Eur. Phys. J.

C (2023) 83:923
https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-023-12003-x

Regular Article - Theoretical Physics

Non-conserved modified gravity theory

H. R. Fazlollahia
Institute of Gravitation and Cosmology, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 6 Miklukho-Maklaya St, Moscow
117198, Russian Federation

Received: 15 July 2023 / Accepted: 5 September 2023 / Published online: 13 October 2023
© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract In the curved spacetime the conservation of These assumptions derive T νμ;ν = 0 are all questionable.
stress-energy tensor T νμ;ν = 0 has been questioned by The well-known problem of the non-renormalisability of Ein-
Rastall. However, this idea in which T νμ;ν = λR,μ is stein gravity has given rise to dozen attempts to view it as an
own questionable. In this study and in follows the covari- effective low-energy theory [4]. In string theory, for instance,
ant form of thermodynamics law proposed by Israel and his the Einstein–Hilbert action is just the first term in an infinite
colleagues, the new non-conserved modified gravity is intro- series of gravitational corrections. As result, it is possible in
duced. As its application, we have explored spherically sym- quantumic circumstances in which energy levels increases
metric solutions and evolution of the Universe for very early and or within event horizon of black holes, curvature of
and late time Universe in the presence of the cosmologi- spacetime and gravity deviates from the Einsteinian gen-
cal constant. As shown, the model gives no new result with eral relativity theory. This can be explained through differ-
respect to Einstein gravity for vacuum solutions, while dur- ent scenarios, using more curvature terms, and perturbations
ing inflation only scalar spectra index deviates from standard in geometry and or as another possible approach through
model. Also, we have considered late-time and constraint breaking energy–momentum tensor. It depicts the validity
model with observations through using MCMC algorithm. of conservation of energy–momentum in special relativity
may broke in quantumic mediums and or in high gravity
energy levels. Furthermore, the second assumption in which
1 Introduction one study Lagrangian of theory to derive T νμ;ν = 0 is own
questionable in astronomy. Coupling two independent terms
The canceling out the covariant divergence of Einstein ten- in Einstein–Hilbert action built some modified theories of
sor is considered as one of the fundamental assumptions in gravity, implies T νμ;ν = 0, and thus to keep T νμ;ν = 0
curved space-time. Such assumption implies that the energy– in such theories one needs to redefine energy–momentum
momentum tensor is conserved. Actually, with an eye to tensor as effective energy–momentum tensor [5]. Moreover,
validity of conserved energy–momentum condition in spe- the creation and annihilation particles in collision process
cial relativity, one can use the principle of equivalence to demonstrates the classical, statistical model of matter is valid
validity of this condition in general relativity [1]. Applying only for so low temperature system [6].
variational principle is another way to derive T νμ;ν = 0. One Beside all plausible theories to address some of these
must assume that the Lagrangian density can be written as a issues, and instead expanding geometrical part of action, it
sum of two independent terms, the first term is independent is possible to develop matter term through non-Einsteinian
of the derivatives of the metric while second one is indepen- matter source [7] and or ignoring conservation of energy–
dent of the non-gravitational field variables [2]. Finally, as momentum tensor wherein one can assume T νμ;ν = aμ ,
third approach, one can derive T νμ;ν = 0 on the basis of a when the functions aμ vanish in flat spacetime. Such the-
classical, statistical model of matter. Here, one must assume ory is proposed by Rastall in which aμ = λR,μ , where λ
that matter consists of particles that collide with one another, is proportional constant and R = g μν Rμν is the curvature
geometrically without changing in rest mass during collisions invariant, Ricci scalar [8]. The Rastall theory can be con-
[3]. sidered as a good candidate for particle creation through its
non-minimal coupling [9]. Apart from the celestial object
a e-mail: solutions [10–12], different cosmological aspects of Rastall
[email protected] (corresponding author)

