA Radian 2 BA
EXAMPLE 1 (SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) sinx 0.5 b) cos x 0.5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
60,330
c) tan x 3 d) cos x 0.7
SOLUTION SOLUTION
134.42,225.57
232
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
e) 100cos x 63 0 f) 5cos x 3 sin60
SOLUTION SOLUTION
134.42,225.57 134.42,225.57
EXAMPLE 2 (EQUATIONS INVOLVING SQUARED OF A TRIGONOMETRY RATIO)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) cos2 x 0.8575 b) tan2 x 3 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
60,120,240,300
c) 2sin x 1 0
2
d) 3tan x 1 0
2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
45,135,225,315 30,150,210,330
e) 2tan2 x 1 f) 3sin2 x 2 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
26.57,153.43,206.57,333.43 54.74,125.26,234.74,305.26
233
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 3 (EQUATION INVOLVING RECIPROCAL IDENTITIES)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) sec x 8.206 b) cosec x 1.542
SOLUTION SOLUTION
220.43,319.57
c) cot x 1 d) 5cot x 3 2 3cot x
SOLUTION SOLUTION
135,285 63.43,243.43
e) 1 cot x tan x 3 f) 4sin x cosec x
SOLUTION SOLUTION
63.43,243.43 30,150,210,330
234
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 4 (EQUATION INVOLVING MULTIPLE ANGLES)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) sin2x 0.866 b) tan2x 1
SOLUTION SOLUTION
sin2x 0.866 (Q1,Q2)
x 30,60,210,240 x 67.5,157.5,247.5,337.5
3 d) 5cos5x 2
c) cos3x SOLUTION
2
SOLUTION
x 13.3,58.7,85.3,130.7,157.3
x 10,110,130,230,250,350
e) 1 2sin2x 0 f) 1 8cos4x 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 105,165,285,345 x 24.3,65.7,114.3,155.7
235
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 5 (EQUATION INVOLVING IDENTITY)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) 2cos2 x 1 sin x b) 5cos2 x 5 3sin x
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 0,36.87,143.13,180,360
x 30,150,270
236
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6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
c) 2cos2 x cos x 4sin2 x 3 d) 3sin x 2cos2 x 1
2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 50.8,129.23,230.79,309.2
x 70.53,120,240,289.47
237
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
e) cos2x 3 5 sinx 1 f) cos x sinx tanx 1 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 60,180,300
x 210,330
g) 6 1 sin2 x cot x sin x 1 h) 4sec2 x 3 tan2 x 5 tan x
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
x 45,75.96,225,255.96
x 70.53,120,289.47,240
238
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
i) 2cot2 x 2 7 3cot x j) 2cosec 2 x 7 3cot x
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
x 21.8,135,201.8,315
x 21.8,135,201.8,315
239
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 6 (SOLVING IN RADIAN)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 2 . [Hint: Solving as usual, just change the final
answer into radian.]
a) tan x 3 b) 2sin2 x 1 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 0.7854,2.356,3.927,5.498
c) 4cos x sinx 2cos x 0 d) 4sinxcos x tanx
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 1.571,4.715,0.5236,3.665,5.760 x 0,6.2832,1.048,2.094,4.189,5.236
240
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
e) cos x sinx tanx 1 0 f) 2sin2 x cos x 2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
X=1.0472, 5.236, 0, 3.142 x 1.5708,4.7124,1.0472,2.0944.4.1888
241
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
6.4 GRAPH OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
6.4.1 Graph of Sine and Cosine Functions
(Amplitude, Period/Cycle, Phase Shift and Vertical Shift)
SINE GRAPH COSINE GRAPH
y a sin bx c d y a cos bx c d
Amplitude a
2
Period
b
bx c 0
Phase Shift : c
x
b
Vertical Shift d
Period
x-scale
4
TANGENT GRAPH
𝑦 = 𝑎 tan(𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑑
Domain: all real numbers except odd
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
numbers of size such that , , , …
2 2 2 2
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6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 1
x
Given a function y 2sin for 0 x 4 . Determine the amplitude, period and phase shift.
2
Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Identify the original graph.
For this case, y sin x .
Step 2 : Determine the amplitude.
For this case, A 2 2 .
Step 3 : Determine the period and x – scale.
For this case,
x
0
2 0
x0
Starting point of the graph is x 0 .
Step 4 : Determine the period and x – scale.
For this case,
2 2
period 4
b 1 2 3 4
2
period 4
x scale
4 4
Step 4 : Check the domain of the graph and
modify your graph.
For this case, 0 x 4 . So, no need to modify
your graph.
2 3 4
Step 5 : Sketch the suitable y – axis and label
the amplitude. 2
2
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 2 (Continue from EXAMPLE 1)
Sketch the graph for the given function.
2
x
a) y 2sin for 0 x 2 .
2
0 2
x
b) y 2sin for 4 x 4 .
2 4 3 2 0 2 3 4
2
Reflection
0 2
x
c) y 4sin for 0 x 2 .
2
4
Continue after reflection in c)
x
y 4sin 2 for 2
c) 2
0 x 2 . 0 2
2
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6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 3
x
Given a function f x 3sin for 2 x 2 . Determine the amplitude, period and
2
phase shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 4
Given a function y 3sin2 x for 0 x 1. Determine the amplitude, period and phase shift.
Hence, graph the function. [Hint : Domain of x in radian.]
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 5
Given a function f x 3sin 2x for
3
x . Determine the amplitude, period and
2 2
phase shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Identify the original graph.
For this case, y sin x .
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6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
Step 2 : Determine the amplitude.
For this case, A 3 3 .
Step 3 : Determine the period and x – scale.
For this case,
2x 0
x
2 2
Starting point of the graph is x .
2
Step 4 : Determine the period and x – scale.
