Irrigation and Drainage Updated

Irrigation and Drainage
Lecture note
College of Agriculture and

Environmental Science
Irrigation and Drainage Lecture note
Chapter one
1.1. Introduction
An agricultural production requires three basic elements soil, seed, and water. In addition,
fertilizers, insecticides, sunshine, suitable atmospheric temperature, and human labor are
also needed. Among all the above, water appears to be the most important requirement of
agricultural production. Because water is essential for plant growth and it serves the
following functions.
❖ It supplies moisture to the soil essential for the germination of seeds, and chemical
and bacterial processes during plant growth.
❖ It cools the soil and the surroundings thus making the environment more favorable
for plant growth.
❖ It washes out or dilutes salts in the soil.
❖ It softens clods and thus helps in tillage operations.
❖ It enables application of fertilizers.
❖ It reduces the adverse effects of frost on crops.
❖ It ensures crop success against short-duration droughts.
In several parts of the world, the moisture available in the root-zone soil, either from rain or
from underground waters, may not be sufficient for the requirements of the plant life. This
deficiency may be either for the entire crop season or for only part of the crop season. For
optimum plant growth, therefore, it becomes necessary to make up the deficiency by adding
water to the root-zone soil. This artificial application of water to land for supplementing the
naturally available moisture in the root-zone soil for the purpose of agricultural production
is termed irrigation.
1.2. Definition of irrigation

Different scholars of irrigation define the word irrigation in different ways. But the concept
is similar. Literary irrigation is defined as the process of artificial application of water to the
soil for the growth of agricultural crops.
However, a broader and more definition according to Hansen et al. 1980 is that irrigation is
the application of water to the soil for any number of the following purposes:
❖ To add water to soil to supply essential moisture for plant growth
❖ To provide crop insurance against short duration drought.
❖ To cool the soil and atmosphere, thereby making more favorable environment for
plant growth
❖ To reduce the hazard of frost
❖ To wash out or dilute salts in the soil
❖ To soften tillage pans and clods
And, it is particularly a science of planning and designing of water supply system for the
agricultural land to protect the crops from bad effects of drought or low rainfall. It may
include the construction of weirs, dam, barrages, and canal systems for regular supply of
water to cultivable lands.
Prepared by Sisay K.
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1.3. Necessity of irrigation

Throughout the crop period, an adequate quantity of water is required near the root zone of
the plants for optimum growth. At times during the crop period the rainfall may not be
adequate to fulfill the water requirement. The intensity of rainfall is practically uncertain and
beyond the control of human capacity and it may not be well distributed throughout the crop
season. So, irrigation becomes necessary to fulfill the deficit of water. Additionally, the
following are goals necessity of irrigation technology
❖ For food security and self-sufficiency: - with conventional agricultural system,
unable to feed ever increasing population of the world. So, irrigation helps to produce
agricultural production more than one per a year.
❖ Uneven distribution of rainfall: - when the rainfall is not evenly distributed during
the period or throughout the cultivable area.
❖ Insufficient rainfall: - when the seasonal rainfall is less than the minimum
requirement for the satisfactory growth of crops.
❖ Improvement of perennial crops: - some perennial crops like sugarcane, cotton, etc.
require water throughout the major part of the year. But the rainfall may fulfill the
water requirement in rainy season only. So, irrigation becomes necessary for the
remaining part of the year.
❖ Development of agricultural in desert area: - in desert area where the rainfall is
very scanty, irrigation is required for the development of agriculture’s.
1.4. Benefits of irrigations

The followings are important benefits of irrigations
❖ Yields of crops: - in the period of low rainfall or drought, the yield of crop may be
increased by the irrigation system.
❖ Protection from famine: - The food production of a country can be improved by
ensuring the growth of crops by availing the irrigation facilities. This helps a country
to prevent famine situations.
❖ Improvement of cash crops: - irrigation helps to improve the cultivation of cash
crops like vegetables, fruits, tobacco, etc.
❖ Prosperity of farmers: - when the supply of irrigation water is assured, the farmers
can grow two or more crops in a year on the same land. Thus, the farmers may earn
more money and improve their living standard.
❖ Source of revenue: - When irrigation water is supplied to the cultivators in lieu of
some taxes, it helps to earn revenue which may be spent on other development
schemes.
❖ Navigation: - The irrigation canals may be utilized for inland navigation which is
further useful for communication and transportation of agricultural goods.
❖ Hydroelectric power generation: - in some river valley project, multipurpose
reservoirs are formed by constructing high dams where hydroelectric power may be
generated along with the irrigation system e.g. kesem-Kebena.
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❖ Water supply: - irrigation canals may be the source of water supply for domestic and
industrial purposes.
❖ General communications: - The inspection road along the canal banks may serve as
communication link with the other remote villages.
❖ Development of fishery: - The reservoir and canals can be utilized for the
development of fisher projects.
As the result of irrigation development and expansion, the wellbeing of the society can be
improved through job opportunity, peace and security, infrastructure development and so
on.
1.5. Disadvantage and Ill effects of irrigation

As irrigation has advantageous it also has disadvantage
❖ Raising of water table: - Due to the excessive seepage of water through the bed and
bank of canals, the water table in the surrounding area may be raised which may
constantly saturate the root zone of the crops and the soil may develop alkaline
property which is harmful to the crops.
❖ Over irrigation may lead to water logging: - when irrigation water is applied more
than the crop water requirements. It creates aeration problem to a crop and reduce
crop productivities except race crop.
❖ Irrigation may: - result in colder and damper climate, resulting marshy lands and
breading mosquitoes, causing outbreak of diseases like malaria and dengue
❖ Loss of soil fertility: - uneven and excess application of irrigation water may be
leached out important nutrients beyond plant root zone. And, it causes to eroded
fertile surface soil.
❖ Destruction of beneficial soil structure and soil aggregates: - if water is pounded
on the surface of land for a long time it destroyed the crumb structure and soil
aggregate and encourages the development of platy structure. Etc.
1.6. Source of irrigation water

Irrigation water can be supplied from a variety of sources which can be classed precipitation
or rainfall, underground, surface source such as river, lake, farm ponds and spring or west
water sources. These entire water sources supplied as either regulated or unregulated
system.
1.6.1. Regulated watercourses

Regulated watercourses mean a controlled release of water to the farm land from the river
or the reservoirs to provide a much more constant flow. Water is either diverted to individual
farms by various systems of weir (to control river heights) and channel or is pumped directly
from the river (by individual farmers or by a pump station supplying a group of farmers).
1.6.2. Unregulated watercourses

Unregulated watercourses mean uncontrolled release of water to the farm land from the
water sources. Irrigation occurs from watercourses upstream of the major storage
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reservoirs, but the flow is unregulated and therefore less reliable. Flows are at their lowest
when irrigation demand is at its highest.
Chapter Two
Soil –water relationship
1.1. Introduction
Efficient irrigation water application requires a systematic water management program.

Such a program answers the questions of when to irrigate, how much water to apply during
irrigation and how best to apply the water (rate of application, method, etc.). A key
component of good on-farm irrigation water management is the routine monitoring and
measurement of soil water. Soil water must be maintained between desirable upper and
lower limits of availability to the plant. This requires accounting for soil evaporation, crop
water use, irrigation, drainage and rainfall. Accurate assessment of the soil water-holding
characteristics along with periodic soil water monitoring and measurement are required.
Monitoring and measuring soil water available to irrigated crops is part of an integrated
management package and helps to avoid:
I. The economic losses due to effects of both under-irrigation and over-irrigation on

crop yields and crop quality, and
II. The environmentally costly effects of over-irrigation: water and energy wastage, the
leaching of nutrients or agricultural chemicals into groundwater supplies and
degradation of surface water supplies by sediment-laden irrigation water runoff.
1.2. Important soil and crop Characteristics in irrigation management

Information on soil and crop characteristics is required to determine plant available soil
water. Texture, structure, layering, water-holding capacity, and depth are important soil
characteristics. Crop rooting pattern, the depth of rooting, density of roots with depth, and
crop susceptibility to water stress are important crop characteristics.
1.2.1. Soil Characteristics

Soil is comprised of minerals, soil organic matter, water, and air. The composition and
proportion of these components greatly influence soil physical properties, including texture,
structure, and porosity or the fraction of pore space in the soil. In turn, these properties affect
air and water movement in the soil and thus the soil’s ability to functions.
Soil physical properties profoundly influence how soils function in the ecosystem and how
they can best be managed success or failed of agricultural and engineering projects often
hinges on the physical properties of the soil used. The occurrence and growth of many plant
species and the movement of water and solutes over and through the soil are closely related
to soil physical properties. Therefore, physical properties of soil directly describe the nature
of soil solids and their impact on the soil water and air which reside in the pore spaces
between the solid particles.
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1.2.1.1. Soil texture

Soil texture can have a profound effect on many other properties and is considered among
the most important physical properties of the soil. Soils are grouped into textural classes
depending upon the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay. Sand, silt, and clay are the basic
particle size categories used for determining soil texture. The percentage of each within a
given soil sample can be determined through mechanical analyses which separate the soil
particles into the relative size ranges. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) textural classes are
broken into particle size ranges as follows:
Table 2.1 soil textural class
Soil particles Diameter (mm) Approximate size

Very coarse sand 1.0-2.0 Visible to naked eye
Course sand 0.5 -1.0 Visible to naked eye
Medium sand 0.25-0.5 Visible to naked eye
Fine sand 0.1-0.25 Visible to naked eye
very fine sand 0.05-1.0
Silt 0.002-0.05
Clay <0.002 Invisible to naked eye
With the percentages of sand, silt and clay, a textural triangle can then be used to classify the
soil in a textural group (see Figure 2.1).
Fig.2.1 Soil classification triangle
Example, when the sand particles dominate in a soil, it is called sandy and is a coarse or light
textured soil. When clay particles dominate, the soil is called clay and is a fine or heavy
textured soil. Loam soils (or simply loams) contain about equal amount of sand, silt, and clay
and are medium textured soils. The texture of a soil affects the flow of water, aeration of soil,
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and the rate of chemical transformation all of which are important for plant life. The texture
also determines the water holding capacity of the soil.
1.2.1.2. Soil structure

Soil structure is determined by the arrangement of soil particles relative to each other.
Natural and man-made physical and chemical factors affect soil structure over time. Soil
structure is important in developing large pores (macro pores) that are essential for rapid
movement of water and air through soils and it has a key effect on soil properties such as
erodibility, porosity, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration, and water holding capacity. Soil
structure is classified based on the shape are the following parts.
a) GRANULAR b) BLOCKY
c) PRISMATIC d) MASSIVE
Fig. 2.2 classification of soil structure
When a massive structure present in the topsoil it blocks the entrance of water; seed
germination is difficult due to poor aeration. On the other hand, if the topsoil is granular, the
water enters easily and the seed germination is better. In a prismatic structure, movement
of the water in the soil is predominantly vertical and therefore the supply of water to the
plant root is usually poor. Unlike texture, soil structure is not permanent. By means of
cultivation practices (ploughing, ridging, etc.) the farmers tries to obtain a granular topsoil
structure for his field.
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1.2.1.3. Bulk density

Bulk density refers to the weight of the oven-dry soil with its natural structural arrangement.
The pore space is a part of the volume of soil measured for bulk density. Bulk density is
determined by dividing the weight of oven-dry soil in grams by its volume in cubic
centimeters.
𝐌𝐬 𝐌𝐬
𝐩𝐛 = = 𝟐. 𝟏
𝐕𝐭 𝐕𝐬 + 𝐕𝐰 + 𝐕𝐚
The variation in bulk density is due largely to the difference in total pore space. Because finer
textured soils have higher percentages of total pore space, it follows that finer textured soils
have smaller bulk density values. Obviously then, compacted soils have lower percentages
of total pore space and therefore, higher bulk densities. High and low bulk densities have
great influences on engineering properties, water movement, rooting depth of plants, and
many other physical limitations for soil interpretations. Note the value ranges between 1.0-
1.8gm/cm3
1.2.1.4. Particle density

It denotes the mass of soil solid per unit volume of soil solid and it is expressed in gm/cm3.
In determining the particle density of soil, consideration is given only to solid particles. Thus
the particle density of any soil is constant and does not vary with the amount of space
between the particles. It is defined as the mass (weight) per unit volume of soil particles (soil
solids).
𝐌𝐬
𝐏𝐬 = 𝟐. 𝟐
𝐕𝐬
Particle density does not change with tillage or cropping practices. And the particle density
of most soil is laid between 2.2-2.7 gm/cm3 and the average relative representative is
2.65mg/cm3. Note that the bulk density always less than the particle density of the soil. And
sand soil has high value of bulk density as 1.6 whereas in aggregated loam and clay soil it can
be as low as 1.1 gm/cm3.
1.2.1.5. Total pore space and porosity

Total pore space (E) is the ratio of volume of pores (voids) to total volume of the soil and it
is expressed in %. It is the volume of soil occupied by air and water.
𝐕𝐩 𝐕𝐚 + 𝐕𝐰 𝐕𝐭 − 𝐕𝐬 𝐕𝐬
𝐄= ( = = =𝟏− ) ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐. 𝟑
𝐕𝐭 𝐕𝐭 𝐕𝐭 𝐕𝐭
To determine porosity, soil samples are taken with core sampler and placed in pan of water
until completely saturated. Then after saturation the core are weighted. Then after the
saturated samples are oven dried and again weighted. The difference in weight between and
oven dry cores represents a volume of the core space. And, total porosity can also be
calculated from the bulk density and particle density using the following relationships.
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𝐏𝐛
𝐄 = (𝟏 − ) ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐. 𝟒
𝐏𝐬
Total porosity is influenced by textural characteristics of the soil and ranges from 35 to 50%
in sandy soil and from 40 to 60 % in clayey soils. It increases with an increase in fineness,
looseness of soils and amount of soil aggregates.
Example1 for a soil with a bulk density of 1.56 gm/cm3 and particle density is 2.6 gm/cm3.
Calculate total porosity
1.2.1.6. Void ratio

The void ratio is an index of the fractional volume of soil pores, but it relates that volume to
the volume of solids rather than to the total volume of soil.
𝐕𝐕 𝐕𝐚 + 𝐕𝐰
𝐞= = 𝟐. 𝟓
𝐕𝐬 𝐕𝐬
1.3. Measurement of soil water content