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gravity are studied [13]. Recently, it is shown that the original covariant form of thermodynamics laws is necessary to sat-
Rastall gravity presents the cosmological-like scenario while isfy Lorentz transformation. One of the earliest attempts in
both density and pressure of corresponded dark energy vary this issue was made by Israel and collaborators [25,26]. They
with time [14]. Although Rastall gravity under some condi- proposed a 4-vector S μ for the flux of entropy in similar way
tions is equivalent to Einstein gravity [15], Rastall assump- to the 4-vector for the flux of particle number. So, like the par-
tion is own questionable. For instance, one may replace Ricci ticle number that is scalar for comoving observer, it is shown
scalar in relation T νμ;ν = λR,μ by an arbitrary function of that entropy in its comoving frame is a scalar as well [27].
Ricci scalar or other geometrical scalar to illustrate flow of As result, this model is not in conflict with standard expres-
the energy–momentum in curved geometry [16]. This implies sion of thermodynamical expression only when it is explored
in the absence of strong theoretical evidence, one can sug- by comoving observer. To study such model in a continu-
gest different form of geometrical scalar built from Riemann ous medium we assume that there are some interactions and
tensor and its derivatives to show flux of energy–momentum non-viscous components. In addition to conservation of the
tensor in curved spacetime, namely energy–momentum tensor given by
 μν
T νμ;ν = λ f (R, Rμν R μν , Rμνσ λ R μνσ λ , . . .),μ . (1) T i,μ = 0 (4)
i
In fact, Rastall argument gives family of modified theory
μ
of gravity in which T νμ;ν = λR,μ presents simplest model. there exists number of 4-vector J ji = n ji u μ , representing
Thus, Rastall idea is not clear and needs more considerations. the flux densities of conserved charges j for component i-th
The contents in the paper are organized as follows. In expressed as1
Sect. 2 and by revisiting covariant thermodynamics laws, we  μ
have proposed new modified theory of gravity. Section 3 is J ji,μ = 0. (5)
i
devoted to effects of this new modified gravity in very early
Universe, inflation era, theoretically. Also, we have inves- μ
Introducing the entropy 4-flux Si and using Gibbs–
tigated the cosmology evolution in late-time through using Duhem relations, one can write the following covariant equa-
observations and adding the cosmological constant to field tion [25]
equations. The remarks given in Sect. 5. ⎛ ⎞
 μ   μ μν
S i,μ = − ⎝ α ji J ji,μ + βνi Ti,μ ⎠ (6)
i i j
2 Covariant thermodynamics and new gravity model
where βν = u ν /T0 is the inverse temperature 4-vector pro-
In this section we will investigate first thermodynamics law to posed by Van Kampen [28], and α j = ζ j /T0 . The parameter
explore and introduce new modified theory of gravity. In this ζ j denotes the relativistic injection energy or chemical poten-
context, exploring thermodynamics may lead one to some tial per particle of type j, related to its classical counterpart
robust clues. In relativistic thermodynamics the transforma- by:
tion laws of heat and temperature under the Lorentz group is
considered as one of the most and opening topics. As exam- ζ j = m j + ζ j(classic) . (7)
ple, Einstein and Planck proposed [17,18] Although this model proposed for interaction between two
δ Q = δ Q 0 γ −1 , T = T0 γ −1 (2) or among some different fluids, one may use this model
for unique field, includes interacting particles carry differ-
while Ott and Arzelies suggested other transformation form ent chemical potential/charge. Hence, Eq. (6) recasts to
[19,20]  μ
μ μν
S,μ =− αl J l,μ − βν T,μ (8)
δ Q = δ Q 0 γ , T = T0 γ (3) l

where δ Q and T denote heat and temperature, respectively, where l represents l-th particle in the finite system. For such
the variables with subscript represent those observed in the explicit case, rearranging Eq. (8) with respect to energy–
comoving frame, and γ is the Lorentz factor. In addition to momentum tensor yields
these options, Landsberg assumed that heat and temperature  
 μ
μν ν μ
are absolute parameters and thus comoving and independent T,μ = −u T0 S,μ + ζl J l,μ . (9)
observers measure same heat and temperature [21,22]. How- l
ever, just two first options (2) and (3) can satisfy a relativistic
Carnot cycle [23,24]. In particular, since Einstein theory of 1 The n ji is positive number denotes number of particles with charge
relativity is formulated through covariant form, it seems that j for i-th component.