For this case,
2 2
period
b 2
3 5 3
period
x scale 2 4 4 2
4 4
Step 4 : Check the domain of the graph and
modify your graph.
3
For this case, x . So, no need to
2 2 3 5 3
modify your graph. 2 4 4 2
Step 5 : Sketch the suitable y – axis and label
the amplitude.
3
0 3 5 3
2 4 4 2
3
Step 6 : If the graph have negative sign, we
need to do refection process. -
Step 7 : Vertical shift (if any) -
246
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6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 6
Given a function y 5sin 2x for x . Determine the amplitude, period and phase
2 2
shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
247
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6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 7
3
Given a function y 5sin x for x . Determine the amplitude, period and
2 2 2
phase shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 8
2 5
Given a function y sin 4x for x . Determine the amplitude, period and
3 3 12 12
phase shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
248
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 9
Given a function f x 3cos2x for x . Determine the amplitude, period and phase
shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Identify the original graph.
For this case, y cosx .
Step 2 : Determine the amplitude.
For this case, A 3 3.
Step 3 : Determine the period and x – scale.
For this case,
2x 0
x0
Starting point of the graph is x 0 .
0
Step 4 : Determine the period and x – scale.
For this case,
2 2
period
b 2
0 3
period
x scale 4 2 4
4 4
Step 4 : Check the domain of the graph and
modify your graph.
For this case, x . So, we need to modify
your graph. 3 0 3
4 2 4 4 2 4
Step 5 : Sketch the suitable y – axis and label
the amplitude.
3
3
Step 6 : If the graph have negative sign, we
need to do refection process. 3
3 3
0
4 2 4 4 2 4
3
249
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6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
Step 7 : Vertical shift (if any) -
EXAMPLE 10
Given a function f x 3 cos 2x for 0 x 2 . Determine the amplitude, period and phase
shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 11
x
Given a function f x 3cos for 6 x 6 . Determine the amplitude, period and
4
phase shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
250
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 12
Given a function f x 4cos x for x . Determine the amplitude, period and
phase shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 13
x
Given a function y 4cos for 6 x 10 . Determine the amplitude, period and
4 2
phase shift. Hence, graph the function.
SOLUTION
251
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
6.4.2 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
(Proving Simple Trigonometric Identities)
1. sin sin 1
5. sec
2. cos cos cos
1
3. tan tan 6. cosec
sin
1 cos
sin 7. cot
4. tan tan sin
cos
8. sin2 cos2 1
9. 1 tan2 sec2
10. 1 cot 2 cosec 2
EXAMPLE 1
Prove the identity cot 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 = csc 𝑥.
Solution:
Start from left hand of the identity:
EXAMPLE 2
2 cos2 𝑥−1
Prove the identity cot 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥.
Solution:
252
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6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 3
sin 𝜃 1
Prove that 1−cos 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 = sin 𝜃
.
Solution:
EXAMPLE 4
Prove each of the following trigonometric identities by filling in the blank with suitable
answer.
a) sin2 cos2 1 2cos2 b) cos2 tan2 sec2 sin2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
sin2 cos2 cos2 tan2
cos2 cos2
c) 1 d) cos3 tan sin sin3
cosec 2 1
sec 1
2
SOLUTION
SOLUTION cos3 tan
1
sin
sec 1
2 cos3
cos
1
cos2 sin
sin
253
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
e) 5 4cos2 4sin 2sin 1
2 f) tan cot cosec sec
SOLUTION SOLUTION
tan cot
5 4cos2 4 sin
5 4 4 sin
cosec sec
254
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
6.4.3 SOLUTION TO TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
QUADRANT 2 QUADRANT 1
Degree 180 BA sin positive sin positive Degree
Radian BA cos negative cos positive Radian
tan negative tan positive
QUADRANT 4
QUADRANT 3 sin negative sin negative
cos negative cos positive
Degree 180 BA tan positive tan negative Degree 360 BA
Radian BA Radian 2 BA
EXAMPLE 1 (SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) sinx 0.5 b) cos x 0.5
SOLUTION SOLUTION
60,330
c) tan x 3 d) cos x 0.7
SOLUTION SOLUTION
134.42,225.57
255
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
e) 100cosx 63 0 f) 5cos x 3 sin60
SOLUTION SOLUTION
134.42,225.57 134.42,225.57
EXAMPLE 2 (EQUATIONS INVOLVING SQUARED OF A TRIGONOMETRY RATIO)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) cos2 x 0.8575 b) tan2 x 3 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
60,120,240,300
c) 2sin x 1 0
2
d) 3tan x 1 0
2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
45,135,225,315 30,150,210,330
e) 2tan2 x 1 f) 3sin2 x 2 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
26.57,153.43,206.57,333.43 54.74,125.26,234.74,305.26
256
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 3 (EQUATION INVOLVING RECIPROCAL IDENTITIES)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) sec x 8.206 b) cosec x 1.542
SOLUTION SOLUTION
220.43,319.57
c) cot x 1 d) 5cot x 3 2 3cot x
SOLUTION SOLUTION
63.43,243.43
135,285
e) 1 cot x tan x 3 f) 4sin x cosec x
SOLUTION SOLUTION
30,150,210,330
63.43,243.43
257
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 4 (EQUATION INVOLVING MULTIPLE ANGLES)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) sin2x 0.866 b) tan2x 1
SOLUTION SOLUTION
sin2x 0.866 (Q1,Q2)
x 30,60,210,240
x 67.5,157.5,247.5,337.5
3 d) 5cos5x 2
c) cos3x SOLUTION
2
SOLUTION
x 10,110,130,230,250,350
x 13.3,58.7,85.3,130.7,157.3
e) 1 2sin2x 0 f) 1 8cos4x 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 105,165,285,345 x 24.3,65.7,114.3,155.7
258
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
EXAMPLE 5 (EQUATION INVOLVING IDENTITY)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 360 .