The amount of water in the soil can be expressed in number ways.
❖ As percentage by weight or volume; grams of water per 100 g of soil
❖ By depth of water per meter of soil (that is the depth of water that would occur if all
the soil water was extracted and spread over the surface of the soil). This is a
particular convenient method of describing soil water content, because it is expressed
in the same way that irrigation (and evaporation) amounts are normally measured.
❖ As the pressure of soil suction: that is bars.
1.3.1. Volume and mass relationships of soil constituents

Any given volume V of soil (Fig. 2.1) consists of: (i) volume of solids Vs, (ii) volume of liquids
(water) Vw, and (iii) volume of gas (air) Va. The proportion of pore space to solid particles
is influenced by the texture of the soil.
Let us consider the volume and mass relationships among the three phases and define some
basic parameters which have been found useful in characterizing the physical condition of a
soil.
Air Where
Va Ma = 0 Ma= mass of air
Ms= mass of soil
Vv Water Mw= mass of water
Mt
Vw Mw Mt= total mass
Vt Solid Vt= total volum
Va= volume of air
Vs Ms Vs= volume of soil
Vw= volume of H2O
Fig. 2.3 Schematic diagram of soil as a three-phase system
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a) Soil wetness (w)

This is the relative mass of water to the mass of dry soil particles, often referred to as the
relative mass of water in the soil and determined by gravimetric method. The term dry soil
is generally defined as a soil dried to equilibrium in an oven at 105 Co.
𝐌𝐰
𝐰= 𝟐. 𝟔
𝐌𝐬
b) Volume wetness (θ)

The volume wetness (often termed volumetric water content or volume fraction of soil
water) is generally computed as a percentage of the total volume of the soil rather than on
the basis of the volume of particles alone.
𝐕𝐰 𝐕𝐰
𝛉= = 𝟐. 𝟕
𝐕𝐭 (𝐕𝐬 + 𝐕𝐯 )
c) Equivalent depth of water (d)

This is indicated the depth of water in each soil profile measured interms depth per unit area.
(𝛳 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐿)
𝑑= = 𝛳 ∗𝐴 2.8
𝐴
d) Degree of saturation (s)
This index expresses the volume of water present in soil relative to the volume of pores. It is
ranged from zero in dry soil to unity or 100% in completely saturated soil. However,
complete saturation is seldom attained, since some air is nearly always present and may
become trapped in a very wet soil.
𝑽𝒘
𝒔= 𝟐. 𝟗
𝑽𝒗
1.3.2. The Energy concept of soil water

The two forms of energy (energy is the ability to do work) influencing water flow in soil are,
potential and kinetic. Soil water velocities are slow, thus the kinetic energy (KE- the energy
which matter has by virtue of its motion: KE = 1/2 MV2). Since V2 is small generally the kinetic
energy is considered to be negligible. Thus, the potential energy is the primary energy source
determining the state and movement of water in a porous system (soil). The potential energy
is determined by the water position and/or internal condition. There is a spontaneous and
universal tendency for all matter to achieve a state of low potential energy or equilibrium
state.
1.3.2.1. The Energy Status of Soil Water

The absolute amount of energy that a body of water may contain cannot be determined.
(Absolute energy includes electronic and nuclear bonding energies as well as kinetic energy
and energy derived from cohesive and adhesive forces and potential energy resulting from
elevation).
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1.3.2.2. Soil water potential and its component

Soil water potential is defined as the amount of work that must be done per unit quantity of
pure water to transport reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of water from a
pool of pure water at specified elevation at atmospheric pressure to the soil-water. Potential
refers to the energy status of water in the soil, as it relates to water in the other region of soil.
Movement of water is governed by potential gradient that mean, water moves from higher
energy to lower energy or water moves from regions of more positive to more negative
potential. The total (net) potential in a soil region is composed of several component potential.
1.3.2.3. Gravitational potential (ψg)

The ψg is due to the position of soil water. It is the energy required to move an infinitesimal
amount of pure, free water from the reference elevation to the soil water elevation.
Therefore, the ψg of soil moisture is determined by the elevation of the point relative to the
reference level. Three forms of expressing ψg by
Per unit volume is equal to = pv/v= mgh
Per unit mass = pv/m= PV/ pV = pgh/p =mg
Per unit weight =Pv/mg= (pgh)*v/(gvp)= h in cm
The gravitational potential is usually measured by the height above or below an arbitrarily
chosen reference point. The gravitational potential is positive if the specific point is above
the reference level and negative if the specific point is below the reference level.
1.3.2.4. Osmotic potential (ψo)

The osmotic potential is equivalent to the work required to transport water reversibly and
isothermally from a solution to a reference pool of pure water at the same elevation. In
particular terms, it is the energy one must add to a solution to equilibrate the solution with
pure water across a perfect semi-permeable membrane. And also, it is the result of the polar
nature of water, with two sites that are electropositive and two that are electronegative,
causes water molecules to be attracted to ions in the soil solution. These attractive forces
tend to orient water molecules around ions and the ψo refers to the work required to pull
water away from these ions.
If the concentration of solute in a solution is known, the osmotic potential is given by:
𝛙𝐨 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓 𝟐. 𝟏𝟎
𝐧
𝐜=𝐕 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏
Where:-c = molar concentration, T = temperature, V = volume, R = gas constant, n = number
of moles,
1.3.2.5. Pressure potential (ψp)

Pressure potential (ψp) is defined as the water pressure exerted by the overlying saturated
column of water on a specific position within a soil. It is equal to the water pressure exerted
by the height of water above a specific point. If a volume Θ is transferred from a body of
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water where the gauge pressure is zero to one where it is p, the work done against p is given
by:-
𝛙𝐩 = 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝒑𝑽 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐
The work per unit volume is pv/v=p. The work done by water can also be computed by
assuming this water to be displaced from a tube of length l and cross-sectional area A into
water at pressure p. The work done in this hypothetical case against pressure p is
W= Alp
Therefore
Work done per unit volume is equal to = pv/v= mgh
Work done per unit mass = pv/m= PV/ pV = pgh/p =mg
Work done per unit weight =Pv/mg= (pgh)*v/(gvp)= h in cm
Where p is density (g/cm3) and g is acceleration due to gravity (cm/s2). The pressure head
is usually measured in units of length (cm, m), and exists and only under saturated soil
conditions (Θ=s=1). The positive pressure potential usually occurs below the groundwater
level and is called the piezometric head or the submergence potential. Under field conditions,
the pressure potential is measured by a piezometric tube.
Fig.2.4. Saturated flow
Example potential due to pressure at point A is equal to h and the gravitational potential at
point A from the reference level is equal to Z. hence total potential at point A from the
reference level is equal to H=h+Z
1.3.2.6. Matric potential (ψm)

Matric potential exists only in unsaturated soils, and therefore, Matric potential and pressure
potential are mutually exclusive. Under specific soil-water conditions, a soil either has
pressure potential (ψp) or Matric potential (ψm), but not both. Soil Matric potential is because
of soil solids, interfacial curvature due to surface tension and forces of cohesion and
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adhesion of the soil matrix. Like the potential, the Matric potential may be expressed in
three units.
Work done per unit volume is equal to = pv/v= mgh
Work done per unit mass = pv/m= PV/ pV = pgh/p =mg
Work done per unit weight =Pv/mg= (pgh)*v/(gvp)= h in cm
Matric potential is measured by tensiometers. Tensiometer is a device that measures
potential energy of soil water relative to free water in a porous ceramic cup in equilibrium
with soil water.
Fig. 2.5 Unsaturated flow
1.3.3. Classification of soil water

When water is spread over the soil either by irrigation or by rainfall, the water is absorbed
by the pores of the soil. This water is termed as soil water or soil moisture. Water may occur
in the soil pores in varying proportions or forms. The followings are the various forms of soil
water.
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Fig. 2.6 Classification of soil water
1.3.3.1. Gravitational water

When rains or the irrigation water is supplied to the soil, the water content of the soil goes
on increasing until a saturation point is reached. At this stage the soil pores are completely
saturated and no more water is absorbed by the soil. The surface water then starts flowing
downward due to the influence of gravity. The volume of water that could easily drain off is
termed as the gravitational water. This water is not available for plants use as it drains off
rapidly from the root zone.
1.3.3.2. Capillary water
The water content retained in the soil after the gravitational water has drained off from the
soil is known as the capillary water. This water is held in the soil by surface tension. Plant
roots gradually absorb the capillary water and thus constitute the principal source of water
for plant growth.
1.3.3.3. Permanent Wilting Point (PWP or wp)

This is the lower limit of the moisture content of soil at which forces of cohesion and
adhesion holding moisture in soil far exceed the pull that plant roots can exert to extract
moisture from the soil or soil water content beyond which plants cannot recover from water
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stress (dead). Actually, there is some amount of water in the soil but it is not enough to use
to plants sustainably. In terms of soil water potential, it is defined as the water content
corresponding to -15 bars of soil water potential.
1.3.3.4. Hygroscopic water

The water content below the permanent wilting point is known as hygroscopic water. This
water is retained by the soil in form thin film on the surface of soil particles. This water
cannot be extracted or absorbed by the root of the plants. So, at this stage the growth of
plants is stopped and ultimately the plants are dead.
1.3.3.5. Field capacity

The field capacity is defined as the amount of maximum moisture that can be held by the soil
against gravity. It is expressed as percentage. It is the moisture content that a given soil
reaches and maintains after it has been thoroughly wetted and allowed to drain freely. In
terms of soil water potential, it is defined as the water content corresponding to a soil water
potential of -1/10 to -1/3 bar
1.3.3.6. Available and useable water

Available water is retained in the soil after the excess has drained (field capacity to wilting
point) at a tension between 0.1 to 0.33 and 15 atm. This water is the most important for crop
or forage production. Plants can use approximately 50 % of it without exhibiting stress, but
if less than 50 % is available, drought stress can result. Unavailable water is soil moisture
that is held so tightly by the soil that it cannot be extracted by the plant. Water remains in
the soil even below plants' wilting point.
Amount of available water in the soil, depends on the texture and structure of the soil and
the amount of organic and colloidal matters present therein. The fineness of the soil texture,
granular soil structure and organic matter increases the void space in the soil and it is
resulting in greater storage of water and available water in the soil. As seen from the table
that 2.2 soil textures greatly influences water availability. The sandy soil can quickly be
recharged with soil moisture but is unable to hold as much water as the soils with heavier
textures. As texture becomes heavier, the wilting point increases because fine soils with
narrow pore spacing hold water more tightly than soils with wide pore spacing and
mathematically it is calculated by
𝐓𝐀𝐖 = (𝐅𝐂 − 𝐏𝐖𝐏) ∗ 𝐘 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑
Where; TAW is Total Available Water, FC is Field Capacity, PWP permanent wilting point and
Y effective rooting depth.
Not all the total available soil water should be allowed to be used before irrigation water is
applied. Soil water near the permanent wilting point is not as readily available and many
crops will be seriously stressed at these low soil water contents. For this reason, a factor
called the management allowable depletion (MAD) (sometimes referred to as maximum
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allowable depletion) is defined. MAD values are given as a percentage of the total available
water which may be safely depleted before moisture stress occurs. Readily available or
usable soil water (UW), the amount of soil water which can be safely extracted from the
rooting zone between irrigation applications is determined as follows:
𝐔𝐖 = 𝐌𝐀𝐃 ∗ 𝐓𝐀𝐖 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒
Table 2.2 Available water capacity by soil texture
1.3.3.7. Unavailable water

There are two situations at which soil water is not available to most plants.
➢ When the soil water content falls below the permanent wilting point and is held at a
tension of 15 atm and above and
➢ When the soil water is above field capacity and held at a tension between zero and
0.33 atm. Therefore, gravitational water and hygroscopic water come under this class.
1.3.4. Movement of water in the soil

Knowledge of water flow under saturated conditions is important to engineers, soil
scientists, and agronomists. The data on volume and rate of flow of water in soil are needed
for managing soils and plant growth. The water movement through a soil system influences
aeration, nutrient availability to the plants, and soil temperature. Soil water is dynamic and
moves constantly in the soil medium in different direction under different force acting on it.
Down ward and lateral movement of water occur during or after irrigation or rainfall and
the upward movement takes place when upper soil layers start drying up owing to
evaporation or evapotranspiration.
Movement of water in soil medium may be considered in different stage under different
stage conditions of soil wetness. The stages are
a. Saturated flow
b. unsaturated flow
15
c. From saturated to unsaturated movement

d. Vapor movement
1.3.4.1. Saturated flow
The movement of water through a porous system occurs whenever there is a difference in
potential energy of water within the porous matrix. The water content in a saturated soil
system does not change during flow and only positive potentials are the driving force during
the water transport. Water movement is always described in terms of potentials. The total
potential of soil water is the sum of the gravitational, pressure, and osmotic potentials. The
difference in potential energy of water builds a force in the system, which forces the water
to move from a position of greater potential (energy) to smaller potential (energy). The
osmotic potential (ψo) during the flow becomes important only when salt sieving
phenomenon exists.
Therefore, for most water flow applications the osmotic potential is neglected, and the
hydraulic potential (H) considered involves only the sum of pressure (ψP) and gravitational
(ψZ) potential.
𝝍 = 𝑯 = 𝛙𝐏 + 𝛙𝐳 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓
Darcy’s law Water flow in saturated soils is considered to follow the Darcy’s law which
states that the velocity of water flow is directly proportional to the difference of hydraulic
heads and inversely proportional to the flow length. The flow rate is given by the equation,
𝐇𝐢 − 𝐇𝟎
𝚫𝐇 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔
𝐋
Fig.2.8 Schematic presentation of Darcy’s flow
Hence the flow rate is estimated by

𝜟𝑯
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 = 𝑲𝑨 ∗ 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑
𝑳
Where, Q= Volume of water flow per unit time, cm3/s
A= cross sectional area of flow, cm2
K= hydraulic conductivity, cm/s
∆H= difference of hydraulic head between tswo points, cm
16
L= flow length, cm
1.3.4.2. Unsaturated flow