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[e] [e]
For the perfect fluid given by density ρ and pressure p, where we define effective terms Eμν and Tμν through
the energy–momentum tensor given by 
X μν i = X μν [e] (17)
T μν = (ρ + p) u μ u ν + pg μν (10) i

where X = E and T .
where g μν presents contravariant form of metric gμν . As
Obviously, in the absence of 4-vector flux entropy and
result, for non-interacting/chargeless fluid, Eq. (9) shrinks to
charge terms on the left-hand side, the field equations (16)
the first law of thermodynamics, namely
give the standard field equations. It implies without losing
dρ = |T0 |d S. (11) generality, one can set κ  = κ = 8π . Moreover, in absence of
the matter (vacuum scenario), the energy–momentum tensor
Thus, Eqs. (6) or (8) present entropy and temperature as and non-conserved terms in left-hand side vanished and thus
non-conserved effect of stress-energy tensor in Minkowski one finds R = 0. It implies that the field equations (16) for
geometry. Consequently, in the system includes interact- vacuum solutions gives no new results and thus considering
ing/charged particles, entropy and temperature evolve and static and spherically symmetric solutions of field equations
thus the energy–momentum tensor is not conserved in flat- (16) leads one to the usual Schwarzschild metric.
ness spacetime. It demonstrates one can expand Rastall argu- To consider consistency of our modified theory, it is worth-
ment to Minkowskian geometry. On the other hand, Eqs. (6) while to explore and present Lagrangian of non-conserved
and or (8) give robust theoretical origin of non-conserved term. In this regard, relation (9) and or (12) leads one to
scenario for energy–momentum tensor. In fact, although
δE/δT = −1, δEμν /δTμν = −1 (18)
these equations confirm Rastall viewpoint, unlike his model
conservation of energy–momentum is broken with entropy- where E = g μν Eμν and T = g μν Tμν are trace of non-
temperature evolution not Ricci or other geometrical param- conserved and energy–momentum parts, respectively for
eters. each field attends in our model.
In order to generalize Israel model to curved geometry, We introduce total Lagrangian as follows
one just need to use general relativity principle [1],
⎛ ⎞ Ltot = L E H + L M + L N C (19)
 μ  
S i;μ = − ⎝ μ μν
α ji J ji;μ + βνi Ti;μ ⎠ (12) where L E H , L M and L N C are Lagrangian of Einstein–
i i j Hilbert, matter field and non-conserved L N C = E/4.
With aid of Lagrangian (19), the action of our model
in which usual (scalar) derivative replaced by covariant becomes
derivative. As result, after some manipulations, the field R 1 √
equations become, S= + LM + E −g d 4 x. (20)
2κ 4
⎛ ⎞
   Variation with respect to metric g μν , we find
G μν − κ 
u νi ⎝T0 Sμi + ζ j i J jμ i ⎠ = κ  Tμν i
√
i j i 1 √ 1√ 1 δ E −g 4
δS = −gG μν − −gTμν + d x
(13) 2κ 2 4 δg μν
√ √
−g G μν 1 δ −g 1√ δE
= − Tμν + E + −g μν d 4 x
where κ  is proportional constant. Defining non-conserved 2 κ 4 δg μν 4 δg
√
term for each component participated in our system as −g G μν 1 1√ δE δT
= − Tμν − E gμν + −g d 4 x.
⎛ ⎞ 2 κ 4 4 δT δg μν
 (21)
Eμν = u ν ⎝T0 Sμ + ζ j J jμ ⎠ (14)
j To find modified field equation one only needs to derive
recasts field equations (13) like last term in action (21). In this context, the last term in action
(21) given by [29]
 
G μν − κ  E μν i = Tμν i (15) δT
= Tμν + Tμν (22)
i i δg μν
which shows each fluid plays explicit role in field equations. in which Tμν defined by
Summation on all different components participated in
δTαβ 1
system (summation on index i), yields, Tμν ≡ g αβ μν
= − 8T̄μν − T̄ gμν + (ρ + p) u μ u ν
δg 2
G μν − κ  Eμν
[e]
= κ  Tμν
[e]
(16) (23)