a) 2cos2 x 1 sin x b) 5cos2 x 5 3sin x
SOLUTION SOLUTION
2cos2 x 1 sin x
2 1 sin2 x 1 sin x
2 2 sin2 x 1 sin x
2 sin2 x sin x 1 0
2 sin x 1 sin x 1 0
2sinx 1 0 sinx 1 0
1 sinx 1 (Q3,Q4)
sin x (Q1,Q2)
2
BA sin1 1
BA sin 1
0.5 90
30
For Q3,
For Q1, x 180 90
x 30 270
For Q2, For Q4,
x 180 30 x 360 90
150 270
x 30,150,270 x 0,36.87,143.13,180,360
259
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
c) 2cos2 x cos x 4sin2 x 3 d) 3sin2 x 2cos2 x 1
SOLUTION SOLUTION
260
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
x 70.53,120,240,289.47 x 50.8,129.23,230.79,309.2
e) cos2x 3 5 sinx 1 f) cosx sinx tanx 1 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
261
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
x 60,180,300
x 210,330
g) 6 1 sin x cot x sin x 1
2
h) 4sec2 x 3 tan2 x 5 tan x
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
x 45,75.96,225,255.96
x 70.53,120,289.47,240
i) 2cot2 x 2 7 3cot x j) 2cosec 2 x 7 3cot x
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
262
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
x 21.8,135,201.8,315
x 21.8,135,201.8,315
EXAMPLE 6 (SOLVING IN RADIAN)
Solve the following equation for 0 x 2 . [Hint: Solving as usual, just change the final
answer into radian.]
a) tan x 3 b) 2sin2 x 1 0
SOLUTION SOLUTION
tan x 3 (Q1,Q3)
BA tan1 3
60
263
MAT406
CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
x 0.7854,2.356,3.927,5.498
c) 4cosxsinx 2cosx 0 d) 4sinxcos x tanx
SOLUTION SOLUTION
x 1.571,4.715,0.5236,3.665,5.760 x 0,6.2832,1.048,2.094,4.189,5.236
e) cosx sinx tanx 1 0 f) 2sin x cos x 2
2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
264
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CHAPTER 6: TRIGONOMETRY
6.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
x 1.0472,5.760,0,3.142
x 1.5708,4.7124,1.0472,2.0944.4.1888
265
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CHAPTER 7: MATRICES
7.1 Introduction to Matrices
CHAPTER 7
MATRICES
7.1 Introduction to Matrices
Definition:
A matrix is defined as an ordered rectangular array of numbers enclosed by a pair of
brackets () or [ ].
These numbers are called the entries (elements) of the matrix.
Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters such as A, B, X and the elements are
denoted by the corresponding small letters with subscript indicating the location of the
element in the matrix.
The location of each elements is identified by the row number, 𝑖 and the column
number, 𝑗.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
For example:
1
𝐴 = [2] is a matrix with 3 rows and 1 column. Element a11 is 1, a21 is 2 and a31 is 3.
3
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7.1 Introduction to Matrices
The size (or order or dimension) of a matrix refers to the number of rows (horizontal
lines) followed by the number of columns (vertical lines) in a matrix.
For example:
1
1. 𝐴 = [2] is a matrix with size 3 x 1.
3
1 2 3
2. 𝐵 = [4 5 6] is a matrix with size 3 x 3.
7 8 9
3. 𝐶 = [1 2 3] is a matrix with size 1 x 3.
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
Hence, the general matrix: Matrix Amn 21 has m rows and n columns
am1 ... ... amn
7.1.1 Types of Matrices
Type Matrix
1. Triangular/Square a) Square Matrix
- A matrix with an equal number of rows 𝐴𝑛 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑛
and columns. 1 2
Example: [ ]
3 4
b) Lower triangular
a11 0 0
a 0
21 a22
a31 a32 a33
Example:
1 0 0
1 0
[ ], [2 3 0]
2 3
4 5 6
c) Upper Triangular
a11 a12 a13
0 a a23
22
0 0 a33
Example:
1 2 3
1 2
[ ], [0 4 5]
0 3
0 0 6
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CHAPTER 7: MATRICES
7.1 Introduction to Matrices
2. Diagonal Matrix a11 0 0
- Must be a square matrix 0 a 0
- aij 0 for i j 22
0 0 a33
- a ij can be 0 for i j
Example:
6 0 0
3 0
[ ], [0 7 0]
0 4
0 0 8
3. Identity Matrix 1 0 0
- Must be a square matrix 0 1 0
- aij 1 for i j
0 0 1
- aij 0 for i j
4. Zero Matrix 0 0 0
a) 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
b)
0 0 0 0
c) 0
5. Column Matrix a11
- Has only one column a
21
a31
an1
Example:
1
[2]
3
6. Row Matrix a11 a12 a13 ... a1m
- Has only one row Example:
[1 2 3]
7. A single element matrix [𝑎11 ]
- A matrix of order 1 Example:
[5]
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CHAPTER 7: MATRICES
7.1 Introduction to Matrices
7.1.2 Operation on Matrices
1) Equal Matrices
Two matrices are equal if they have the same size, that is, they have the same number of
rows and columns and their corresponding elements are equal.
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices.
𝐴 = 𝐵 if and only if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for every 𝑖 and 𝑗.
𝑝 𝑟 𝜎 𝛽
If [𝑞 𝑠 ] = [𝛿 𝜌
] ↔ 𝑝 = 𝜎, 𝑟 = 𝛽, 𝑞 = 𝛿, 𝑠 = 𝜌
Example 1:
𝑝−𝑞 𝑝 2 −2
Let 𝑃 = [ ] and 𝑄 = [ ]. Find the value of 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠 if 𝑃 = 𝑄.