A soil matrix is considered unsaturated when some of the pores are filled with water and the
remaining pores with air. The unsaturated zone of soil refers to that portion of the
subsurface above the water table, which contains both air and water in the pores. An
unsaturated zone stores the water, nutrients, and other substances and is of importance to
the biosphere. The unsaturated zone experiences transport processes of various kinds,
chemical reactions, and biological activity of roots, rodents, worms, microbiota, and other
organisms. It is also a zone of human activity and is used for the cultivation and disposal of
waste. This zone is also drastically disturbed by surface mining and construction of civil
structures (e.g., buildings, roads, etc).
The fundamental driving forces in both saturated and unsaturated flow are the potential
gradient and hydraulic conductivity. As a stream of water is passed through the unsaturated
soil matrix, the incoming water replaces the air present in the soil pores; it increases the total
volume of water inside the soil, thus increasing the moisture content (θ) of soil. This agrees
with the fundamentals of continuity equation, which states that the difference in the inflow
and outflow rate is equal to the change of water storage in soil. The gradient causing flow in
unsaturated soils is of negative pressure potential.
1.3.4.3. Movement of Water into Soils /infiltration

Infiltration: is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Infiltration
is governed by two forces, gravity, and capillary action. While smaller pores offer greater
resistance to gravity, very small pores pull water through capillary action in addition to and
even against the force of gravity.
Infiltrated water first meets the soil moisture deficiency if any, and thereafter the excess
water moves vertically downward to reach the ground water table. This vertical movement
of water is called percolation.
Infiltration capacity: is the maximum rate at which the soil in any condition is capable of
absorbing water. In dry soil, water infiltrates rapidly. This is called the initial infiltration
rate. As more water replaces the air in the pores, the water from the soil surface infiltrates
more slowly and eventually reaches a steady rate. This is called the basic infiltration rate
(Table 2.3).
Table 2.3 Basic infiltration rate for various soil types
Soil type Basic infiltration rate (mm/hour)

Sand Less than 20-30
Sandy loam 20-30
Loam 10-20
Clay loam 5-10
Clay 1-5
17
Infiltration rate is the velocity or speed at which water enters the soil. It is usually measured
by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that can enter the soil in one hour. An infiltration
rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water layer of 15 mm on the soil surface will take one hour
to infiltrate.
Table 1.4 Classification of infiltration rate
Class Rate (cm/hr)

Very rapid > 25.4
Rapid 12.7-25.4
Moderately rapid 6.3-12.7
Moderately 2.0-6.3
Moderately slow 0.5-2.0
Slow 0.1-0.5
Very slow <0.1
Fig. 2.6 Infiltration rate
1.3.4.4. Factors affecting the infiltration rate

The rate of infiltration is affected by soil characteristics including ease of entry, storage
capacity, and transmission rate through the soil.
❖ Intensity of rainfall: if the intensity of rainfall is more, the impact of rain drop on the
soil surface cause fines in the soils to be displaced and these in turn can clog the pore
spaces in the upper layer and hence infiltration reduces.
❖ Soil temperature: if temperature is more, infiltration is more. Because an increase in
temperature decreases the viscosity of water. At low viscosity, water move faster
through soil thereby increasing the infiltration rate.
❖ Soil and characteristics: The soil texture and structure, vegetation types and cover,
water content of the soil, For example, coarse-grained sandy soils have large spaces
between each grain and allow water to infiltrate quickly. The amount of moisture
present in the soil has an important effect on the infiltration. If the soil is initially dry,
upper layer wet at faster rate during rainfall or irrigation.
❖ Vegetation cover: considerable increase of infiltration rate takes place when the soil
has full dense vegetation cover. Vegetation cover decreases runoff rate and the soil
surface cannot be compacted by rain drop. And, vegetation cover provides a layer of
de creates more porous soils by both protecting the soil from pounding rainfall, which
can close natural gaps between soil particles, and loosening soil through root action.
Therefore, forested are decaying of organic matter which encourage the activities of
burrowing animals and insects.
❖ Turbid water: turbid water takes time to infiltrate and hence it has the diminishing
influence of infiltration capacity.
18
❖ Compaction of soil: artificial man-made compaction of soil like heavy agricultural

vehicle, over grazing and etc. are cause to decreases the infiltration.
1.3.4.5. Measurement of Infiltration

On the field infiltration is measured using tension infiltrometer, lysimeter, and double ring
infiltrometer and rainfall simulator. Double ring infiltrometer is commonly used for
measuring infiltration rate. The cylinders are usually about 25 cm height and are formed of
2 mm thick rolled steel. The inner cylinder, from which the infiltration measurements are
taken, is usually 30 cm in diameter. The outer cylinder, which is used to form the buffer pond
is about 60 cm in diameter. The cylinders are installed up to 10 cm deep in the soil. The
cylinders are driven into the ground by a falling weight type hammer striking on a wooden
plank placed on top of the cylinder or by light blows with an ordinary hammer.
Fig. 2.7 Methods of infiltration measurement
1.4. Soil Water Measurement

Measurement of soil water is essential for proper scheduling of irrigation and estimating the
amount of water needed for irrigation. Since soil water is most dynamic, knowledge in on
change in soil water content from time to time is important for proper monitoring of water
management practices both in irrigated and rainfall farming.
1.5. Methods of soil water measurement

The various methods of soil water measurement are the following:
1. Feel or appearance of soil method

2. Gravimetric methods
3. Tensiometric method
4. Electrical resistance method
5. Pressure Plate and pressure membrane apparatus methods
19
6. Neutron scattering method
1.6. Crop Characteristics

Crop rooting depth defines the depth of the soil profile from which the crop can extract soil
water. Crop rooting depth varies with crop species, type, and stage of growth. Annual crops
planted from seed each year will typically have very shallow root zones (6 inches or less)
upon crop emergence. Generally, root zone expansion with depth progresses linearly to
maximum rooting depths as the crop develops above-ground vegetative cover to a stage
called full effective cover. This occurs approximately when 70% of the ground surface is
shaded by the crop canopy. Perennial crops may exhibit similar root zone expansion during
the first year of establishment, or the process may take several years, as in the case of tree
and vine crops. Once a perennial crop has established its maximum effective rooting depth,
that value is used in the determination of available soil water.
Some crops have a greater ability to penetrate the soil with their roots. Thus, soil depth, soil
layering, and crop rooting characteristics must be considered in determining the soil volume
from which the crop is extracting water and nutrients. In any case, soil water which moves
below or is already present below the crop rooting depth is practically unavailable. Some
upward movement of water from deeper in the soil profile into the crop root zone may occur
in response to tension gradients. This will be particularly true in situations in which water
tables are only a few feet deep.
Crops extract soil water in varying proportions with depth into the root zone. Crop rooting
density with depth is generally not uniform. The irrigation regime (rate and timing of
irrigation applications) under which a crop is produced as well as soil characteristics affects
root density and distribution with depth. Studies have shown that under high frequency
irrigation, such as with centre pivot sprinkle systems, crops expected to have a four foot
rooting zone in deep uniform soil were extracting water only to depths of 18 to 24 inches in
the profile.
Typically, 70-80% of a crop's water uptake will be from the top half of the rooting depth.
Figure 3 shows an idealized plant water extraction pattern. It is important to remember that
if soil depth is shallow or if a soil layer impedes root or water penetration, this depth is the
effective rooting depth.
Fig. 2.9 crop water up take with rooting depth
20
Chapter Three
Crop Water Requirement
3.1. Introduction
The crop water requirement/need (ET crop) is defined as the depth (or amount) of water
needed to meet the water loss through evapotranspiration. In other words, it is the amount
of water needed by the various crops to grow optimally. The crop water need always refers
to a crop grown under optimal conditions, i.e., a uniform crop, actively growing, completely
shading the ground, free of diseases, and favorable soil conditions (including fertility and
water). The crop thus reaches its full production potential under the given environment. In
addition to evapotranspiration demands, water requirement also includes losses during the
application of irrigation water and the quantity of water required for special operations such
as land preparation, transplanting, leaching etc.
𝐶𝑊𝑅 = ET + App. losses + Spe. need 3.1
Crop water requirement (CWR) is therefore, the ‘demand’ and ‘supply’ that would consist of
contributions from irrigation water (IR), effective rainfall (Pe) and soil profile contributions
(S). Therefore crop water requirement can also be expressed as.
CWR = IR + Pe + S 3.2
3.2. Important definitions
3.2.1. Evaporation
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapor (vaporization)
and removed from the evaporating surface (vapor removal). Water evaporates from a
variety of surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils, and wet vegetation.
Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapor. The
energy refers to the energy or heat required to vaporize free water. This energy, known as
the latent heat of vaporization (λ), is a function of the water temperature. For example, at
20°C, λ is about 2.45 MJ/ kg. In other words, 2.45 MJ are needed to vaporize 1 kg or 0.001 M3
of water.
Where the evaporating surface is the soil surface, the degree of shading of the crop canopy
and the amount of water available at the evaporating surface are other factors that affect the
evaporation process.
3.2.2. Transpiration
Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and the
vapor removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through stomata.
These are small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapor pass.
Transpiration, like direct evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapor pressure
21
gradient and wind. Hence, radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should
be considered when assessing transpiration.
The transpiration rate is influenced by the soil water content, the ability of the soil to conduct
water to the roots, water logging and soil water salinity, crop characteristics, environmental
aspects, and cultivation practices. Different kinds of plants may have different transpiration
rates.
3.2.3. Evapotranspiration (ET)

Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of
distinguishing between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil,
the evaporation from a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar
radiation reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the
crop develops and the crop canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop
is small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed
and completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process. The schematic
presentation of Evapotranspiration is shown in figure 3.1.
Fig 3.1 Evapotranspiration
Both evaporation and transpiration are depending on the energy supply, vapor pressure
gradient and wind. Hence, radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed should
be considered when assessing them.
3.2.4. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the
reference crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ETo.
The reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The
concept of ETo was introduced to study the evaporative demand of the atmosphere
independently of crop type, crop development stage and management practices. As water is
abundant at the evapotranspiring surface, soil factors do not affect evapotranspiration.
Relating evapotranspiration to a specific surface provides a reference to which
22
evapotranspiration from other surfaces can be related. It removes the need to define a
separate evapotranspiration level for each crop and stage of growth.
Hence, the only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. As a result, ETo is a climatic
parameter such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed. ETo expresses
the evaporative demand of the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and
does not consider crop and soil factors.
3.2.5. Potential evapotranspiration

It is defined as the maximum quantity of water lost by an actively growing crop covering
more than 50 percent of the ground surface and well supplied with water in a given climate
in a specified period
3.2.6. Crop evapotranspiration under standard condition (ETc)

The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions, denoted as ETc, is the
evapotranspiration from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields under
optimum soil water conditions and achieving full production under the given climatic
conditions. The values of ETc and CWR (Crop Water Requirements) are identical, whereby
ETc refers to the amount of water lost through evapotranspiration and CWR refers to the
amount of water that is needed to compensate for the loss.
ETc can be calculated from climatic data by directly integrating the effect of crop
characteristics into ET0. Using recognized methods, an estimation of ET0 is done.
Experimentally determined ratios of ETc/ ET0, called crop coefficients (Kc), is used to relate
ETc to ET0 as given in the following equation:
ETc or CWR = ETo ∗ Kc 3.3
Differences in leaf anatomy, stomata characteristics, aerodynamic properties and even

albedo (solar radiation reflected by the surface) cause ETc to differ from ETo under the same
climatic conditions. Due to variations in crop characteristics throughout its growing season,
Kc for a given crop changes from sowing till harvest.
3.3. Methods of determining of evapotranspiration or consumptive use of crop

(ETc)
Actually various methods have been in use to determine the crop water requirement or the
consumptive use of the crop. These methods are mainly classified under the following broad
classifications.
➢ Direct measurement
➢ Pan evaporimeter and
➢ Using empirical formula
23
3.3.1. Direct measurement

These are the field measurement methods that directly measure or calculate crop
evapotranspiration. However, they are very expensive and mainly used to provide data to
calibrate indirect methods for estimating evapotranspiration from climate data. Generally,
they are including:
a. Lysimeter
b. Field experimentation
c. Soil water depletion or soil moisture studies
d. Inflow-outflow methods mainly for large fields
3.3.2. Pan Evaporimeter method
Evaporation from an open water surface provides an index of the integrated effect of
radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind on evapotranspiration. However,
differences in the water and cropped surface produce significant differences in the water
loss from an open water surface and the crop. The pan has proved its practical value and
used successfully to estimate reference evapotranspiration by observing the evaporation
loss from a water surface and applying empirical coefficient to relate pan evaporation to ETo.
The relationship can be presented as
𝐸𝑇𝑜 = 𝐾𝑝 ∗ 𝐸𝑝 3.4
𝐸𝑇𝐶 = 𝐾𝑐 ∗ 𝐸𝑇0 3.5
The advantage of this method is easy to measure the relative evaporation rate on the field/on
time field measurement. The disadvantage are data influenced by pan placement and type,
water in pan stores and releases water differently than crop, edge effects on heating of pan.
Pan factor (Kp) is determined by average daily wind speed and mean relative humidity. The
value is varying between 0.35 to 0.85. Average value is 0.7
3.3.3. Estimating evapotranspiration by Empirical formula
Empirical methods involve estimating potential evapotranspiration or reference crop

evapotranspiration from climatological parameters using various empirical formulae. The
reason for use of the different empirical formulae was earlier difficulties in direct
measurement of water requirement of crop. Meteorologists developed methods to estimate
amount of water needed to obtain optimal crop yields based essentially on
➢ Climatological data (weather data)

➢ Crop coefficients
➢ To some extent other factors
1. Blaney and Criddle method
24
In 1962, Blaney and Criddle proposed an empirical relation which is used largely by
irrigation engineers to calculate crop water requirement of various crops. Estimation of crop
water requirement (consumptive use) is carried out by correlating it with sunshine
temperature. Sunshine at a place is dependent on latitude of the place and varies with month
of the year.
Table 4.4 Monthly day time hours (P) to be used by Blaney-Criddle Formula
Lat.0 N Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
0 8.5 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.5 8.22 8.5 8.49 8.21 8.5 8.22 8.5
10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.6 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.1
15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.8 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88
20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9 9.25 8.96 8.3 8.18 7.58 7.66
25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.4 7.42
30 7.3 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15
35 7.05 6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86
40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52
42 6.63 6.65 8.31 9 10.14 10.22 10.35 9.62 8.4 7.69 6.62 6.37
44 6.49 6.58 8.3 9.06 10.26 10.38 10.49 9.7 8.41 7.63 6.49 6.21
46 6.34 6.5 8.29 9.12 10.39 10.54 10.64 9.79 8.42 7.57 6.36 6.04
48 6.17 6.41 8.27 9.18 10.53 10.71 10.8 9.89 8.44 7.51 6.23 5.86
50 5.98 6.3 8.24 9.24 10.68 10.91 10.99 10 8.46 7.45 6.1 5.65
PET for a crop during its growing season is given by
𝐸𝑇𝑐 = ∑𝐾𝑐 ∗ 𝐸𝑇0 3.6
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 , 𝐸𝑇0 = (0.0457 ∗ 𝑇𝑚 + 0.8128) ∗ 𝑃 3.7
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑇𝑚 = ( ) 3.8
2
Here Kc is the monthly crop coefficient to be determined from experimental data, ETo the
monthly consumptive use factor, ETc is the crop water requirement in cm, Tm the mean
monthly temperature in 0C, P is the monthly hours of bright sunshine in the year Tmax is
maximum monthly temperature and Tmin is monthly minimum temperature.
Example 3.1
Use Blaney-Criddle method to calculate consumptive use (CU or ETc) for rice crop grown
from January to March at latitude 220 N from the following data taken from a nearby
observatory. Find the net irrigation demand for rice using the given rainfall during crop
period and Kc vale is =1.1.
25
Month January February March