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where T̄μν as modified energy–momentum tensor is defined 3 Inflation

as
In follows and as the first glance, it is worthwhile to consider
1
T̄μν = (ρ + p) u μ u ν + pgμν . (24) field equations (13) or (16) for evolution of the Universe
2
while FRW metric is used,
Hence, T̄ = −ρ + p. Rewriting Eq. (24) as covariant form
dr 2
of the standard energy–momentum tensor (10) reveals ds 2 = −dt 2 + a 2 + r 2 dθ 2 + r 2 sin 2 θ dφ 2 (30)
1 − kr 2
δTαβ 1
Tμν ≡ g αβ = −3Tμν + T gμν . (25) where a = a(t) is the cosmic scale factor and k = 0, 1 and
δg μν 2 −1 correspond to flat, close, and open Universe, respectively.
As result, Eq. (22) recasts to Observations confirm that the Universe is flat and thus in fol-
lows we assume k = 0. As results, the Friedmann equations
δT 1 for comoving observer given by,
μν
= −2Tμν + T gμν . (26)
δg 2 ⎛ ⎞

In general case, the relation (18) illustrates that non- 3H 2 − 8π ⎝T0 S0 + ζ j J j0 ⎠ = 8π ρ̃ (31)
conserved part given as function of energy–momentum ten- j
sor, and thus L M and L N C are depend on each other, shown in 2 Ḣ + 3H = −8π p̃
2
(32)
Eq. (26). This is not surprising result in our model. As shown
in [30], even original Rastall gravity can be given by using in which H = ȧ/a is Hubble parameter and over dot denotes
explicit form of f (R, T ) gravity for non-linear relation derivative with respect to cosmic time. Two parameters ρ̃ and
between matter and non-conserved terms. To keep standard p̃ are total density and pressure filled Universe, respectively.
form of Einstein field equations and also since Eq. (26) arises As shown, in frame of comoving observer entropy is pre-
from variation of non-conserved Lagrangian with respect to sented as scalar parameter as well.
√
metric, i.e., ∂ E −g /∂g μν , using relations (18) yields The general relativity governs well space-time curvature
around massive objects and large-scale structure. However,
δT 1 finding the flux density J0 for these celestial ingredients and
= 2Eμν − E gμν . (27)
δg μν 2 or for whole Universe as unique system is far away from hand
Plugging this equation in last term of Eq. (21), one finds and thus one needs to use approximation methods. In this con-
text, by using definition of charge density J j0 in comoving
√
−g G μν frame, n j u 0 , and using relation (7), we should have:
δS = − Tμν − Eμν d 4 x (28)
2 κ  
(classic)
ζ j J j0 = m j + ζ j n j u0. (33)
which leads to modified Einstein–Hilbert action
If we assume that relativistic injection energy ζ j is propor-
G μν − κEμν = κ Tμν . (29) tional to density of total density ρ̃, namely
(classic)
Thus, the Lagrangian (19) demonstrate that the model is con- ζj = m j + ζj = ξ ρ̃ j (34)
sistent for different fluids and the field equations (16) give
valuable modified theory of gravity in different astrophysical the first Friedmann equation (13) becomes
and astronomical studies. ⎛ ⎞

It is to be noted that if the energy–momentum tensor 3H 2 − 8π ⎝T0 S0 + ζ̃ j ρ̃ j ⎠ = 8π ρ̃ (35)
depends on metric only, the relations (18) implies that the j
non-conserved term is also function of metric. This assump-
tion helps us to present simplest field equations in this study, where we define ζ̃ j = ξ n j . Although this coefficient plays
Eq. (29). However, as discussed in Refs. [31,32], if Tμν given key role in studying charged black holes surrounded by mat-
by other scalar field such as χ , model includes two field ter fields or in system with high levels of interaction among
equations, one comes from variation of Lagrangian (19) with particles such as interior medium of stars, due to negligible
respect to metric while other derives from variation of (19) interaction among different particles in the large-scale struc-
with respect to field χ which can unify dark energy and dark ture this parameter must be so small. However, keeping it
matter as uniqueness field. in cosmological models may alleviate some inconsistencies
In the next two sections the cosmological applications for especially in CDM model.
primary inflation and late-time acceleration phase are stud- In the large-scale structures, homogeneity and isotropic
ied. assumptions implies that the electric charge/interaction is