𝑟+𝑠 −2𝑟 4 −6
Solution:
Example 2:
1 3 1 3
If [ 0 𝑝 ]=[ 0 𝑝2 ], find the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞.
−2 2𝑝 + 𝑞 −2 −1
Solution:
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CHAPTER 7: MATRICES
7.1 Introduction to Matrices
2) Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
Matrix addition or subtraction can be computed if and only if the matrices are of the same size.
It is obtained by adding or subtracting corresponding positions in each matrix.
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices, 𝐴 + 𝐵 if and only if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 and 𝐴 − 𝐵 if and
only if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for every 𝑖 and 𝑗.
Properties: Matrix Addition and Subtraction
If 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices and 𝑂 is the 𝑚 × 𝑛 zero matrix, then
1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴 (Commutative Law)
2. (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) (Associative Law)
3. 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴 (Additive Identity)
4. 𝐴 + (−𝐴) = 0 (Additive Inverse)
1 2 3 0 4 2
0 1 1 2 1 3
3 1 4 10 7 11
1 2 3 0 2 2
0 1 1 2 1 1
3 1 4 10 1 9
Example 1:
−3 1 −2 0 2 1 3 2 1
If 𝑃 = [−4 −2 −1] , 𝑄 = [0 3 −1] and 𝑅 = [4 −1 2]. Find 𝑃 + 𝑄 − 𝑅.
2 1 0 2 4 1 2 4 3
Solution:
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7.1 Introduction to Matrices
Example 2:
2𝑦 + 5 𝑥 2 2𝑥 𝑥2
Let 𝑃 = [ ] and 𝑄 = [ 2 ]. Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that 𝑃 − 𝑄 is an
2
𝑥 + 6 −2 𝑦 −6 −3
identity matrix.
Solution: (Answer: 𝑥 = −2, 𝑦 = −4)
3) Matrix Multiplication: Scalar Multiplication
When 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is multiplied by a scalar 𝑘, then every element in the matrix is
multiplied by the same scalar, 𝑘.
𝑘𝐴 = [𝑘 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
Properties: Scalar Multiplication
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices, 𝑘 and 𝑙 are scalars, then the following properties hold.
1. 𝑘(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵
2. (𝑘𝑙)𝐴 = 𝑘(𝑙𝐴)
3. 1𝐴 = 𝐴
4. (𝑘 + 𝑙)𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑙𝐴
Example:
1 2 2 4
2 0 1 0 2
3 1 6 2
1 4 2 2 11
2 0 1 0 2
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7.1 Introduction to Matrices
Example 1:
4 7 5 2 6 7
If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], find 2𝐴 − 4𝐵.
2 3 0 4 3 1
Solution:
Example 2:
−3 3 0 1 −1 2 − 3𝑥
2
Let 𝐴 = [−6 0 9] and 𝐵 = [ 2 0 −3 ]. Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 given that
2 3 6 −3 𝑦 + 1 −2
𝐴 = −3𝐵.
Solution:
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7.1 Introduction to Matrices
4) Multiplication of Matrices
When the number of columns of the first 𝑚 × 𝑟 matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is the same number of rows in
the second 𝑟 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ], then matrix multiplication can be performed.
Dimension of matrices: 𝐴 x 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵
(𝑚 × 𝑟) (𝑟 × 𝑛) (𝑚 × 𝑛)
Properties: Matrix Multiplication
If A, B and C are matrices with sizes such that matrix multiplication is defined and 𝑘 is scalar,
then the following properties are true.
a) 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶
b) 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
c) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶
d) 𝑘(𝐴𝐵) = (𝑘𝐴)𝐵 = 𝐴(𝑘𝐵)
e) 𝑘(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵
f) 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴 (matrix multiplication is not commutative)
Properties. Properties of Identity Matrix
If A is an mxn matrix, then the following properties are true
i)
AI n A
ii)
Im A A
If A is nxn matrix, then
AI n I n A A
Properties. Properties of Zero Matrix
For A of mxn matrix and k is scalar, then the following properties are true
i)
A 0mn A
ii)
A ( A) A A 0mn
iii) If
kA 0mn , then either k 0 or A 0mn
A0 n p 0 m p 0 pm A 0 pn
iv) and
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7.1 Introduction to Matrices
Example:
1 2 d11 d12 d13 d14
0 1 1 2 0 4 d d 23 d 24 , d ij Ri C j
1 1 3 0 21 d 22
3 1 d
31 d 32 d 33 d 34
3 2 2 4 3 4
1
d11 R1 C1 1 2 11 2 1 1
1
2
d12 R1 C2 1 2 1 2 21 0
1
4
d 34 R3 C4 3 1 34 10 12
0
1 0 6 4
ans 1 1 3 0
2 5 3 12
2 2 6 1 0 18 2 2
3 1 3 2 1 15 5 1
Example 1:
1 −2 3 −1
Given 𝐴 = [ ],𝐵 = [ ]. Show that 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴.
0 1 4 2
Solution:
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Example 2:
−1 0
Given that 𝐴 = [ ]. If 𝐴2 + 𝑚𝐴 − 𝑛𝐼 = 𝐼 2 , where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are real numbers, 𝐼 is the identity
2 5
matrix. Find the value of 𝑚 and 𝑛.
Solution:
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7.1 Introduction to Matrices
7.1.3 Transpose of Matrices
A transpose matrix, 𝐴𝑇 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , can be obtained by interchanging the rows and column of the
matrix 𝐴.