Temperature ( 12
0 16 24
C)
2. Hargreaves method
0.0864R a
ET = fc ∗ (Tmax − Tmin )0.5 (Tmean + 17.8) 3.8
λ
Where fc =the original calibration facto (0.0023)
Ra = extraterrestrial radiation (w/m2)
Tmax, Tmin, Tmean = daily maximum, minimum and mean air temperature respectively in (0C)
0.0864
The ratio was used to convert energy unit (w/m2) to mm per day.
𝜆
3.3.4. Crop coefficient (Kc)

The crop coefficient is an important parameter when determining of the crop water
requirement. It is the ratio of ETc to ETo and it is crop specific and expresses potential
evaporative demand of a particular crop in relation to ETo. The value of Kc largely depends
on the level of ground cover and the frequency with which the soil is wetted by rain and/or
irrigation. The Kc values follow a general curve of figure 3.2. For most crops, Kc increases
from a low value (0.5–0.9) during the initial stages of growth, to a maximum value (0.9–1.2)
during the period when the crop reaches full development, and declines again (0.3–0.9) as
the crop matures. The Kc values for the initial crop development stage are related to ET0 and
frequency of irrigation or rain. The crop growing season can be divided into four stages, as
follows:
✓ Initial stage: includes germination and early growth when the soil surface is mostly
bare and hence, ground covers less than 10%.
✓ Crop development stage: covers the period from the initial stage to effective full
ground cover from 10% to 80%.
✓ Mid-season stage: from effective full ground cover to the start of maturation as
indicated by the changes in leaf color or dropping of leaves.
✓ Late stage: from the end mid season stage to full maturity to harvest.
The crop coefficient integrates the effect of characteristics that distinguish a typical field crop
from the grass reference, which has a constant appearance and a complete ground cover.
Consequently, different crops will have different Kc coefficients. The changing characteristics
of the crop over the growing season also affect the Kc coefficient.
26
Crops Initial Crop Mid-season Late & Depth of Root Depletion

development harvest system (cm) level (%)
Seasonal
Cabbage 0.45 (20) 0.75 (25) 1.05 (60) 0.90 (15) 40-50 0.45
Carrot 0.45 (20) 0.75 (30) 1.05 (30) 0.90 (20) 50-100 0.35
Cotton 0.45 (30) 0.75 (50) 1.15 (55) 0.75 (45) 100-170 0.65
Maize 0.40 (20) 0.75 (35) 1.15 (40) 0.75 (30) 100-200 0.6
Onion 0.50 (20) 0.75 (45) 1.05 (20) 0.85 (10) 30-50 0.25
Pepper 0.35 (30) 0.75 (35) 1.05 (40) 0.90 (20) 50-100 0.25
Potato 0.45 (25) 0.75 (30) 1.15 (30) 0.75 (20) 40-60 0.25
Rice 1.05 (30) 1.2 (30) 1.2 (80) 0.9 (40) 10
Sorghum 0.35 (20) 0.75 (30) 1.11 (40) 0.65 (30) 100-200 0.55
Sesame 1.1 (20) 1,1 (30) 1.1 (40) 0.35 (20) 20 0.6
Tomato 0.45 (25) 0.75 (40) 1.15 (40) 0.80 (25) 70-150 0.4
Wheat 0.35 (15) 0.75 (30) 1.15 (65) 0.70 (40) 100-150 0.55
Alfalfa 0.35 0.85 100-200
Banana 0.5 1.1 50-90
Citrus 0.3 0.65 120-150
3.4. Effective rainfall

Defined as that part of the rainfall which is effectively used by the crop after rainfall losses
due to surface run off, evaporation and deep percolation have been accounted for. The
effective rainfall is the rainfall ultimately used to determine the crop irrigation requirements.
In other words, the effective rainfall (8) is the total rainfall (1) minus runoff (4) minus
evaporation (5) and minus deep percolation (7); only the water retained in the root zone (8)
can be used by the plants, and represents what is called the effective part of the rainwater.
The term effective rainfall is used to define this fraction of the total amount of rainwater
useful for meeting the water need of the crops. Mathematically effective rainfall is estimated
using FAO empirical formula that is:
27
𝑃𝑒 = 0.6𝑃 − 10 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃 < 75𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 3.9

𝑃𝑒 = 0.8𝑝 − 25 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃 > 75𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 3.10
P = Monthly mean rainfall
3.5. Factors influencing effective rainfall

Many factors influence the amount of the effective rainfall. There are factors which the
farmer cannot influence (e.g. the climate and the soil texture) and those which the farmer
can influence (e.g. the soil structure).
3.5.1. Climate
The climate determines the amount, intensity and distribution of rainfall which have direct
influence on the effective rainfall
3.5.2. Soil texture

In coarse textured soil, water infiltrates quickly but a large part of it percolates below the
root zone. In fine textured soil, the water infiltrates slowly, but much more water is kept in
the root zone than in coarse textured soil.
3.5.3. Soil structure

The condition of the soil structure greatly influences the infiltration rate and therefore the
effective rainfall. A favourable soil structure can be obtained by cultural practices (e.g.
ploughing, mulching, ridging, etc.).
3.5.4. Depth of the root zone

Soil water stored in deep layers can be used by the plants only when roots penetrate to that
depth. The depth of root penetration is primarily dependent on the type of crop, but also on
the type of soil. If the root zone is thicker, more water available to the plants.
3.6. Irrigation water requirement (IWR)

Irrigation water requirement is the water that must be supplied through the irrigation
system to ensure that the crop receives its full crop water requirement. If irrigation is the
only source of water supply for the plant, then the irrigation requirement will be at least
equal to the crop water requirement, and If the crop receives some of its water from other
sources (rainfall, water stored in the soil, underground seepage, etc.), then the irrigation
requirement can be considerably less than the crop water requirement. And it is
mathematically expressed as:
IWR = ETc − Pe 3.11
Where ETc is crop water equipment or crop evapotranspiration and Pe is effective rainfall.
Estimating the crop and irrigation water requirements for a proposed cropping pattern is an
essential part of the planning and design of an irrigation system. The irrigation water
requirement (IWR) is one of the principal parameters for the planning, design and operation
28
of irrigation and water resources systems. Detailed knowledge of the IWR quantity and its
temporal and spatial variability is essential for assessing the adequacy of water resources,
for evaluating the need of storage reservoirs and for the determining the capacity of
irrigation systems. It is a parameter of prime importance in formulating the policy for
optimal allocation of water resources as well as in decision-making in the day-to-day
operation and management of irrigation systems.
Incorrect estimation of the IWR may lead to serious failures in the system performance and
to the waste of valuable water resources. It may result in inadequate control of the soil
moisture regime in the root zone; it may cause water logging, salinity or leaching of nutrients
from the soil. It may lead to the inappropriate capacities of the irrigation network or of
storage reservoirs, to low water use efficiency and to a reduction in the irrigated area. Over-
estimating IWR at peak demand may also result in increased development costs.
3.6.1. Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)

It is the amount irrigation water required in order to meet the evapotranspiration need of
the crop as well as other needs such as leaching and mathematically it is expressed as
NIR = ETc − (Pe + Ge + Wb ) + LR 3.12
Where Ge is ground water contribution from water table (mm) Wb water stored in the soil
at the beginning of each period (mm) LR is leaching requirement (mm), ETc crop
evapotranspiration (mm), Pe effective rainfall (mm).
3.6.2. Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR)

The gross irrigation requirements account for losses of water incurred during conveyance
and application to the field. This is expressed in terms of efficiencies when calculating project
gross irrigation requirements from net irrigation requirements, as shown below:
𝑁𝐼𝑅
𝐺𝐼𝑅 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 irrigation efficiency 3.13
𝐸
3.7. Difference between CWR and IWR
It is important to make a distinction between crop water requirement (CWR) and irrigation
water requirement (IWR). Whereas crop water requirement refers to the water used by
crops for cell construction and transpiration, the irrigation water requirement is the water
that must be supplied through the irrigation system to ensure that the crop receives its full
crop water requirement. Crop water requirement (CWR) and irrigation water requirement
(IWR) can be best described with the following mathematical functions:
CWR= f(weather, crop)
IWR= f(weather, crop, soil, rainfall, irrigation method, depth to water-table or saturated
layer)
29
Distinguishing characteristics of crop water requirement and irrigation water requirement

are given below:
Crop water requirement Irrigation water requirement

1. It is a function of weather and crop 1. It involves additional factors other than the
weather and crop
2. Normally it is less than the 2. Normally it is higher than the crop water
irrigation Requirement
water requirement
3. It is not a function of soil and 3. It depends on soil type and irrigation method
irrigation method
4. It does not depend on rainfall (but 4. Irrigation water requirement decreases if
on there is any rainfall
temperature and humidity)
5. It is not a function of depth to water- 6. It decreases with the contribution of
table or saturated layer upward flow from the water-table or
saturated layer
3.8. Factors affecting crop water need

The following are the factors that affect the water requirement of crops
a. Water table if the water table is nearer to the ground surface, the water requirement
will be less. If it is much below the ground surface, the water requirement will be
more.
b. Climate in hot climate, the evaporation loss is more and hence the water
requirement will be more and vice versa.
c. Ground slope if the slope of the ground is steep, the water flow down very quickly
and the soil gets little time to absorb requisite moisture resulting in water losses. So
the water requirement will be more. But if the ground is flat, the water flows slowly
and the soil gets sufficient time to absorb requisite moisture. So the water
requirement is less.
d. Intensity of irrigation if the intensity of irrigation for a particular crop is high, then
more area comes under the irrigation system and water requirement is more and
vice versa
e. Type of soil in sandy soil water percolate very quickly and cannot be retained. So,
water requirement is more. But the clayey soil can retain water near the root zone of
crops. So, it requires less water
f. Method of application of water in surface method more water is required to meet
evaporation loss. In sub-surface method less water is required as the soil just absorbs
the optimum moisture. In sprinkler method also less water is required as it just the
soil like rainwater.
g. Method of ploughing in deep ploughing (e.g. by tractor) less water is required
because the soil can retain moisture for longer period. But in shallow ploughing (e.g.
30
by bullocks or oxen) more water is required as the soil cannot retain moisture for a
longer period due to evaporation.
Chapter four
Irrigation method
4.1. Introduction
Water is the basic need of plant for all metabolic and production processes within. A crop is
grown in different land situations, soil type, climate conditions, seasons, and water supply
situations. Besides, crops differ in their structures and habits. Their water requirements thus
vary widely. Water management pertains to optimum and efficient use of water for best
possible crop production keeping water losses to the minimum.
The way water is applied to the land is commonly referred to as irrigation method. These
methods are adopted to apply irrigation water to the crop depending on the landscape,
amount of water and equipment available, the crop and method of cultivation of crop. The
main aim of these methods is to store water in the effective root zone uniformly and in
maximum quantity ensuring minimum water loss and to get optimum yield.
Adequate water supply is important for plant growth to increase crop yield. And when
rainfall is not sufficient, the plants must receive additional water from irrigation. Therefore,
to supply water by irrigation, there are different methods and each method has its
advantages and disadvantages. These should be considered when choosing the method
which is best suited to the local circumstances. As indicated on figure 4.1 there are four
commonly used methods:
4.2. Surface Irrigation

Surface irrigation refers to irrigating lands by allowing water to flow over the soil surface
from a supply channel at upper reach of the field. Principals involved in surface irrigation
are: Field is divided into plots or strips to uniformly irrigate the soil to a desired depth
throughout. In this system of field water application, the water is applied directly to the soil
from a channel located at the upper reach of the field. It is essential in these methods to
construct designed water distribution systems to provide adequate control of water to the
fields and proper land preparation to permit uniform distribution of water over the field.
The surface irrigation method is classified in to three parts:
➢ Basin irrigation
➢ Furrows irrigation and
➢ Borders irrigation method.
1.2.1. Basin irrigation

Basins are flat areas of land surrounded by low bunds. The bunds prevent the water from
flowing to the adjacent fields. The basins are filled to desired depth and the water is retained
until it infiltrates into the soil and water may be maintained for considerable periods of time.
31
Fig. 4.1 common methods of irrigation
Basin irrigation method can be formally divided into two; the check basin (rectangular and
contour) method and the ring basin method. In check basin method, the land to be irrigated
is divided into small plots or basins surrounded by checks, levees (low bunds) and each plot
or basin has a nearly level surface. The irrigation water is applied by filling the plots with
water up to the desired depth without overtopping the levees and the water retained there
is allowed to infiltrate into the soil. The levees may be constructed for temporary use or may
be semi-permanent for repeated use as for paddy cultivation. The size of the levees depends
on the depths of water to be impounded as on the stability of the soil when wet. Water is
conveyed to the cluster of check basins by a system of supply channels and lateral field
channels or ditches. In this subtopic will discussed which crops can be grown in basins,
which land slopes are acceptable and which soil type are most suitable for basin irrigation
methods.
32
a. Suitable Land Slope