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same in all directions and in all selected part of the observable where, 1 < 1 is the first slow-roll parameter, defined as
Universe. So, summation on index j in Eq. (35) [35,36]

ζ̃ j ρ̃ j0 = ζ̃ ρ̃ (36) Ḣ
1 (t) ≡ − . (44)
j H2
In inflation context we can describes the rate of the expansion
must be universal. In fact, this assumption helps us to simplify
of inflation as a natural logarithm of the scale factor [37,38],
what comes in follows. According to this suggestion, the total
charge/interaction density is uniform in different directions a  tend
end
N = ln = H dt (45)
and zones of the Universe. As result, summation gives net a t
charge in our model and so sign of constant ζ̃ shows resultant
where the index ‘end’ denotes the value of quantitates at the
charge/interaction in system, Universe.
end of inflation epoch. Through this e-folding number N ,
The observations related to the cosmic microwave back-
one can define several possible sets of slow roll parameters,
ground (CMB) through various surveys contain different
namely [39]
information about the formation and evolution of the Uni-
verse in which some concepts such as flatness and horizon d ln |n (t)|
n+1 (t) ≡ . (46)
problems challenge the standard cosmological model [33]. dN
To solve these problems, the primary accelerated expansion As result, the second slow-roll parameter becomes
known as cosmic inflation has been proposed for the earliest
stage of the evolution of the Universe [34]. During this short ˙1 Ḧ Ḣ
2 (t) = = −2 2. (47)
era, one may assume that the Universe fills with unknown H 1 H Ḣ H
field, for instance, the scalar field given by Lagrangian It is well-known under condition |n |  1, the inflation
1 occurs and will continue long enough to solve the standard
L = − g μν ∂μ ϕ∂ν ϕ − V (ϕ) (37) cosmological problems [39].
2
In order to find first and second slow roll parameters, using
where ϕ = ϕ(t) presents the scalar field and V (ϕ) is the Eqs. (41) and (42) suggest
potential of the scalar field. As result, density and pressure
∂    
of such field become ζ̃ ρ + T0 S0 + 3H ζ̃ ρ + T0 S0 = 0. (48)
∂t
1 2 1 2
ρ= ϕ̇ + V (ϕ) , p= ϕ̇ − V (ϕ) (38) Thus, we should have:
2 2
and then Friedmann equations recast to ζ̃ ρ + T0 S0 = c0 a −3 (49)
  1 where c0 is constant of the model. With aid of above relation
3H 2 − κ T0 S0 = κ 1 + ζ̃ ϕ̇ 2 + V (ϕ) (39) and Friedmann equations, one finds
2
1 2 3 ϕ̇ 2 + c0 a −3
2 Ḣ + 3H 2 = −κ ϕ̇ − V (ϕ) . (40) 1 = . (50)
2 ϕ̇ 2 + 2V (ϕ) + 2c0 a −3
Taking derivative with respect to time from Eq. (39) and Satisfying 1  1 leads one to
substituting its result in Eq. (40) yields continuity equation, c0 −3
ϕ̇ 2 + a  V (ϕ) . (51)
d T0 S0 2
ϕ̇ ϕ̈ + 3H ϕ̇ + V  + ζ̃ ϕ̇ ϕ̈ + ϕ̇V  + Using this condition, Eq. (49) implies that
dt ζ̃

+3H ζ̃
1 2
ϕ̇ + V (ϕ) +
T0 S0
=0 (41) T0 S0 ∝ V (ϕ) (52)
2 ζ̃
where density (38) is used. Since temperature exponentially
where prime is derivative with respect to scalar field. More- drops down as function of scale factor, with suitable potential
over, Lagrangian (37) obtains the Klein–Gordon equation form, the Eq. (52) can keep the second law of thermodynam-
ics, namely
ϕ̈ + 3H ϕ̇ + V  = 0. (42)
S0 ∝ a n V, for n > 0. (53)
During the inflation era the comoving Hubble horizon
shrinks, i.e., For instance, in the so-called chaotic inflation model, the
potential becomes [40]
d (a H )−1 1
= − (1 − 1 ) < 0 (43) V = V0 (κφ)σ (54)
dt a