Properties. Properties of the Transpose of a Matrix
If A and B are matrices with their sizes such that matrix multiplication is defined and k is a
scalar, then the following properties are true
i) A
T T
A
ii) ( A B)T AT BT
iii) (kA)T k ( AT )
iv) ( AB)T BT AT
v) AAT and AT A are symmetric matrices
Transpose of a matrix:
a11 a12 ... a1n a11 a21 ... am1
a a a22 ... am 2
Amn
21 a 22 ... a 2
n A T
nm 12
am1 ... ... amn a1n a2 n ... amn
Example 1:
1 0 1 2
A22 AT
2 1 0 1
1 2
A32 0 1 1 0 3
AT
3 1 2 1 1
3
AT 1
A31 3 1 0 0
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Example 2:
−1 2
−1 0
Given 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [−1 4]. Find 𝐴𝑇 and 𝐵𝑇 .
3 5
−1 6
Solution:
Example 3:
2 1
Let 𝐴 = [ 3 5]. Find 𝐴𝑇 and verify that (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴.
−5 2
Solution:
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Exercise: Transpose
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Answer: Exercise Transpose
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7.2 Determinant of Matrices
7.2 DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX
A special scalar associated with each square matrix is called determinant. The determinant of
a matrix is denoted by det(𝐴) or |𝐴|.
Methods in evaluating the determinant:
Matrix Formula
1. 11 A a11 , then A a11(can be negative value)
a b
2. 2 2 A , then A ad bc
c d
a b c
A d e f , then
g h i
3. 3 3 a b ca b
A d e f d e,
g h i g h
A aei bfg cdh gec hfa idb
1 2 0 1 2 0
For example: If 𝐴 = [3 0 5] is a matrix, then the determinant of A is |3 0 5| or
1 4 2 1 4 2
1 2 0
𝑑𝑒𝑡 [3 0 5].
1 4 2
The number of rows or columns determines the order of a square matrix.
7.2.1 Determinant of a 𝟏 × 𝟏 matrix (order 1)
If 𝐴 = [𝑎11 ], then |𝐴| = 𝑎11 .
Example:
Given 𝐴 = [5]. So |𝐴| = 5𝑜𝑟 det[𝐴] = 5
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7.2.2 Determinant of a 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrix (order 2)
a b A ad bc
2 2: A ,
c d
Example 1:
Solution:
3 1
Example 2: 𝐶 = [ ]
4 −2
Solution:
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7.2.3 Determinant of a 𝟑 × 𝟑 matrix (order 3): Using Diagonal Expansion
This method is applicable to find determinant of order 3 only. If 𝐴 is a 3 × 3 matrix, form a 3 ×
5 determinant’s grid by rewriting the first two columns of 𝐴 and placed on its right hand side.
Compute the diagonal products 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , ⋯ , 𝑃6 as indicated by the arrows as shown in figure
below.
Example 1:
Find the determinant for the following matrices:
3 2 1
B 4 1 2
5 0 3
Solution:
Example 2:
Solution:
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Example 3:
Solution:
7.2.4 Determinant of a 𝟑 × 𝟑 matrix (order 3): Using Cofactor Expansion
Minor and Cofactors
M a
- Minor, ij for element ij is the determinant of the matrix obtained by eliminating the
ith row and jth column
Cij a ij Cij (1) i j M ij
- Cofactor, for element is defined as
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7.2 Determinant of Matrices
Example: Find the determinants of the following matrices:
3 2 1
1. 𝐵 = [4 −1 2]
5 0 3
1 −1 2
2. 𝐷 = [3 0 1]
4 −2 −3
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7.2.5 Properties of Determinant
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Example 1:
Solution:
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Example 2:
Find all value of 𝑥 for which det(𝐴) = 0
𝑥+4 0
a) 𝐴=[ ]
4 𝑥+2
𝑥−3 1
b) 𝐴=[ ]
−1 𝑥 + 3
𝑥−4 0 0
c) 𝐴=[ 0 𝑥 2 ]
0 3 𝑥−1
𝑥−4 4 0
d) 𝐴 = [ −1 𝑥 0 ]
0 0 𝑥−5
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7.2 Determinant of Matrices
Exercise:
1.
Answer:
2.
Answer:
3.
Answer:
4.
Answer:
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
7.3 INVERSE MATRICES
7.3.1 Definition of Inverse Matrix
Inverse matrix can represent by:
i) The system of linear equations,
Ax b , then
x A1b
ii) Let A and B as n n matrices and I n is an identity matrix. B is called as inverse matrix
of A if,
AB BA I n , then
B A1
iii) Method of finding inverse of a matrix 2x2
1. Formula ( 2 2 matrix only) a b
Let A
c d
1 d b
A1 , ad bc 0
ad bc c a
2. Determinant |𝐴| = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
3. Inverse of A
Adj A
1
A1
A
Cofactor of 2x2 matrix:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 −𝑏
Let 𝐴 = [ ], then cofactor of A is 𝐶 = [ ] = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 𝑎
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
iv) Method of finding inverse of matrix 3x3
Steps to find the inverse of A
3 0 2
Let 𝐴 = [2 0 −2]
0 1 1
Step 1: Identify the matrix of minors
Step 2: Identify the matrix of Cofactors
Step 3: Identify the transpose of cofactor (Adjoint of A)
2 2 0
𝐶 𝑇 = [−2 3 10]
2 −3 0
Step 4: Identify the determinant of matrix A
|𝐴| = 3(0 − (−2)) + 0 + 2(2 − 0)
|𝐴| = 10
Step 5: Determine the value of 𝐴−1
1
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
|𝐴|
1 2 2 0
𝐴−1 = [−2 3 10]
10
2 −3 0
0.2 0.2 0
𝐴−1 = [−0.2 0.3 1]
0.2 −0.3 0
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
Example 1:
Solution:
Example 2:
1 3
Find the inverse of the following matrix
2 5
Solution:
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
Example 3:
Solution:
Example 4:
Solution:
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
Example 5:
Solution:
a)
b)
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
Example 6:
Solution:
Example 7:
Solution:
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
7.3.2 Finding the Inverse of Matrix using Adjoint Matrix Method
Example 1:
Solution:
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
Example 2:
Solution:
Example 3:
Solution:
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Exercise:
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7.3 Inverse Matrices
Answer Exercise:
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7.4 System of Linear Equations using Inverse Matrix
7.4 SOLVING SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS using inverse
matrix.