The flatter the land surfaces the easier to construct basin. On flat land only minor leveling
may be required to obtain level basin. It is also possible o construct basin on slopping land
even when the slope is quite steep. Level basin can be constructed like the steps of staircase
and these are called terraces.
b. Suitable soils
Which soils are suitable for basin irrigation depends on the crop grown? A distinction must
be made between rice and non-rice or other crops. Paddy rice is best grown on sandy soils
but percolation losses will be high unless a high-water table can be maintained. Although
most other crops can be grown on clays, loamy soils are preferred for basin irrigation so that
water logging (permanent saturation of the soil) can be avoided. Coarse sands are not
recommended for basin irrigation as due to high infiltration rate, percolation losses can be
high. Also soils which form hard crust when dry (capping) are not suitable.
c. Basin layout
Basin layout not only refers to the shape and size of basins but also to the shape and size of
the bunds. What is the shape of the basin: square, rectangular of irregular? What is the size
of the basin: 10, 100, 1000 or 10000 m2? How high should the bund be: 10, 50 or 100 cm?
What is the shape of the bund? These aspects are discussed in the following sections.
I. Shape and size of basins

The shape and size of basins are mainly depends by the land slope, the soil type, the available
stream size (the water flow to the basin), the required depth of the irrigation application and
farming practices.
II. Basin width

The main limitation on the width of a basin is the land slope. If the land slope is steep, the
basin should be narrow; otherwise too much earth movement will be needed to obtain level
basins. Table 4.1 provides some guidance on the maximum width of basins or terraces,
depending on the land slope. Three other factors which may affect basin width are:
➢ Depth of fertile soil

➢ Method of basin construction and
➢ Agricultural practices
Table 4.1 approximate values for the maximum or terrace width (m)
Slope % Maximum width

Average Range
0.2 45 35-55
0.3 37 30-45
0.4 32 25-40
0.5 28 20-35
0.6 25 20-30
33
0.8 22 15-30
1.0 20 15-25
1.2 17 10-20
1.5 13 10-20
2.0 10 5-15
3.0 7 5-10
4.0 5 3-8
If the top soil is shallow, there is a danger of exposing the infertile sub soil when the terraces
are excavated. This can be avoided by reducing the width of basins and thus limiting the
depth of excavation. Basin can be quite narrow if they are constructed by hand labor but will
need to be wider if machines are used so that the machines can easily be moved around.
If hand or animal powered tillage is used then basins can be much narrower than if machines
are used for cultivation. If machines are there, it is important to make sure that basin widths
are some multiple of the width of the machines for efficient mechanization.
III. Basin size
The size of basin depends not only on the slope but also on the soil type and the available
water flow to the basin (stream size). The relationship between soil types, stream size and
size of the basin is given in table 4.2 values are based on practical experience, and have been
adjusted in particular to suit small-scale irrigation conditions.
Table 4.2 suggested maximum basin area (m) for various soil types and available stream sizes (l/sec)
Stream size (l/sec) Sandy Sandy loam Clay loam Clay

5 35 100 200 350
10 65 200 400 650
15 100 300 600 1000
30 200 600 1200 2000
60 400 1200 2400 4000
90 600 1800 3600 6000
Table 4.3 Example of how to estimate basin sizes
Questions Estimate the dimension of basin, when the slope type is a deep clay loam and the
land slope is 1% as basin construction is mechanized; the terraces should be as
wide as possible. The available stream size is 25 l/sec.
Answer From table 4.1 the maximum basin or terrace width for a slope of 1% is 25 m (range
15-25).
From table 4.2 the maximum basin size for a clay loam soil and an available stream
size of 25 l/sec is 1000 m2.
If the total basin area is 1000 m2 and basin size is 25 m, the maximum basin length
is 1000/25= 40m.
34
Note This example shows how to estimate the maximum basin dimensions. This basin
can be made smaller than this if required and still be irrigated efficiently with the
available stream size.
The size of the basin is also influenced by the depth in mm of the irrigation application. If the
required irrigation depth is large, the basin can be large. Similarly, if the required depth is
small, then the basin should be small to obtain good water distribution.
The size and shape of basins can often be limited by farming practice. Most farms in
developing countries are very small and cultivation is by hand. In these circumstance basins
are usually small as they are easy to level and efficient irrigation can be attained with
relatively small stream sizes. On the large mechanized farms, basins are generally made as
large as possible to provide large uninterrupted areas for machine movements. Basin
dimensions are chosen to be some multiple of the width of the machines to use the
equipment as efficiently as possible. Other reasons to make basins as large as possible are
that less land is wasted in this way (less bunds) and large steam sizes and a relatively large
application depth can be used.
The shape of the basin can be square or rectangular or irregular. The shape is mainly
determined by the slope. On steep and irregular sloping lands, the basins may be long and
narrow. The long side of the basin is along the contour line. If the slope and thus the contour
line are irregular, the shape of the basin will also be irregular.
Summery to basin irrigation method
Basin should be small if the

➢ Slope of the land is steep
➢ Soil is sandy
➢ Stream size of the basin is small
➢ Required depth of the irrigation application is small
➢ Field preparation is done by hand or animal traction
Basin can be large if the
35
➢ Slope of the land is gentle or flat

➢ Soil is clay
➢ Stream size to the basin is large
➢ Required depth of the irrigation application is large
➢ Field preparation is mechanized
1.2.2. Border irrigation

Borders are usually long uniformly graded strips of land separated by earth bunds (low
ridges). The essential feature of the border irrigation is to provide an even surface over
which the water can flow down the slope with a nearly uniform depth. Each strip is irrigated
independently by turning in a stream of water at the upper end. The water spreads and flow
down the strip in a sheet confined by border ridges. When the advancing water reaches the
lower end of the border, the stream is turned off.
For uniform advancement of water front the borders must be properly leveled. The borders
are sometimes laid along the elevation contours of the topography when the land slope is
excessive.
a. Suitable slopes
Generally, border slopes should be uniform, with a minimum slope of 0.05% to provide
adequate drainage and a maximum slope of 2% to limit problems of soil erosion.
b. Suitable soils
As for the type of soil suitable for border irrigation, deep homogeneous loam or clay soils
with medium infiltration rates are preferred. Heavy, clay soils can be difficult to irrigate with
border irrigation because of the time needed to infiltrate sufficient water into the soil.
c. Border layout/design
Border layout deals with the shape, length and spacing of border. Generally, the shape, length
and spacing are determined by the natural circumstances, i.e., slope, soil type and available
stream size. However, other factors may influence the design of a border system, such as the
irrigation depth, farming practice and the field length.
i. Shape and size of Border

The shape and size of border are mainly depended by the land slope, the soil type, the
available stream size (the water flow to the basin), the required depth of the irrigation
application and farming practices.
ii. Border width
36
Usually vary from 3 to 15 meter depending on the size of the stream available and the degree
of land leveling. It is not economical to keep the width less than 3 meter because wasted
much land for bund construction and sophisticated bund constructions.
iii. Border length

It depends on how quickly it can be wetted uniformly over entire length; entire depends on
infiltration rate, slope of the land and size of the irrigation stream. For moderate slope and
moderate stream size the suggested lengths and slopes are given table 4.4.
Table 4.4 border length
Soil texture Length in meter Slope in %

Sandy and sandy loam 60 to 120 0.25 to 0.6
Medium loam 100 to 180 0.2 to 0.4
Clay clay loam 150 to 300 0.05 to 0.2
iv. Stream size

Size of the stream depends on infiltration capacity of the soil and width of the border.
a. Course textured soils with high infiltration rate, requires larger stream to spread
rapidly on entire strip and to avoid deep percolation losses.
b. Fine textured soil with low infiltration rates; requires smaller streams to avoid
excessive run off losses.
Table 4.5 typical value of stream sizes
Soil type Infiltration rate cm/hr Slope % Stream size/ unit width border
Sandy soil 2.5 0.2 to 0.4 10 to 15
0.4 to 0.65 7 to 10
Loamy sand 1.8 to 2.5 0.2 to 0.4 7 to 15
0.4 to 0.6 5 to 8
Sandy loam 1.2 to 1.8 0.2 to 0.4 5 to 7
0.4 to 0.6 4 to 6
Clay loam 0.6 to 0.8 0.15 to 0.3 3 to 4
0.3 to 0.4 2 to 3
Clay 0.2 to 0.6 0.1 to 0.2 2 to 4
1.2.3. Furrow irrigation method

Furrows are small, parallel channels, made to carry water in order to irrigate the crop. The
crop is usually grown on the ridge between the furrows. Furrow irrigation is suitable for a
wide range of soil types, crops, and land slopes, as indicated below.
a. Suitable crops
37
Furrow irrigation is suitable for many crops, especially row crops. If water covered their
stem or crown should be irrigated by furrows crops that grown would be damaged. Furrow
irrigation is also suited to the growing of tree crops. In the stages of tree planting, one furrow
alongside the tree row may be sufficient but as the trees develop then two or more furrows
can be constructed to provide sufficient water. In summary, the following crops can be
irrigated by furrow irrigation.
➢ Row crops such as maize, sunflower, sugarcane, soybean

➢ Crops that would be damaged by inundation, such as tomatoes, vegetables, potatoes,
beans
➢ Fruit tree such as citrus, grape
➢ Broadcast crops such as wheat.
b. Suitable slopes
Uniform flat or gentle slopes are preferred for furrow irrigation. These should not exceed
0.5% usually a gentle furrow slope is provided up to 0.05% to assists drainage following
irrigation or excessive rainfall with high intensity.
c. Suitable soils
Furrows can be used on most soil types. However as with all surface irrigation methods, very
coarse sands are not recommended as percolation losses can be high. Soils that crust easily
are especially suited to furrow irrigation because the water does not flow over the ridge and
so the soil in which the plants grow remain friable.
d. Furrow layout
Furrow layout deals with the shape, length and spacing of furrows. Generally, the shape,
length and spacing are determined by the natural circumstances, i.e. slope, soil type and
available stream size. However, other factors may influence the design of a furrow system,
such as the irrigation depth, farming practice and the field length.
i. Furrow length
Furrow must be on consonance with the slope, the soil type, the stream size, the irrigation
depth, the cultivation practice and the field length. The impact of these factors on the furrow
length is discussed below.
ii. Furrow spacing
The spacing of furrows is influenced by the soil type and the cultivation practice. Most of the
time, furrow can be spaced to fit the crop grown. In most cases one furrow is provided for
each row of plant. The crops like potatoes, maize and cotton are planted 60 to 90 cm apart
and have one row of plants between two rows. However, vegetable crops such as carrot,
onions etc., are spaced at 30 to 40 cm apart and often have two rows of plants between two
furrows. In orchards, furrows may be spaced 1 to 2 meters apart in some cases; the furrow
may be as much as 3 to 4 meters. In general, furrow should be spaced close enough to ensure
38
that water spreads to the sides in the land between the furrows and root zone of the crop is
replenished with moisture uniformity.
Fig 4.2 furrow spacing
iii. Slope
Although furrows can be longer when the land slope is steeper, the maximum recommended
furrow slope is 0.5% to avoid soil erosion. Furrow can also be level and are thus very similar
to long narrow basins. However, a minimum grade of 0.05% is recommended so that
effective drainage can occur following irrigation or excessive rainfall.
Slope of furrows controls the velocity of flow of water in the furrow. As the slope of furrow
increase, infiltration slows down, more erosion in the soil and side spread of water into land
decreases. With the rest, wastage may occur at the end. If slope are less, results in impeded
drainage and deep percolation losses. In general the slopes adapted in border irrigation may
be adapted to furrows also. A minimum furrow slope of 0.05% is needed to ensure surface
drainage. In soils having low infiltration rate furrows are usually level in which water is
ponded until it is absorbed by the soil.
iv. Stream size
Normally stream size up to 0.5 l/sec will provide an adequate irrigation provided the
furrows are not too long. When larger stream sizes are available, water will move rapidly
down the furrows and so generally furrows can be longer. The maximum stream size that
will not cause of erosion will obviously depend on the furrow slope; in any case it is advised
not to use stream size larger than 3.0 l/sec (see table 4.2). But flow rate needed for adequate
water distribution in a furrow depends on the length and cross section of the furrow and on
the infiltrability and retentivity of the soil. The maximum non-erosive flow can be estimated
with the equation
0.60
𝑄𝑚 = 4.1
𝑆
Where Qm is flow rate and S is slope of the furrow
39
Table 4.2 practical values of maximum furrow lengths (m) depending on slope, soil type, stream size and net
irrigation depth
Furrow Max. Stream size Clay Loam Sand

slope (l/ sec)/ furrow. Net irrigation depth (mm)
(%) 50 75 50 75 50 75
0.0 3.0 100 150 60 90 30 45
0.1 3.0 120 170 90 125 45 60
0.2 2.5 130 180 110 150 60 95
0.3 2.0 150 200 130 170 75 110
0.5 1.2 150 200 130 170 75 110
Important:
This should his table only provides approximate information relating furrow slope, soil type,
stream size and irrigation depth to furrow lengths. This should be used as a guide as the data
are based primarily on field experience and not on any scientific relationships. Maximum
value of furrow length is given for reasonably efficient irrigation. However, furrow lengths
can be even shorter than those given in the table and in general this will help to improve
irrigation efficiency. Only by installing a furrow system, following the guidelines, and then
evaluating its performance can be appropriate system be developed for a given locality.
v. Irrigation depth
Applying larger irrigation depths usually means that furrows can be longer as there is more
time available for water to flow down the furrows and infiltrate. Hence the average depth of
water application can be computed by equation
𝑄 ∗ 3600
𝐷𝑎 = 4.2
𝐹𝑠 ∗ 𝐿𝑆
Where Da is average depth of water application (cm), Q stream size (lps), Fs is furrow spacing
(m) and Lf is length of furrow (m).
vi. Cultivation practice

In mechanized farming a compromise is required between the machinery available to cut
furrows and the ideal spacing for crops. Mechanical equipment will result in less work if a
standard width between the furrows is maintained even when the crops grown normally
require a different planting distance. This way the spacing of the tool attachment does not
need to be changed when the equipment is moved from the crop to another. However, care
is needed to ensure that the standard spacing provide adequate lateral
40
1.3. Subsurface irrigation methods

As suggested by the name, the application of water to fields in this type of irrigation system
is below the ground surface so that it is supplied directly to the root zone of the plants. The
main advantages of these types of irrigation is reduction of evaporation losses and less
hindrance to cultivation works which takes place on the surface.
There may be two ways by which irrigation water may be applied below ground and these
are termed as:
➢ Natural sub-surface irrigation method

➢ Artificial sub-surface irrigation method
These methods are discussed further below
1.3.1. Natural Sub-surface irrigation method