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where V0 and √ σ are constants of the model. As discussed in • The tensor-to-scalar ratio:
[41], κφ ≈ σ (4N + σ )/2 wherein N is the natural loga-
rithm of the scale factor given by Eq. (45). Plugging potential r = 161 . (64)
(54) in entropy (53) shows that the entropy increases with
cosmic time, satisfies the second law of thermodynamics.
Applying condition (51) on Eq. (50) gives 1 , In this regard, the latest constraints from Planck data on the
scalar spectral index and the tensor-to-scalar ratio suggests
3 ϕ̇ 2 + c0 a −3 [42]
1 ≈ (55)
2V (ϕ)
n S = 0.9649 ± 0.0042 (65)
approximately. The second slow-roll parameter can also be
defined as r < 0.10. (66)

2 ϕ̇ ϕ̈ − 3c0 H a −3 Although the non-conserved terms give no new 1 with

η = 21 − ≈− (56)
2 H ϕ̇ 2 + c0 a −3 respect to standard inflation theory [43,44], the second slow-
roll parameter η depends on non-conserved parameter. As
where in the last approximation, relation (51) is used. Fur-
result, the model only deviates from standard inflation theory
thermore, condition |η|  1 yields (c0 = 0)
⎧ for the scalar spectra index. However, exploring the second
⎨ 3c0 H3 < ϕ̈ < H 2ϕ̇ a 3+5c0
2 3
slow roll (61) shows,
2 ϕ̇a 2 ϕ̇a
If c0 > −ϕ̇ 2 a 3 : (57a)
⎩ H 2ϕ̇ 2 a 3 −c0 3c0 H V  9c0 κ V a −3
− 2ϕ̇a 3 < ϕ̈ ≤ 2ϕ̇a 3 η≈ + (67)
⎧ H 2ϕ̇ 2 a 3 +5c κV V 2
⎨ 0
< ϕ̈ < 2ϕ̇a3c 0H
2ϕ̇a 3 3
If c0 < −ϕ̇ a :
2 3
(57b) when condition (51) is used. The exponentially evolution of
⎩ 3c0 H H 2ϕ̇ 2 a 3 −c0
2ϕ̇a 3 ≤ ϕ̈ < − 2ϕ̇a 3 . the Universe during inflation era, for instance implies that the
second term gives no tangible effects on the second slow-
These conditions together with condition (51) are known as roll parameter for chaotic potential (54), and thus it gives
the slow-roll conditions. If these conditions are fulfilled, the no tangible deviations from the standard form of the scalar
inflation onsets, continues and when those are violated, the spectra index [43].
inflation process will end. Using the slow-roll conditions (51) However, this is open field and thus interested people can
and (57), Eqs. (39) and (42) can also be approximated to explore different potential models to check effects of the non-
κ conserved term on scalar potential V (ϕ) and the scalar spec-
H 2 ≈ V (ϕ) (58)
3 tra index n S .
V
ϕ̇ ≈ − (59)
3H
where Eq. (49) is used. Consequently, the slow-roll parame- 4 Late-time universe
ters (55) and (56) can be written in terms of the inflationary
potential and its derivatives, In this section the late-time Universe in the presence of the
cosmological constant is studied. Adding the cosmological
1 V 2
1 ≈ (60) constant parameter to Friedmann equations (31) and (32),
2κ V one obtains
V  2 V  + 9c0 κ 2 V 2 a −3
η≈ (61) 3H 2 = k (ρm + ψ) +  (68)
κ V V  2 + 3c0 κ 2 V 2 a −3
In order to describe and examine the theoretical predictions of 2 Ḣ + 3H = 
2
(69)
the inflation scenario, the model should satisfy observations.
where ρm is matter density and we define
In this context, three observables defined as [39]

ψ = −T0 St − ζ j J jt . (70)
• The scalar spectra index: j

n S = 1 − 61 + 2η. (62) Defining density and pressure of effective dark energy as


• The tensor spectral index: ρ Xe = +ψ (71)
κ

n T = −21 . (63) p eX = − (72)
κ

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Eur. Phys. J. C (2023) 83:923 Page 7 of 10 923

lead us to following continuity equations:

ρ̇m + 3Hρm = Q (73)

ρ̇ Xe + 3H ρ Xe + p eX = −Q (74)

where Q denotes an interaction term.