Introduction
a) Linear equation with n variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 is represented as,
𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏
Where 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏 are constants.
The number 𝑎𝑛 is called as leading coefficient, and 𝑥𝑛 is leading variables.
b) A solution of a linear equation is a sequence of real numbers 𝑠𝑛 that satisfies the linear
equation
𝑥1 = 𝑠1 , 𝑥2 = 𝑠2 , ⋯, 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑠𝑛
7.4.1 Solving System of Linear Equations
There are 3 methods of solving systems of linear equations using matrices are inverse
matrix, Cramer’s Rule and Gauss-Jordan elimination method.
Let a system of linear equation is given as
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1
a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn b2
a31 x1 a32 x2 ... a3n xn b3
...
am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn bm
The system can be represented in matrix form as,
Ax b
a11 a12 a13 ... a1n x1 b1
a a22 a23 ... a2 n x2 b2
21
a31 a32 a33 ... a3n x3 b3
am1 am 2 am3 ... amn xn bm
Matrix A is called as coefficient matrix, Column matrix x is called as variable matrix,
and column matrix b is called as constant matrix.
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Definition:
NON-SINGULAR MATRIX
If the determinant of a square matrix A is not equal to zero, then the matrix is said to
be Non-Singular Matrix.
The determinant is often used to find if a matrix is invertible.
If the determinant of a square matrix is not equal to zero, then the matrix is invertible,
i.e 𝐴−1 exist.
Example:
Solution:
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7.4.2 Inverse Matrix Method
Example 1:
Solution:
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7.4 System of Linear Equations using Inverse Matrix
Example 2:
Solution:
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7.4 System of Linear Equations using Inverse Matrix
Example 3:
Given a matrix equation of 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 as below:
4 1 0 𝑥 2
[ 2 3 −1] [𝑦] = [−1]
11 5 −1 𝑧 3
a) Rewrite the matrix equation in the form of three linear equation.
b) Find the determinant of matrix A.
c) Find the inverse of matrix A by using adjoint matrix method.
d) Solve the equation by using inverse matrix method.
Solution:
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7.4 System of Linear Equations using Inverse Matrix
Example 4:
1 0 1
Given that 𝑀 = [6 5 −3].
1 0 0
a) Show that M is non-singular matrix.
b) Find the inverse of matrix M by using adjoint matrix method.
c) Use the result in b) to solve the following system of equation for 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧.
𝑥+𝑧 =4
6𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 2 + 3𝑧
𝑥 = −1
Solution:
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CHAPTER 8: VECTORS
8.1 Introduction to Vectors
8.1 INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS
8.1.1 Definition of Vectors
The field of engineering and science often involve the measurement of physical
quantities.
Physical quantities can be classified into two main groups namely scalar quantities and
vector quantities.
A scalar quantity is characterized by its size or magnitude alone.
Example: length, mass, areas etc.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
Example: force, velocity etc.
Example: A speed of 50km/h is a scalar quantity whereas a velocity of 50km/h due
North is a vector quantity.
8.1.2 Vector Representation
A vector in a plane is a directed line segment which can be represented by a line
drawn to a known scale.
The line carries an arrow indicating the direction in which the vector acts and the
length of the line indicates the magnitude of the vector.
There are many ways to denote a vector.
The vector quantity represented by the line from the initial point A to the terminal
point B is denoted by 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ as shown below.
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8.1 Introduction to Vectors
8.1.3 Vector Components
Any vector can be expressed as a sum of two or more non-parallel vectors.
For example: in figure below, 𝑎 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 are known as the component of vector
𝑎.
8.1.4 Standard Basis Representation
Standard Base Vectors in Two Dimensional (ℝ𝟐 )
An alternative way of representing a vector is in terms of vectors that are parallel to
coordinates axes and have length 1.
These vectors are called base vectors (basis vectors).
The base vector 𝑖 is a vector with initial point (0,0) and terminal point (1,0). It has
magnitude 1 and is in the positive 𝑥 direction.
The base vector 𝑗 is a vector with initial point (0,0) and terminal point (0,1). It has
magnitude 1 and is in the positive 𝑦 direction.
Any vectors in ℝ2 can be expressed as a linear combination of the base vectors 𝑖 and
𝑗 where 𝑖 =< 1,0 > and 𝑗 =< 0,1 > .
Vectors in two dimensions such as 𝑎 =< 𝑎1, 𝑎2 > 𝑦
can be written as 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗
𝑎1
𝑎 =< 𝑎1, 𝑎2 > = ( )
𝑎2
= 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗
𝑎2 𝑗
𝑥
𝑎1 𝑖
3
For example: 𝑠 =< 3, −2 > = ( ) can written as 𝑠 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗.
−2
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8.1 Introduction to Vectors
8.1.5 Position Vectors: Vectors in Two-Dimensional System
The most common representation of vectors is based on the Cartesian coordinate
system. All vectors can be written as a sum of horizontal and vertical components
parallel to the Cartesian coordinate axes.
Consider the point 𝐴(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ), the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 with the initial point at the origin (0,0) is
called the position vector for the point 𝐴.
Position vectors are vectors giving the position of a point, relative to a fixed point (the
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be written as < 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 > or in column matrix form ( 1 ).
origin). Then the vector 𝑂𝐴 𝑎2
𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are called the scalar components of 𝑎.
𝑎 =< 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 >
Position vector of 𝑎.