Under favorable conditions of topography and soil conditions, the water table may be close
enough to the root zone of the field of crops which gets its moisture due to the upward
capillary movement of water from the water table. The natural presence of the water table
may not be able to supply the requisite water throughout the crop growing season. However,
it may be done artificially by constructing deep channels in the field which may be filled with
water at all times to ensure the presence of water table at a desired elevation below the root
zone depth. Though this method of irrigation is excellent from both water distributions and
labour saving points of view, it is favorable mostly for the following
➢ The soil in the root zone should be quite permeable

➢ There should be an impermeable substratum below the water table to prevent deep
percolation of water.
➢ There must be abundant supply of quality water that is one which is salt free;
otherwise there are chances of upward movement of these salts along with the
moisture likely to lead the conditions of salt incrustation on the surface.
1.3.2. Artificial Subsurface Irrigation Method

The concept of maintaining a suitable water table just below the root zone is obtained by
providing perforated pipes laid in a network pattern below the soil surface at a desired
depth. This method of irrigation will function only if the soil in the root zone has high
horizontal permeability to permit free lateral movement of water and low vertical
permeability to prevent deep percolation of water. For uniform distribution of water
percolating in to the soil, the pipes are required to be very closely spaced, say at about 0.5 m.
Further, to avoid interference with cultivation the pipes must be buried not less than about
0.4m below the ground surface. This method of irrigation is not very popular because of the
41
high expenses involved, unsuitable distribution of subsurface moisture in many cases, and
possibility of clogging of the perforation of the pipes.
1.4. Sprinkler irrigation method

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is like natural rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. Water under pressure is
carried and sprayed into the air above the crop through a system of overhead perforated
pipes, nozzle line, or through nozzles fitted to riser pipes attached to a system of pipes laid
on the ground. Nozzles of fixed type or rotating under the pressure of water are set at
suitable intervals in the distribution pipes. The sprayed water wets both the crop and the
soil, hence has a refreshing effect. Water is applied at a rate less than the intake rate of soil
so that there occurs no runoff. Measured quantity of water is applied to meet the soil water
depletion.
Fig. 4.3 sprinkler system layout
a. suitable crops
Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed
over the crop canopy. However, large sprinkler are not recommended for irrigation of
delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops produced by the sprinkler may
damage the crop.
b. Suitable slops
Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating. The
lateral pipes supplying water to the sprinkler should be always be laid out along the land
contour whenever possible. This will minimize the pressure changes at the sprinklers and
provide a uniform irrigation.
42
c. Suitable soils
Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are
adaptable to most soils. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is
always chosen to be less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil so that surface ponding
and runoff can be avoided.
Sprinklers are not suitable for soil which easily forms a crust. If sprinkler irrigation is the
only method available, then light fine sprays should be used. The larger sprinklers producing
larger water droplets are to be avoided.
d. Suitable irrigation water

A good supply of water, free of suspended sediments is required to avoid problems of
sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment.
e. Component of sprinkler irrigation

Typically sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components
i. Pump set: pump set is used to force the water through sprinkler system at the
desired pressure. It is important that the pump should be designed to lift the required
amount of water from the source of supply to the heights point in the field and maintained
adequate operating pressure.
ii. Main line: Main line is between source of water and the point at which water is
delivered to the field is the next component. They may be permanent or portable. Permanent
mains are used to best advantage where crops require full season irrigation. And portable
mains are more economical when system is to be used in number of fields.
iii. Lateral lines: these are usually portable. Quick coupled aluminum pipes are best for
most portable laterals. The distance between the sprinkler nozzles along a lateral is termed
as lateral spacing.
iv. Sprinkler heads: it is most important of sprinkler irrigation system. It’s operating
characteristics under optimum water pressure and climatic conditions, mainly the wind
velocity determine its suitability and the efficiency of the system. To get uniform application
the nozzle size, nozzle spacing or both are varied along the length of the lateral
f. Sprinkler system layout
1. Sprinkler discharge
i. The discharge from a sprinkler can be estimated by the formula
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴 ∗ √2𝑔ℎ 4.3
Where Q is discharge cm3/sec, C is sprinkler discharge coefficient which varies from 0.80 to
0.95, A is cross sectional area of nozzle or orifice cm2, g is acceleration due to gravity and h
is pressure head.
43
ii. The required discharge of an individual sprinkler may be estimated by the following
formula as
𝑆𝑙 ∗ 𝑆𝑚 ∗ 𝐼
𝑄= 4.4
360
Where Q is required discharge of an individual sprinkler l/s, Sl is spacing of sprinkler along
the lateral in m, Sm is spacing of lateral along the main in m and I optimum application rate
in cm/h
2. Spread of sprinkler
The area covered by a rotating head sprinkler can be estimated from the formula as
𝑅 = 1.35√𝑑ℎ 4.5
Where R is radius of the wetted area covered by sprinkler in m, d is diameter of nozzle in m

and h is pressure head at the nozzle in m. the maximum coverage is attained when the jet
emerges from the sprinkler an angle of 300 to 320.
3. Rate of water application or precipitation intensity

The rate of water application by an individual nozzle may be decided by the formula as
𝑄
𝑅𝑎 = 4.6
360 ∗ 𝐴
Where Ra is rate of water application in cm/h, Q is rate of discharge of sprinkler l/ s and A is
wetted area of sprinkler m2.
4. Capacity of sprinkler system.

The capacity of a sprinkler system decided by the area to be irrigated, depth of water
needed per irrigation and time during which is necessary to be applied. It may be decided
by the formula as
𝐴∗𝑑
𝑄 = 2780 ∗ 4.7
𝐹∗𝐻∗𝐸
Where Q is discharge capacity of the pump in l/s, A area to be irrigated in ha, d is depth of
each irrigation in cm, F is time allowed to complete one irrigation in days, H is actual
operating hours of the pump/day and E is water application efficiency in percent.
1.5. Drip irrigation method

Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the
soil at very low rates (2-20 liters/ hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted
with outlets called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of
44
the soil in which the roots grow is wetted. Unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, this
involves not wetting the whole soil profile. With drip irrigation water, applications are more
frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than with other methods and this provides a very favorable
high moisture level in the soil in which plants can flourish.
a. Suitable crops
Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (vegetables, soft fruit), tree and vine crops
where one or more emitters can be provided for each plant. Generally, only high value crops
are considered because of the high capital costs of installing a drip system.
b. Suitable slope
Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope. Normally the crop would be planted along
contour lines and the water supply pipes (lateral) would be laid along the contour also. This
is done to minimize change in emitter discharge because of land elevation changes.
c. Suitable soils
One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters. All emitters have
very small waterway ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can become blocked if
water is not clean. Thus, it is essential for irrigation water to be free of sediments. If this is
not so then filtration of the irrigation water will be needed. Blockage may also occur if the
water contains algae, fertilizer deposits and dissolved chemicals which precipitate such as
calcium and iron. Filtration may remove some of the materials but the problem may be
complex to solve and requires an experienced engineer or consultation with the equipment
dealer. Drip irrigation is particularly unsuitable for water of poor quality (saline water).
Dripping water to individual plants also means that the method can be very efficient in water
use. For this reason, it is most suitable when water is scarce.
d. Component of drip irrigation method

A typical drip irrigation system is consisting the following component
1. Pump: The pump unit takes water from the source and provides the right pressure
for delivery in to the pipe system.
2. Control head: The control head consists of valves to control the discharge and
pressure in the entire system. It may also have filters to clear the water. Common types of
filters include screen filters and graded sand filters which remove fine materials suspended
in the water. Some control head units contain a fertilizer a nutrient tank. These slowly add
a measured does of fertilizer into the water during irrigation. This is one of the major
advantages of drip irrigation over other methods.
3. Main lines and laterals: main lines and laterals are supply water from the control
head into the fields. They are usually made from PVC or polyethylene hose and should be
45
buried below ground because they easily degrade when exposed to direct solar radiation.
Lateral pipes are usually 13-32 mm diameter.
4. Emitters or drippers: emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge
of water from the lateral to the plant. They are usually spaced more than 1 meter apart with
one or more emitters used for a single plant as a tree. For row crops more closely spaced
emitters may be used to wet a strip of soil. Many different emitters’ designs have been
produced in recent year. The basis of design is to produce an emitter which will provide a
specified constant discharge which does not vary much with pressure changes and does not
block easily.
The water savings that can be made using drip irrigation are the reductions in deep
percolation, in surface runoff and in evaporation from the soil. These savings, it must be
remembered, depend as much on the user of the equipment as on the equipment itself. Drip
irrigation is not a substitute for other proven methods of irrigation. It is just another way of
applying water. It is best suited to areas where water quality is marginal, land is steeply
sloping or undulating and of poor quality, where or labour are expensive, or where high
value crops require frequent water applications.
46
CHAPTER FIVE
SALINITY PROBLEMS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATED
AGRICULTURE
5.1. Scope and significance of salinity
The term salinity refers to the presence in soil and water of various electrolytic mineral
solutes in concentrations that are harmful to many agricultural crops. Most common among
these solutes are the dissociated cations Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg 2+ and the anions Cl-, SO42-, NO,
HCO, and CO32-. In addition, hyper saline waters may contain trace concentrations of the
elements B, Se, Sr, Li, SiO, Rb, F, MO, Mn, Ba, and Al, some of which may be toxic to plants and
animals?
The productivity of arid land soils is constrained by:
➢ Excess soluble salts

➢ Excess exchangeable sodium
➢ Moisture scarcity / drought
These problems make saline and alkaline soils characteristics feature of arid regions. Salinity
as a problem is all but a universal threat in arid areas where irrigation waters contain
appreciable quantities of soluble/ dissolved salts. In irrigated agriculture, the major sources
of salinity are water table high in salts and in applied water. Therefore, salinity control
should be one of the prime objectives of irrigation management.
In humid regions this problem is peripheral as rain water in these areas is almost free of
dissolved salts. To prevent soil salinity from reaching harmful levels, it is necessary to
remove a portion of the concentrated soil solution from the crop root zone by leaching. For
soils with adequate drainage and infiltration, salts will be leached whenever water
applications exceed evapotranspiration. Therefore, the key to salinity control is a net
downward movement of soil water in the root zone.
5.2. Crop salt tolerance

The adverse effects of salinity in the soil on plant growth vary with the crop being grown.
The presence of salinity in the soil solution resulting from either indigenous salt or that
added by irrigation can affect growth in two ways:
➢ It can reduce the osmotic potential and hence the water potential, thereby reducing
water availability. This is referred to as the osmotic effect (nonspecific salt effect).
➢ It can be increase the concentration of certain ions that have a characteristic toxic
effect on plant metabolism beyond the osmotic effect. This is called specific-ion effect.
47
5.2.1. Osmotic effects

The osmotic potential and Matric potential are additive and under normal field conditions
determine the soil-water potential. Therefore, at any given Matric potential, an increase in
salinity is manifested by a reduction in the value of the total water potential, which is
reflected in a decreasing water uptake by the roots and subsequent reduction in plant
transpiration. The term physiological drought has been applied to the apparent shortage of
water within a plant when growing in a moist saline soil. During this time the osmotic
potential of the plant changes in such a direction as to maintain a constant water potential
gradient between the soils and the plant roots. This is known as osmotic adjustment. The
physiological changes that occur within the plant during the process of osmotic adjustment
have an adverse effect on plant growth. The plant functions that are affected include:
➢ Photosynthesis
➢ Hormone production
➢ Stomata opening
➢ Respiration
However morphological and anatomical changes may help them sustain favorable plant-
water relations and improve the chance of plant survival. The changes involve:
➢ Fewer and smaller leaves

➢ Fewer stomata per unit leaf area
➢ Increased succulence
➢ Thickening of both leaf cuticles and surface layers of wax.
Table 5.1 four groups of plants based on their sensitivity or salt- tolerance
Sensitive Moderately Sensitive Moderately tolerant Tolerant

Onion Alfalfa Oats Barley
Orange Cabbage Sorghum Cotton
Tomato Sweet potato Wheat
<8mmhos/cm 8-16 16-24 24-32
5.2.2. Specific ion effects

Of principal interest in terms of specific ion effects are chloride, sodium, and boron.
Chloride
❖ Exists in a wide range of concentrations in irrigation waters and soils.
❖ A typical symptom the burning of the leaf margins and early leaf drop in citrus
❖ Symptoms appears in sensitive plants when the concentration in leaves is about 0.5%
on a dry weight basis
48
❖ Most agronomic crops can tolerate up to 5-10% without developing injury symptoms.
Table 5.2 Hazardous chloride levels in saturation extract for various fruit varieties
Variety Chloride (meq/l saturation extract)

Mandarin 25
Sour orange 15
Sweet orange 10
Sodium
❖ Leave-burn symptoms occur when leaves of sensitive plants accumulate about 0.25%
on dry weight basis
❖ As ESP increase the more tolerant crops show effects of both poor soil conditions and
unbalanced nutrition. Refer table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Tolerance of various crops to exchangeable sodium percentage
Tolerance to ESP (range Crop Growth responsible under field condition

at which affected)
Extremely sensitive Deciduous fruit, Sodium toxicity symptoms even at low ESP
(ESP= 2-10) Nuts, citrus, avocado
Sensitive (ESP=10-20) Beans Stunted growth at low ESP value even
though the physical condition of the soil
may be good.
Moderately tolerant Clover, oats, rice Stunted growth due to both nutritional
(ESP= 20-40) factors and adverse soil conditions.
Tolerant (ESP=40-60) Wheat, cotton, alfalfa, Stunted growth usually due to adverse
barely, tomato physical condition of soil.
Most tolerant (ESP > 60) Rhode’s grass Stunted growth usually due to adverse
physical condition of soil.
Boron
❖ Unlike chloride and sodium toxicity, affects all crops when even moderately low levels
are present in the soil solution
❖ Boron levels greater than 200 ppm are associated with boron toxicity.
Table 5.4 limits of boron in irrigation water for different degree of boron tolerance
Tolerant ( 4-2 ppm boron) Semi tolerant (2-1 ppm Sensitive (1-0.3 ppm boron
boron)
49
Asparagus, palm, sugar beet, Sunflower, potato, cotton, Pear, apple, grape, peach,
alfalfa, broad bean, onion, tomato, sweet pea, field pea, apricot, orange, avocado,
cabbage, lettuce, and carrot barely, wheat, corn, oat, lemon
pumpkin, sweet potato.
5.2.3. Factors influencing salt tolerance

1. Growth stage 3. Environmental (temperature,
2. Varieties atmospheric humidity)
4. Nutrition
5. Irrigation management
5.3.1. Evaluation of quality of irrigation water