As first scenario and in lack of microscopic origin of inter-
action term between dark energy and matter one may assume
Q = 0, which gives

ρm = ρm0 a −3 (75)
−3
ψ = ψ0 a . (76)

Substituting Eqs. (75) and (76) in Friedmann equation (68)

and constraining model with current value of free parameters,
yields

 = 3H02 (1 − m0 ) − κψ0 . (77)

Obviously in the absence of non-conserved term the model

coincides with CDM theory. With aid of this relation,
Eqs. (75) and (76), the equation of state of such dark energy
becomes Fig. 1 The one-dimensional marginalized distribution on individual
parameters and two-dimensional contours by using SNe + BAO + CMB
κψ0 a −3 data points
ω X = −1 + . (78)
3H0 (1 − m0 ) + κψ0
2 a −3 − 1
Furthermore, the deceleration parameter given by
1 3 pX
q= 1+ . (79)
2 ρ X + ρm
In order to constraint model with observations, we apply
the Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method based
on the emcee package [45], in which the total likelihoods
L ∝ e−χ /2 includes supernovae Ia data, baryon acous-
2

tic oscillations (BAO) measurements from redshift interval

(0.1 < z < 0.7), and cosmic microwave radiation (CMB).
Then the χ 2 is given as

χ 2 = χ S2N + χ B2 AO + χC2 M B (80)

with the following 3-dimensional parameter space:

θ ≡ (m0 , H0 , ψ0 ) . (81)

Furthermore, the priors to the model parameter is taken as fol-

lows: the initial fractional matter density m0 ∈ (0, 1); the
Hubble constant range H0 ∈ (50, 100) and ψ0 ∈ (0, 10). Fig. 2 The Evolution of equation of state (up) and deceleration param-
eter (below) panels versus redshift for non-interaction model when we
The results of the best fit values of the model derived by min- use H0 = 67.59, m0 = 0.29 and ψ0 = 1.84
imizing χ 2 , relation (80). In Table 2 the best fit values for
parameter space (81) are summarized. We also have plotted
the one dimensional marginalized distribution on individual future it coincides with standard cosmological constant. Fur-
parameters and two-dimensional contours in Fig. 1. thermore, its current equation of state is slightly bigger than
With aid of these set of free parameters of the model, the −1, ω X ≈ −0.995. Exploring deceleration parameter reveals
evolution of equation of state (78) and deceleration parame- that the acceleration phase onsets at z T ≈ 0.68 which satis-
ter (79) are plotted in Fig. 2. As shown, model presents dark fies the joint analysis of SNe + CMB data with the CDM
energy that behaves as pressureless matter in past while in model [46].

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Table 2 The best-fit parameters of the interaction scenario for our

model
Parameter SNe + BAO + CMB

H0 67.62+0.43
−0.51
m0 0.31+0.26
−0.36
α 0.39+0.16
−0.16
c2 17.30+0.45
−0.18

In follows we attempt to consider model in presence of

the interaction term Q = α H (ρm + ρ X ) with free parameter
α. In order to consider model under this interaction form and
by using e-folding number x = ln (a), solving Eqs. (73) and
Fig. 3 The total entropy of non-interaction scenario versus redshift (74), we obtain
when free parameters are set with values in Table 1
ρm = (c1 + xc2 ) e−3x (84)
Table 1 The best-fit parameters of the non-interaction scenario wherein c2 −3x −3x
ψ= e − (c1 + xc2 ) e (85)
effective dark energy includes non-conserved term and cosmological α
constant
which leads one to
Parameter SNe + BAO + CMB
 c2 −3x
ρX = + e − (c1 + xc2 ) e−3x . (86)
H0 67.59+0.26
−0.27 κ α
m0 0.29+0.18
−0.17 The equation of state of dark energy in interaction scenario
ψ0 1.84+0.47
−0.48
given by
κ ((c1 + c2 x) α − c2 ) e−3x
ω X = −1 + . (87)
κ ((c1 + c2 x) α − c2 ) e−3x − α
In this step it is worthwhile to explore validity of the sec-
Theoretically, constraining model with current Universe
ond law of thermodynamics in this scenario, non-interaction
yields
one. In this context, and with Eqs. (36), (70) and (76) at
hand, the entropy of matter due to interior interaction among 3H02 κc2
c1 = m0  = 3H02 − (88)
particles of matter component becomes κ α
 