𝑎 𝐴(𝑎1, 𝑎2)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =< 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 > = ( 1 )
𝑎 = 𝑂𝐴 𝑎2
𝑎2
𝑂(0,0)
𝑎1
** It is important to understand the difference between coordinates of point 𝐴 for example
(2,9), and position vector of point 𝐴 which is < 2,9 >.
All position vectors have the initial point at the origin while a free vector has no
specific location.
A free vector can be represented by any one of a set of equal and parallel line
segments.
For example, free vector 𝑣 can be represented by 𝑅𝑇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 where 𝑅𝑇 𝐴𝐵 are
equal in length and direction.
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8.1 Introduction to Vectors
Example 1:
Solution:
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8.1 Introduction to Vectors
8.1.6 Magnitude of a Vector
The magnitude of a vector is the distance between the initial and terminal points.
It is represented by the length of the directed line segment and can be determined using
Pythagoras theorem.
𝑦
𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗
𝑎2 𝑗
𝑥
𝑎1 𝑖
Consider the vector 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗, the magnitude of the horizontal component 𝑎1 𝑖 is 𝑎1 and
the magnitude of the vertical component 𝑎2 𝑗 is 𝑎2 .
Using Pythagoras theorem, (|𝑎|)2 = 𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 , where |𝑎| is the magnitude of 𝑎.
Thus, the magnitude (length) of a position vector 𝑎 =< 𝑎1, 𝑎2 > is denoted by
|𝑎| = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22
Example:
Find the magnitude of the vector 𝑠 = 8 𝑖 + 5 𝑗
Solution:
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8.1 Introduction to Vectors
8.1.7 Types of Vectors
A) Equal Vectors
Two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are equal if they have the same magnitude and point in the same direction
regardless of the positions of the initial and terminal points.
𝑎
𝑏⃗
Example 1:
Let 𝑎 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 and 𝑏⃗ = 2𝑖 + 𝑗. If |𝑖| = |𝑗|. Are the vector 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ equal?
Solution:
Example 2:
Find the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦 so that the vectors 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 and 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 are equal.
Solution:
Example 3:
8−𝑥 𝑥−4
The column vectors 𝑝 and 𝑞 are define by 𝑝 = ( ), 𝑞 = ( ). Given 𝑝 = 𝑞. Find
6−𝑦 𝑦+2
a) the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦
b) the values of |𝑝| and |𝑞 |
c) express 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥
Solution:
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B) Negative Vectors
A vector that has direction opposite to that vector 𝑎 but having the same magnitude is denoted
by −𝑎 as shown below.
𝑎
𝑏⃗ = −𝑎
C) Zero Vector
⃗ which is 0
The zero vector (or null vector) denoted by 0 ⃗ =< 0,0,0 >, is a vector where the initial
and terminal points coincide. Thus, the vector has zero length and no direction.
D) Parallel Vector
𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are parallel if 𝑎 has the same or opposite direction as 𝑏⃗ regardless of the magnitude
and position.
𝑎 1
𝑏⃗ = − 𝑎
2
𝑏⃗ = −2𝑎
𝑏⃗ = 2𝑎
E) Perpendicular Vector
𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are perpendicular (or orthogonal or normal) vectors if 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are 900 from each other
regardless of the magnitude and position. Two vectors are perpendicular if their dot product
equals to 0⃗.
𝑏⃗
𝑎
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8.1 Introduction to Vectors
F) Unit Vector
Theorem: A unit vector whose magnitude is 1 unit. A unit vector in the same direction of a
𝑎⃗
known vector 𝑎 is given by 𝑎
̂ = .
|𝑎⃗|
Example 1:
1 √3
Given the vector for the position vector for (2 , − 2
). Find the magnitude and determine if the
vector is a unit vector.
Solution:
Example 2:
𝑖−𝑗
Show that is a unit vector.
√2
Solution:
Example 3:
Find the vector parallel to the vector 𝑖 − 2𝑗 and has magnitude 10 units.
Solution:
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8.2 Vector Operations
8.2 VECTOR OPERATIONS
8.2.1 Equality of Vectors
Two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are equal if and only if their corresponding components are equal,
that is < 𝑎1, 𝑎2 > = < 𝑏1, 𝑏2 > is and only if 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 and 𝑎2 = 𝑏2.
Example:
Given that 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑚𝑗⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑛 𝑖⃗ + 3 𝑗⃗ and 𝑎⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗. Find the values of 𝑚 and 𝑛.
Solution:
8.2.2 Addition of Vectors
A) Algebraic Operation
Two vectors 𝑎⃗ =< 𝑎1, 𝑎2 > and 𝑏⃗⃗ =< 𝑏1, 𝑏2 >, can be added by adding their corresponding
scalar components
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎1 + 𝑏1
𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = ( ) + ( ) = ( )
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑏⃗⃗
𝑎⃗
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8.2 Vector Operations
Example:
Compute 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ if 𝑎⃗ =< 2,1 > and 𝑏⃗⃗ =< 3,7 >
Solution:
B) Geometrical Interpretation
If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are vectors such that 𝑏⃗⃗ begins where 𝑎⃗ ends, then by the Triangle Law, the sum of
𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ is the vector from the initial point of vector 𝑎⃗ to the terminal point of 𝑏⃗⃗ as shown in the
figure (a) below. The sum 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ is known as the resultant vector.
If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ start at the same common point then by the Parallelogram Law, 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ is the diagonal
of the parallelogram as shown in figure (b) with 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ as the sides of parallelogram.
Example 1:
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8.2 Vector Operations
Answer:
BOTH NEITHER
Example 2:
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8.2 Vector Operations
Example 3:
8.2.3 Subtraction of Vectors
A) Algebraic Operation
Two vectors can be subtracted by subtracting their corresponding scalar components.
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎1 − 𝑏1
𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ = ( ) − ( ) = ( )
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
Example:
Given 𝑝⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ + 8𝑗⃗ and 𝑞⃗ = 5𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗. Find 𝑝⃗ − 𝑞⃗.