Many problems associated with irrigated agriculture arise from the chemical composition of
the water applied. Since all waters contain varying amounts and different species of salt,
considerable efforts have been expended to classify the quality of water in terms of its
chemical compositions. Therefore, chemical composition of water is a major factor
determining its quality.
The total concentration and the type of constituent ions are parameters to be assessing the
suitability of water for irrigation.
The ion analyzed to determine the suitability of water for irrigation includes:
❖ Cations, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium

❖ Anion: sulfates (SO4-2), chloride (CL-), bicarbonates (HCO3-), carbonates (CO3-2)
❖ Total salinity as measured by electrical conductivity (EC)
❖ Others such as nitrates (NO3-), boron
5.3.2. Criteria for irrigation water quality

There are three characteristics’ that are commonly used to evaluate irrigation water:
❖ Salinity
❖ Sodicity
❖ Toxicity
5.3.2.1. Salinity
Salts of sodium, calcium magnesium and potassium may prove to be injurious in irrigation
water. In excessive quantity these salts reduce the osmotic activity of the plants thus
preventing the absorption of nutrient from the soil. In addition, they may have indirect
chemical effects the metabolism of the plant and may reduce soil permeability.
It is measured by the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract. This is since

electrolytes dissociate into charged ions in the presence of water. Ions carry electric current;
50
the greater the concentration of ions, the greater the current conducting capacity or
electrical conductivity of the soil solution.
The approximate relation of the osmotic potential of a solution to its EC is
𝛹𝑜 = 0.36 ∗ 𝐸𝐶 5.1
Where EC is in mmhos/cm at 25 0C and ψo has the unit of bars.
Since ψo and Ec of a solution are related it seems reasonable to assume that a relation also
exists between concentration and EC. The following relations are in use:
𝐶𝑠 = 640 ∗ 𝐸𝐶 5.2
𝑇𝐶𝑒𝑥 = 10 ∗ 𝐸𝐶 5.3
Where Cs is salt concentration (mg/l or ppm), EC electrical conductivity in mmhos/cm and

TCex is total cation concentration (meq/l).
Hence based on the salt concentration, irrigation water is classified in to six parts (table 5.5).
Table 5.5 Irrigation water quality based on salt concentrations
Classes EC at 25 oC) Salinity Suitability for irrigation

C1 0-250 Low Suitable for all types of crops and all kinds of soils.
Permissible under normal irrigation practices except in
Soil of extremely low permeability.
C2 250-750 Moderate Can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs.
Normal salt tolerant plants can be grown without much
salinity control.
C3 750-2250 Medium Unsuitable for with restricted drainage. Only high –salt
tolerant plants can be grown.
C4 2250-4000 High Unsuitable for irrigation.
C5 4000-6000 Very high
C6 >6000 Excessive
5.3.2.2. Sodicity
High concentration of sodium is undesirable in water because sodium adsorbs onto the soil
cation exchange sites, causing soil aggregates to break down (disperse), sealing the pores of
the soil, and making it less permeable to water flow. Therefore, the major concern from high
concentrations of sodium in soils and irrigation water is the eventual deterioration of soil
structure, resulting in decreased water infiltration and hydraulic conductivity. Sodium may
52
also add to cropping difficulties through crusting of seed beds, temporary saturation of
surface soil, and/or possible disease, weed, oxygen and nutritional problems. The tendency
for sodium to increase its proportion on the cation exchange sites at the expense of other
types of cations is estimated by the ratio of sodium content to the content of calcium plus
magnesium in water and other cations. For evaluating sodium problem in irrigation water,
the following criteria can be used:
❖ Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)

❖ The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
a. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
Describes or measures the sodium cations in relation to Ca and Mg ions present in a solution;
𝑁𝑎+
𝑆𝐴𝑅 = 5.4
2+ 2+
√𝐶𝑎 + 𝑀𝑔
2
The SAR indicates the tendency for the soil to become higher in exchangeable sodium, higher
SAR values mean higher exchangeable sodium percentage and lower soil permeability. If the
water contains bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate (CO32-) ions, these will precipitate with
calcium magnesium, which increase the SAR.
b. Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)

Measure the sodium cations in relation to the total cations present in a solution:
Table 5.6 Suitability of irrigation water based on SAR
Class SAR Sodicity Suitability

S1 0-10 Law Suitable for all type of crops and all types of soil except for those
crops which are highly sensitive to sodium
S2 10-18 Medium Suitable for course textured of organic soil with good permeability.
Relatively unsuitable in fine textured soil.
S3 18 - High Harmful for almost all types of soil. Requires good drainage, high
26 leaching gypsum addition.
4 >26 Very high Unsuitable for irrigation.
𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝑆𝑃 = ∗ 100 5.5
𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝐾 + + 𝑁𝑎 +
53
5.3.2.3. Boron
Although Boron is an essential element becomes toxic if present in excess. Sensitivity to
boron encompasses a wide variety of field and tree crops, although fruit, nut, and berry crops
are particularly sensitive. Boron is the most encountered element found in toxic
concentrations in water. Because it is quite soluble, Boron is found in water where drainage
and geologic strata supply boron source minerals. The problem of boron levels for plant is
accentuated because the range between nutritionally deficient and toxic levels of boron is
relatively narrow.
Table 5.7 classification of irrigation water based on boron content
Boron (ppm) Toxicity hazard

<0.5 Safe for sensitive crops
0.5-1.0 Sensitive crops will show slight to moderate injury
1.0-2.0 Semi-tolerate crops will show slight to moderate injury
2.0-4.0 Tolerant crops will show slight to moderate injury
>4.0 Hazardous for nearly all crops
5.3.2.4. Toxicity
Toxicity problems occur if certain constituents (ion) in the soil or water are taken up by the
plant and accumulated to concentrations high enough to cause crop damage or reduced
yield. The degree of damage depends on the uptake and the crop sensitivity. The permanent
perennial type crops (tree crops) are the more sensitive. Damage often occurs at relatively
low ion concentrations for sensitive crops. It is usually first evidenced by marginal leaf burn
and interveinal chlorosis. It the accumulation is great enough reduced yield result. The more
tolerant annual crops are not sensitive at low concentrations but almost all crops will be
damaged or killed if concentrations are sufficiently high.
The ions of primary concern are chloride, sodium, and boron. Although toxicity problems
may occur even when these ions are in low concentrations, toxicity often accompanies and
complicates a salinity or water infiltration problem. Damage results when the potentially
toxic ions are absorbed in significant amounts with the water taken up by the roots. The
absorbed ions are transported to the area where they accumulate during transpiration. The
ions accumulate to the greatest, usually the leaf tips and leaf edges. Accumulation to toxic
concentration takes time and visual damage is often slow to be noticed. The degree of
damage depends upon the duration of exposure, concentration by the toxic ion, crop
sensitivity, and the volume of water transpired by the crop. In a hot climate or hot part of the
year, accumulation is more rapid than if the same crop were grown in a cooler climate or
season when it might show little or no damage.
54
Toxicity can also occur from direct absorption of the toxic ions through leaves wet by
overhead sprinkler. Sodium and chloride are the primary ions absorbed through leaves, and
toxicity to one or both can be a problem with certain sensitive crops such as citrus. As
concentrations increase in the applied water, damage develops more rapidly and becomes
progressively more sever.
5.4. Causes of salinity

The sources of salts, causing soil salinity may exist in the soil itself, or in the subsoil. They
may result, in the first instance, from the chemical decomposition (termed “weathering”) of
the minerals that constitute the rocks from which the soil is derived. Soils formed in arid
regions, where rainfall is scanty, are especially likely to contain appreciable quantities of
salts, simply because they have not been leached. In other instances, salts may be infused
into the soil from brackish groundwater. This takes place especially where the subsoil
contains salts that had accumulated over prior geologic eras. A rising water table may then
mobilize such salts and convey them into the rooting zone of crops.
Some salts enter the soil with rainwater. Although the initial condensation of vapor produces
pure water, the raindrops that form in clouds and fall earthward tend to pick up soluble
constituents during their brief residence in the atmosphere. One such constituent is carbon
dioxide, which dissolves in rainwater to form a dilute solution of carbonic acid. That acid,
though relatively weak, reacts with minerals in dust, rocks, and the soil, and causes certain
minerals to dissolve more readily than they would otherwise, thus contributing indirectly to
soil salinity. The acidity of rainwater increases significantly in industrialized regions where
it mixes with emitted gases such as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.
55
5.5. Management and reclamation of salt affected soils

5.5.1. Management of affected salt-affected soils
Two major scenarios can be followed to manage salty soils:
1. Salinity control
2. Improving water penetration
5.5.1.1. Salinity control

Managing the soil to minimize salt damage is a necessary part of using salted soils. The
followings are important techniques that can be used to control salinity.
a. More frequent irrigation / water control
Salts concentrate in the soil solution as water is extracted by the crop. Hence, concentrations
are lowest following irrigation and heights just before the next irrigation. Increasing
irrigation frequency increases the average soil water content. Particularly the upper portion
the root zone is maintained low in salinity if each irrigation is adequate. Frequent irrigation
also permits small water application that minimizes surface runoff. Simply applying more
water is lost to surface runoff or lowers application efficiency.
b. Crop selection
When using saline irrigation water, selection of a salt-tolerant crop may be required to avoid
yield reductions. The choice is based on:
❖ Tolerance to salt
❖ Adaptability to the climate or soil characteristics
❖ Value of the crop
c. Planting position
Salt moves with water and some will accumulate in the surface soil or furrow ridge tops as
water with its salt moves upward and evaporates. One has to make sure that the crop is
planted on positions where the soil around the plant is low in salinity. In furrow irrigation
systems, it wise to avoid the centers of wide ridges and the tops of narrow ridges where salt
will be most concentrated from furrow irrigation.
5.5.1.2. Improving water penetration

Both chemical and physical methods can be used to improve soil permeability lost due to
excess sodium in the soil. Among the physical methods that improve water penetration, the
following are important
❖ Increase irrigation frequency

❖ Deep tillage (chiseling, sub-soiling) usually only temporary
❖ Extending the duration of irrigation may increase the amount of water infiltrating,
but aeration, water logging, excessive surface runoff and surface drainage problems
may result. The duration of the pre-plant irrigation can safely be extended to allow
56
the soil profile to fill. This irrigation may provide the only opportunity to fill the
deeper part of the crop root zone without secondary effects on the growing plant.
❖ Using sprinkler to match the rate of water application to the soil infiltration rate
❖ Using organic residues
Chemical methods
Amendments may be effective where soil permeability is decreased using irrigation water
low in salinity (ECw< 0.5dS/m) or by presence in the soil or water of excessive amount of
sodium, carbonate, or bicarbonate. Amendments will not be useful if low permeability is
caused by soil texture compaction or water restricting layers.
When low infiltration is due to a high soil ESP, improved permeability should result if either
the concentration of sodium in the irrigation water is decreased or the concentration of
calcium and magnesium are increased. No inexpensive process or chemical is available for
removing sodium from
❖ Gypsum as a source of calcium
❖ Sulfur or sulfuric acid to dissolve calcium from lime in the soil
5.6. Reclamation of salt affected soils

1. Removal of excess soluble salts from the root zone
2. Reduction of excess exchangeable sodium from exchange site
5.6.1. Removal of excess soluble salts

Proven way to reduce soluble salt concentration in the root zone is leaching. Leaching is a
process dissolving the solute salts and removing salts from the desired soil layer by
downward movement of water. Reclaiming salty soils involves three general rules/
procedures
❖ Establish internal drainage for those soils with inadequate natural internal drainage
❖ Leach out most of the soluble salts using good quality of irrigation water
❖ Replace excess exchangeable sodium for sodic and saline-sodic soils
The use of organic mulches can hasten the reclamation of saline soils if only rainfall of limited
irrigation is used. The mechanism is that mulch slows down surface evaporation. This
slowing down of surface evaporation slows down salt movement to the soil surface in
evaporative water. This in turn increases the net downward movement of salt.
How much of water is required to leach out the soluble salts?
The irrigation water needed (more than that required to saturate the soil to field capacity)
to sufficiently leach the soil to assure a proper salt balance for the crop being grown is called
the leaching requirement. In short it is the additional amount of water needed to remove the
excess salts from saline soils. The leaching requirement can be calculated as:
𝐸𝐶𝑖𝑤
𝐿𝑅 = 5.6
𝐸𝐶𝑒
The leaching requirement is considered the fraction of infiltrated irrigation water that must
be leached through the root zone to maintain the salinity of the soil at some given value.
When values of ECiw and ECe are substituted into the LR equation a fraction is obtained that
estimates the increment of additional water that must be applied though not necessarily at
57
each irrigation, to maintain soil salinity within acceptable limits. Since this water is above
the crop’s consumptive use, it represents the minimum amount of water that will appear as
drainage.
Example assume that an irrigation water has an EC of 1.08 mmhos/cm. the field corn planted
has a 50% yield reduction at a soil saturation extract conductivity of 6 mmhos/cm. calculate
the additional amount of water to add if water needed to wet the profile to field capacity is
6.35 cm.
5.6.2. Reclaiming sodic and saline-sodic soils
Reclamation of this soil involves:
a. Chemical processes to replace sodium-ions adsorbed on soil-exchange sites mainly
by divalent cations.
b. Mass transfer processes to remove the replaced sodium from the soil solution. The
water used must be high in Ca and Mg.
Most of the time calcium is used to replace sodium in sodic soils. Of all calcium compounds,
calcium sulfate (gypsum CaSO4.2H2O) is considered the most convenient. Because of its
limited solubility (0.241 g/100ml of water at 0 0C), gypsum does not create an additional
salinity problem when it is used.
Elemental sulfur and sulfuric acid can also be used. When sulfur is added to the soil,
thiobacillus bacteria slowly oxidize the sulfur to sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid plays the
following roles:
1. Hydrogen ions of sulfuric acid replace sodium ions on the exchange sites.
2. If the soil contains lime (CaCO3) the sulfuric acid may react to form gypsum which
then has the same effect as applied gypsum.
The following chemicals reactions show how gypsum replaces sodium from the exchange
sites and soil solution.
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 <=> CaCO3 + Na2SO4 (leachable) +CO2 +H2O

The reactions of sulfuric acid with compounds containing sodium may be shown as follows:
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 <=> CaCO3 + Na2SO4 (leachable) +CO2 + H2O
CaCO3+ H2SO4 <=> CaSO4.2H2O+CO2