which implies c1 = ρm0 .
St = − ζ̃ ρm0 + ψ0 a −2 (82)
To find other free parameters of model, includes α and c2 ,
where we assume T0 ∝ a −1 . To have positive entropy, the redefining codes with parameter space
Eq. (82) implies ζ̃ must be negative, ζ̃ < −ψ0 /ρm0 ≈ θ ≡ (m0 , H0 , α, c2 ) (89)
−0.01. However, the evolution of entropy (82) illustrates St
decreases with redshift, which violates the second law of ther- and adding priors set α ∈ (0, 1) and c2 ∈ [0, 20) to MCMC
modynamics. This problem is not new issue. In fact, there is package approximates free parameters of our model given
same problem for the cosmological models in which dark in Table 2. Also, one-dimensional marginalized distribution
energy comes from modified entropy expression [47,48]. In on individual parameters and two-dimensional contours are
such models the entropy of matter field decreases with red- plotted in (Fig. 4).
shift due to expanding Universe and thus one needs to check The equation of state (87) and deceleration parameter (79)
total entropy of the Universe includes matter and dark energy for interaction model are illustrated in Fig. 5. As shown the
components on the apparent horizon. If we follow same rule, dark energy evolves as pressureless matter filed in high red-
the first law of thermodynamics leads us to shift while in future coincides with the cosmological con-
stant model. Comparing the interaction scenario with non-
κπ 4 π
Stot = r ρtot = 2 (83) interaction one reveals that the model in former case evolves
3 H like phantom field for small interval of future with extremum
where we use T = 1/2πr and H = r −1 on the apparent point ω X ≈ −1.022 at z ≈ −0.283. This behavior, phantom-
horizon [47]. The behavior of total entropy Stot for Hubble like dark energy is usual result in holographic dark energy
parameter (68) is plotted in Fig. 3 which satisfies the second models [49,50] and some explicit forms of f (R) gravity [51–
law of thermodynamics. 53] which possesses negative kinetic energy.

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Fig. 6 The total entropy of interaction model when free parameters

are set with data in Table 1

Fig. 4 The one-dimensional marginalized distribution on individual

parameters and two-dimensional contours by using SNe + BAO + CMB
data points for interaction scenario

Fig. 7 The evolution of entropy St for non-interaction scenario (left

panel) and for interaction model (right panel) with respect to redshift.
The free parameters are set with data in Tables 1 and 2

for interaction scenario. This behavior shows during matter

era, the entropy of non-conserved part increases while this
process ends due to expanding Universe at z ≈ 6.88 and
shrinks with redshift to present time. In Fig. 7, the St for both
non-interaction and interaction cases are plotted versus red-
shift. As shown, St for non-interaction model is so large even
before nucleosynthesis process while for interaction model
the corresponded entropy onsets after big bang and grows
up with matter creation, proportionally. It demonstrates that
the second scenario, interaction model, gives better physical
results with respect to the first one, non-interaction scenario.

Fig. 5 Equation of state (up) and deceleration parameter (below) pan- 5 Remark
els as function of redshift for interaction model when we use H0 =
67.62, m0 = 0.31, c2 = 17.30 and α = 0.39
To summarize, in this study, we have reconsidered Rastall
argument in which the conservation of energy–momentum
At the end, exploring total entropy (83) for interaction tensor in curved spacetime is broken. As discussed, explor-
model with same approach shows such scenario keeps the ing covariant form of thermodynamics can lead one to out-
validity of the second law of thermodynamics for whole Uni- standing results in this context. For finite system in which
verse (Fig. 6). However, the outstanding result in comparing particles of different fluids and or of a unique field interact to
non-interaction with interaction medium may come from the each other, conservation of energy–momentum is just broken
evolution of the corresponded entropy to non-conserved term in Minkowskian spacetime. Using general relativity principle
ψ wherein St has the extremum during matter-dominated era allows one to generalize this issue to curved spacetime, gov-

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