Solution:
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CHAPTER 8: VECTORS
8.2 Vector Operations
B) Geometrical Interpretation
The vector 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ is the resultant vector which begins at the end of 𝑏⃗⃗ and terminates at the end
of 𝑎⃗.
Example:
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8.2 Vector Operations
Solution:
318
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CHAPTER 8: VECTORS
8.2 Vector Operations
8.2.4 Vector between two points
The vector with initial point 𝐴(𝑥1, 𝑦1) and terminal point 𝐵(𝑥2, 𝑦2) can be determined by
subtraction using the position vectors.
Example 1:
Solution:
319
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CHAPTER 8: VECTORS
8.2 Vector Operations
Example 2:
Solution:
320
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CHAPTER 8: VECTORS
8.2 Vector Operations
8.2.5 Scalar Multiplication of Vector
A) Algebraic Operation
If 𝑘 is a scalar, 𝑘𝑎⃗ is determined by multiplying each component of 𝑎⃗ by 𝑘
𝑎1 𝑘 𝑎1
𝑘𝑎⃗ = 𝑘 ( ) = ( )
𝑎2 𝑘 𝑎2
Example 1:
If 𝑝⃗ = 2𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗. Find 4𝑝⃗.
Solution:
Example 2:
Given 𝑎⃗ =< 8,5 >, 𝑏⃗⃗ =< −3,6 >. Find
a) 6 𝑎⃗
b) 7𝑏⃗⃗ − 2𝑎⃗
c) |10 𝑎⃗ + 3 𝑏⃗⃗ |
Solution:
321
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CHAPTER 8: VECTORS
8.2 Vector Operations
B) Geometrical Interpretation
If 𝑎⃗ is a vector and 𝑘 is a scalar, the scalar product 𝑘𝑎⃗ is a vector whose magnitude is 𝑘 times
the magnitude of 𝑎⃗.
If 𝑘 > 0, the scalar product is in the same direction as 𝑎⃗, whereas if 𝑘 < 0, the direction is
opposite.
For example, the magnitude of the vector 3𝑎⃗ is three times the magnitude of 𝑎⃗; while the
1
magnitude of − 2 𝑎⃗ is half of the magnitude of 𝑎⃗ and point in the opposite direction as illustrated
in figure below.
⃗⃗ which is known as zero vector.
If 𝑘 = 0, then 𝑘𝑎⃗ = 0
Example:
Solution:
322
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8.2 Vector Operations
8.2.6 Dot Product (Scalar Product)
Definition:
The dot product of two vectors 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑏2 𝑗⃗, in ℝ2 is defined by
𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2
Note:
𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ is positive when the angle 𝜃 between the vectors is acute and negative when the is
obtuse.
Properties of dot product:
1. 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ (commutative law)
2. 𝑎⃗ ∙ (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗ ) = 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑐⃗ (distributive law)
3. (𝑘𝑎⃗) ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑘 (𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗ ∙ (𝑘 𝑏⃗⃗)
4. ⃗0⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ = 0
5. 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ = |𝑎⃗|2
We can use the definition to obtain the following results:
6. If the two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel and in the same direction,
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
then 𝜃 = 0 and cos 𝜃 = cos 0 = 1. Hence, 𝒂 ⃗⃗| 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽.
⃗⃗||𝒃
7. If the two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel and in the opposite direction,
then 𝜃 = 1800 and cos 𝜃 = cos 1800 = −1. Hence, 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = −|𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽.
⃗⃗| |𝒃
8. If the two non-zero vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are perpendicular to each other,
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝟎.
then 𝜃 = 900 and cos 𝜃 = 0. Hence, 𝒂
Theorem:
⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑏
If 𝜃 is the angle between nonzero vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗, then cos 𝜃 = ⃗⃗|
|𝑎⃗⃗| |𝑏
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CHAPTER 8: VECTORS
8.2 Vector Operations
Example 1:
Consider the two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ shown in figure below. Given that 𝑎⃗ has magnitude 4 units
and 𝑏⃗⃗ has magnitude 7 units, and the angle between vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is 600 . Find 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗.
Solution:
Example 2:
2 1
Find the dot product of 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ given that 𝑎⃗ = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗⃗ = ( )
−7 5
Solution:
324
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CHAPTER 8: VECTORS
8.2 Vector Operations
Exercise:
1. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 5𝑎⃗ and 𝑃𝑄
Given 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3 + 2𝑘)𝑎⃗. Calculate the value of 𝑘 if 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
2. Given ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝐴 =< 3,1 >, 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =< 2,3 >, point 𝐶 and 𝐷 have position vectors such that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑂
𝑂𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Find the coordinate 𝐶 and 𝐷. (Answer: C(-3,-1), D(-4,1))
3. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =< 1,2 >.
Given the coordinate A(2,4) and 𝐴𝐵
a) Find the coordinate B. (Answer: B(3,6))
𝑥
b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the form of ( ). (Answer: (3).)
Express 𝑂𝐵 𝑦 6
4
4. Given the vectors 𝑚𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ and 4𝑖⃗ − 6𝑗⃗ are parallel, find the value of 𝑚. (Answer: 𝑚 = 3)
5. The points P(1,2), Q(3,-1), R(-1,-1) ans S(k,1) are 4 points on Cartesian pane. Find,
a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 (Answer: <2,-3>)
b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms ok 𝑘. (Answer: <k+1,2>)
𝑅𝑆
c) the value of 𝑘 if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . (Answer: 𝑘 = − 7)
𝑃𝑄 is parallel to 𝑅𝑆
3
6. Given ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 4𝑖⃗ + 5𝑗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = 3𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗. Find
a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵. (Answer: <-1,-7>)
<1,7>
b) the unit vector in direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴. (Answer: 5 2 )
√
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326
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