When sulfur is used leaching should be delayed until the sulfur has oxidized and gypsum has
been formed.
58
CHAPTER SIX
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
Goals for water management in irrigation

❖ To conserve surface water and groundwater
❖ To minimize surface and groundwater contamination
❖ To efficiently use precipitation and irrigation for crop production
❖ To apply irrigation in a manner that stores water in the crops active root zone and
minimizes percolation of water below the root zone
Technique to achieve the goals

❖ Schedule irrigation with appropriate amounts and frequency
❖ Measure current soil water status, rainfall, and irrigation water applied to a field
❖ Obtain regional information on evapotranspiration (crop water use)
❖ Balance rainfall and irrigation application with crop water use
❖ Apply water uniformly by appropriate irrigation method without runoff in the field
❖ Modify irrigation system and tillage management as necessary to improve
application uniformity and efficiency, including basin tillage, crop residue
management, sprinkler device selection and system operation.
6.1. Relationship between crop yield and water

Wealth of knowledge accumulated on this subject reveal that the relationship between crop
yield and water can range from linear to curvilinear response functions. The relationships
vary depending on site conditions (soil and climate). One of the most simple models used to
relate crop yield to water use is that of Stewart ( Stewart et al., 1977) which can be given as
follows.
𝑌 𝐸𝑇
= 1 − 𝛽𝑜 (1 − ) 6.1
𝑌𝑀 𝐸𝑇𝑀
Where Y is actual yield (dry matter) ton/ha, YM is potential (maximum) yield when
ET=ETM.(ton/ha), βo is the slope of the line when Y/YM is plotted against ET deficit (1-
ET/ETM), ET actual crop evapotranspiration (cm) and ETM is maximum crop
evapotranspiration. The value of YM and ETM are somewhat site dependent (location and
year), but the value of βo is nearly constant. It is possible to estimate both ET and ETM as a
function of irrigation management and other site variables and this allows prediction of the
relative yield Y/YM.
Example 1: Irrigation=30 cm,ΔSW= 5 cm, R= 0cm, D= 1 cm, YM=18 ton/ha, ETM=60 cm

βo=1.25 ton/ha calculate the ET and actual yield of corn.
59
Example 2: in the above example, how much yield increase could result from an increase in
irrigation of 10 cm?
6.2. Irrigation scheduling techniques

Irrigation scheduling involves deciding the time (when to irrigate) and how much water
(irrigation depth) to apply to per irrigation a field. Good scheduling will apply water at the
right time and in the right quantity in order to optimize production and minimize adverse
environmental impacts. Bad scheduling will mean that either not enough water is applied or
it is not applied at the right time, resulting in under-watering, or too much is applied or it is
applied too soon resulting in over-watering. Under or overwatering can lead to reduced
yields, lower quality, and inefficient use of nutrients. Three major considerations influence
irrigation scheduling.
❖ Water needs of the crop

❖ Availability of irrigation water
❖ Capacity of the root zone soil to store water
6.2.1. Criteria for scheduling irrigation

Three categories of criteria have been in use for scheduling irrigation
❖ Plant criteria
❖ Criteria based on soil water status
❖ Climatological criteria
6.2.1.1. Plant criteria

The basis for using these criteria is that show certain characteristics changes in their
constitution, appearance, and growth behavior with changes in available soil water and
atmospheric conditions. These changes are therefore considered as useful pointer to the
time of irrigation and these changes includes:
❖ General appearance of crop plants (changes in normal color, dropping of leaves,

rolling of leaves etc.)
❖ Plant water potential and water content of plant tissues
❖ Plant growth (reduction in growth of height or intermodal length, radial changes in
stem etc.)
❖ Critical period of water need (sensitive stages vary with crops)
❖ Indicator plants (sunflower) indicator plant for irrigation should be such that it shows
the water stress before the crop has suffered from it)
❖ Stomatal appearance (fully open when the supply of water is adequate and start to
close with scarcity of water in soils to restrict the transpiration)
60
❖ Leaf diffusion resistance (LDR) governed by the degree of stomatal closure and can
be measured by diffusion parameter)
❖ Plant temperature (rise in temperature of leaf tissues)
6.2.1.2. Criteria based on soil water status
This is the most accurate and dependable method. It is the determination of the available
water which is more important than the total water content of soils. Besides, information on
the optimum water regime of crops and the available water holding capacity of soil is
essential. The optimum water regime for a given crop in a place is determined
experimentally by correlating yield with water content of soils.
The criteria most often used for scheduling irrigation are the following
❖ Soil water content: based on use of lower limit of soil water content for potential
evapotranspiration for various crops, soil type and atmospheric evaporability.
❖ Critical level of soil water: based on the lowest level of the optimum soil water regime
which must be determined experimentally for various crops in different soil types
and soil conditions. This requires periodically determination of soil water content to
know the time when the soil water is likely to reach the criteria level
❖ Soil water tension: uses tensiometers to monitor the critical soil water tension below
which the growth of crops is curtailed. The water content is calibrated from the soil
water characteristics curve.
6.2.1.3. Climatological approach

This has been discussed extensively in chapter three. This involves the use of meteorological
parameters for estimating the evapotranspiration and consumptive use of the crop. The
methods involve:
❖ Empirical formula
❖ Evaporimeter: refer chapter three
6.3. Irrigation frequency (IF)

It refers to the time usually expressed in days between irrigation that is necessary to irrigate
the design crop area during the period of peak consumptive use of the crop to be irrigated.
It depends on how fast soil water is extracted when crop is transpiring at its maximum rate.
The average consumptive use rate during this period is used for planning the system. The
design frequency can be decided from the following relationships:
(𝐹𝐶 − 𝑀𝑏)/100) ∗ 𝐴_𝑠 ∗ 𝐷

𝐼𝐹 = 6.1
𝐶𝑈
61
Where FC is field capacity in %, Mb soil water content just before irrigation in %, As is

apparent specific gravity, D depth of crop root zoon in cm and CU consumptive use or Crop
water need in cm/day.
6.4. Depth of irrigation

Depth of irrigation refers to the depth to which the applied water would be cover an area.
The net depth of irrigation is decided by the amount of water required to bring the soil water
content just before irrigation to field capacity in the root zone soil. Therefore the water
content of the soil just before irrigation must be known to calculate the net depth of water
required to be applied. The depth of irrigation is calculated as:
𝑑 = (𝐹𝐶 − 𝑀𝑏)/100) ∗ 𝐴_𝑠 ∗ 𝐷 6.2
Example 6.1
For a given irrigated field, the field capacity water content was found to be 20% (mass basis)
and the water content just before irrigation was found to be 15% (mass basis). The average
bulk density of the 75 cm root depth was 1.3 g/cm3. The peak period consumptive use of the
crop was 5 mm/day. What are?
a. Depth of irrigation and

b. Irrigation frequency
6.5. Irrigation efficiency

Adequate control and management of irrigation water requires that methods be available to
evaluate irrigation practices from the time leaves the point of diversion until it is utilized by
the plants. The objective of these efficiency concepts are to show where improvement can be
made which will result in more efficient irrigation.
6.5.1. Water conveyance efficiency

Water conveyance efficiency (Ec) is the percentages of source water that reach the field.
Water conveyance efficiency formulated to evaluate conveyance losses can be stated as
follows:
𝑊𝑓
𝐸𝑐 = ∗ 100 6.3
𝑊𝑑
Where Ec is water conveyance efficiency, Wf water delivered to the field and Wd water
diverted from the source. Conveyance efficiency is generally a concern for irrigation districts
that supply a group of farmers through a system of canals and open ditches.
Example 6.2
62
Calculate the conveyance efficiency of an irrigation system when a stream of 95 l/s received
at the farm gate after being diverted from a canal delivered 72 l/s to the field.
6.5.2. Water application efficiency

The concept of water application efficiency is developed to measure and attention upon the
efficiency with which water delivered is being stored within the root zone of the soil, where
it could be used by plants.
𝑊𝑠
𝐸𝑎 = ∗ 100 6.4
𝑊𝑓
Where Ea is water application efficiency, Ws amount of water actually stored in root zone
soil from the water applied, and Wf is water delivered to the farm
Common source of loss of irrigation water from the farm during water application are
mainly:
❖ Surface runoff from the farm (Rf) and

❖ Deep percolation (Df)
Neglecting evaporation losses during the time water is being applied and immediately after,
it follows that:
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝐷𝑓 6.5
𝑊𝑓 − (𝑅𝑓 + 𝐷𝑓 )
𝐸𝑎 = 6.6
𝑊𝑓
Water application efficiency gives a general sense of how well an irrigation system perform
its primary task of getting water to the plants.
Irrigation method Application efficiency %

Surface irrigation
Basin 60-95
Border 60-90
Furrow 50-90
Sprinkler irrigation
Hand move 65-80
Traveling gun 60-70
Center pivot and linear 70-95
Solid set 70-85
Drip irrigation
Point source emitter 75-95
Line source emitter 70-95
63
Example 6.3
Calculate the field water application efficiency of an irrigation system when a stream of 95
l/s received at the farm gate after being diverted from a canal delivered 72 l/s to the field.
During irrigation to wheat crop for 8 hrs, 350 and 158 m3 of water respectively were lost by
runoff and deep percolation.
6.5.3. Water distribution efficiency

Another important characteristic of irrigation is uniform distribution of irrigation water
throughout the root zone. Under most conditions, the more uniformly water is distributed
the better will be the crop response. The water distributed efficiency is calculated as follows.
𝑌
𝐸𝑑 = (1 − ) ∗ 100 6.7
𝑑
Where Ed is water distribution efficiency, Y absolute value of average numerical deviation in
depth of water stored from average depth stored during irrigation and d is average depth of
water stored during the irrigation.
Water distribution efficiency measures the extent to which water is uniformly distributed
and stored in the effective root zone soil along the irrigation run.
Example 6.4
Determine the water distribution efficiency in a 150 m long border strip when the soil
sampling after an irrigation at 25 m interval along the water run showed that the effective
depth of water penetration in the 90 cm root zone were 90, 90, 85, 82, 82 and 80 cm
6.5.4. Water storage efficiency

Water storage efficiency refers to the percentage ratio of the amount of water stored in
effective root zone soil to the amount of water needed to make up the water depleted in crop
root zone prior to irrigation. It may be expressed mathematically:
𝑊𝑠
𝐸𝑠 = ∗ 100 6.8
𝑊𝑒
Where Es is water storage efficiency in percent, Ws is amount of water stored in root zone
soil from the water applied and We is amount of water needed to meet the soil water
depleted in the crop root zone soil prior to irrigation.
Example 6.5
An area of 2.8 ha of maize crop was irrigated by a stream of 72 l/s for 8 hrs. The irrigation
was applied at 50% soil water depletion. The available water holding capacity of the soil was
64
16 cm per meter depth. A soil water measurement 2 days after irrigation when the soil
sampling in the field could be done showed that the 2.8 ha of maize stored 18.24 cm depth
of water in the 90 cm root zone. Calculate the water storage efficiency.
6.5.5. Water use efficiency

This may be defined as the ratio of the amount of economic crop yield to the amount of water
required for crop growing. It can be calculated as follows:
𝑌
𝐸𝑢 = 6.9
𝑊𝑅
Where Eu is field water use efficiency expressed in kilogram of economic yield per hectare
cm or hectare mm of water, Y economic crop yield in kilogram per hectare and WR water
requirement of the crop in cm or mm
Example 6.6
Compute the consumptive use and water use efficiency of the following crops in a farm from
the data provided as under:
crop Water applied cm Effective rainfall Soil water use Yield kg/ha
Wheat 25 6.53 2.25 3828
Mustared 10 6.05 2.10 925
Potato 30 6.05 2.30 12500
Chickpea 15 6.32 2.55 1435
Lentil 10 5.51 3.15 695
65
78

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Irrigation and Drainage

College of Agriculture and

1.2. Definition of irrigation

1.3. Necessity of irrigation

1.4. Benefits of irrigations

1.5. Disadvantage and Ill effects of irrigation

1.6. Source of irrigation water

1.6.1. Regulated watercourses

1.6.2. Unregulated watercourses

Efficient irrigation water application requires a systematic water management program.

I. The economic losses due to effects of both under-irrigation and over-irrigation on

1.2. Important soil and crop Characteristics in irrigation management

1.2.1. Soil Characteristics

1.2.1.1. Soil texture

Soil particles Diameter (mm) Approximate size

Fig.2.1 Soil classification triangle

1.2.1.2. Soil structure

1.2.1.3. Bulk density

1.2.1.4. Particle density

1.2.1.5. Total pore space and porosity

1.2.1.6. Void ratio

1.3. Measurement of soil water content

1.3.1. Volume and mass relationships of soil constituents

a) Soil wetness (w)

b) Volume wetness (θ)

c) Equivalent depth of water (d)

1.3.2. The Energy concept of soil water

1.3.2.1. The Energy Status of Soil Water

1.3.2.2. Soil water potential and its component

1.3.2.3. Gravitational potential (ψg)

1.3.2.4. Osmotic potential (ψo)

1.3.2.5. Pressure potential (ψp)

Fig.2.4. Saturated flow

1.3.2.6. Matric potential (ψm)

Fig. 2.5 Unsaturated flow

1.3.3. Classification of soil water

Fig. 2.6 Classification of soil water

1.3.3.1. Gravitational water

1.3.3.3. Permanent Wilting Point (PWP or wp)

1.3.3.4. Hygroscopic water

1.3.3.5. Field capacity

1.3.3.6. Available and useable water

𝐓𝐀𝐖 = (𝐅𝐂 − 𝐏𝐖𝐏) ∗ 𝐘 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑

1.3.3.7. Unavailable water

1.3.4. Movement of water in the soil

c. From saturated to unsaturated movement

Fig.2.8 Schematic presentation of Darcy’s flow

Hence the flow rate is estimated by

A= cross sectional area of flow, cm2

K= hydraulic conductivity, cm/s

∆H= difference of hydraulic head between tswo points, cm

1.3.4.2. Unsaturated flow

1.3.4.3. Movement of Water into Soils /infiltration

Soil type Basic infiltration rate (mm/hour)

Table 1.4 Classification of infiltration rate

Class Rate (cm/hr)

Fig. 2.6 Infiltration rate

1.3.4.4. Factors affecting the infiltration rate

❖ Compaction of soil: artificial man-made compaction of soil like heavy agricultural

1.3.4.5. Measurement of Infiltration