PHYSICS

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
2023-2024

Apoorv Singh
XII-A
Roll No.: 3
Sch. No.: 5536
INDEX
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Apoorv Singh of class XII-A of

Puranchandra Vidyaniketan has conducted genuine
investigations and related data collections with original
paperwork, and thusly has successfully completed the
investigatory project titled ‘‘Logic Gates’’ under the guidance of
Mr. Atul Malhotra (Physics teacher) during the session 2023-
2024 in partial fulfilment of Physics Practical Examination
conducted by AISSCE.

Signature of Signature of
External Examiner Physics Teacher
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The successful completion of any project would be
incomplete without the acknowledgement of those who
made it possible. I take this opportunity to express my
gratitude and respect for all who helped me in the
completion of this project.
I would like to dearly acknowledge our subject teacher,
Mr. Atul Malhotra, for his valuable support, constant
guidance and ceaseless encouragement, without which,
this project would not have come to fruition.
I also cannot fail to mention the immense regard I hold
for our principal, Mrs. Sobhana Mukherjee, for creating
the ideal nurturing environment that fuelled the progress
of this project. I would also like to thank the lab assistant
and the non-teaching staff for their constant support.
Lastly yet importantly, I would extend my vote of thanks
to my parents, friends and classmates whose
encouragement helped me with smooth execution of the
investigatory project.
 LOGIC
GATES

Introduction:
Logic gates are crucial components in the realm of digital
electronics, serving as fundamental building blocks for the creation
of complex circuits and systems. These gates operate based on the
principles of Boolean algebra, a binary mathematical framework
based on 0 and 1. These gates manipulate binary signals, where ‘0’
typically represents a low voltage or false input, and ‘1’ represents
a high voltage or true input.

Important concepts behind logic gates:

(I) Boolean algebra:

Boolean algebra, named after mathematician and logician George

Boole, is a mathematical structure that deals with binary variables.
In Boolean algebra, variables can take on one of two values: true
(usually represented by ‘1’) or false (usually represented by ‘0’). Logical
operations in Boolean algebra include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and
XOR, which are implemented through logic gates in electronic circuits.

Laws of Boolean Algebra

There are six types of Boolean algebra laws. They are:

1) Commutative Laws:
(i) A . B = B . A
(ii) A + B = B + A
(where A and B could be 1 or 0)

2) Associative Laws:
(i) (A . B) . C = A . (B . C)
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(where A and B could be 1 or 0)

3) Distributive Laws:
(i) A . (B + C) = (A . B) + (A . C)
(ii) A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
(where A and B could be 1 or 0)

4) AND Laws:
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore, they are called AND laws.
(i) A . 0 = 0
(ii) A . 1 = A
(iii) A . A = A
(where A could be 1 or 0)

5) OR Laws:
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called OR laws.
(i) A + 0 = A
(ii) A + 1 = 1
(iii) A + A = A
(iv) A + Ā = 1 *Concept of inversion: Ā= opposite value of A

(where A could be 1 or 0) i.e. if A = 1, then Ā=0 and vice versa

(II) Truth Tables:

A Truth Table is used to perform logical operations in Maths. These operations comprise Boolean algebra
or Boolean functions. It is basically used to check whether the propositional expression is true or false,
as per the input values. It consists of columns for one or more input values, say, P and Q, and one
assigned column for the output results. The output which we get here is the result of the unary or binary
operation performed on the given input values.

Example truth table :

For an A+B operation, the following truth table can be made:

A B (A+B)
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1

Types of Logic Gates:

There are several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital systems. The common ones
are:

(i) OR Gate

(ii) AND Gate

(iii) NOT Gate

Additionally, these gates can also be found in a combination of one or two. Therefore, we get other
gates:

(iv) NAND Gate

(v) NOR Gate

I) OR Gate

*In an OR gate, the output of an OR gate attains state 1 if one or more inputs attain state 1.

*The Boolean expression of the OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A ‘OR’ B.

*The truth table of a two-input OR basic gate is given as:

Inputs Output
A B (A+B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

II) AND Gate

In an AND gate, the output of an AND gate attains state 1 if and only if all the inputs are in state 1.

The Boolean expression of the AND gate is Y = A.B

The truth table of a two-input AND basic gate is given as:

 Inputs Output
A B (A.B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

III) NOT Gate

In a NOT gate, the output of a NOT gate attains state 1 if and only if the input does not attain state 1.

The Boolean expression of the NOT gate is Y = Ā

The truth table of NOT gate is as follows:

Input Output
A Ā
0 1
1 0

 When connected in various combinations, the three gates (OR, AND and NOT) give us basic logic
gates, such as NAND and NOR gates, which are the universal building blocks of digital circuits.

IV) NAND Gate

This basic logic gate is the combination of NOT and AND gates.

The Boolean expression of the NAND gate is Y = A.B

The truth table of a NAND gate is given as:

Inputs Output
A B (A.B)
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

V) NOR Gate

This gate is the combination of NOT and OR gates.

The Boolean expression of the NOR gate is Y = A+B

The truth table of a NOR gate is as follows:

Inputs Output
A B (A+B)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

De Morgan’s theorem:

Augustus De Morgan was a British mathematician and logician. He gave several theorems which are
widely utilized in many fields. De Morgan’s theorems contextual here are as follows:

1. First theorem-

“The complement of a sum is equal to the product of the complements.”

i.e., If A and B are inputs then (A+B) = (A.B)

2. Second theorem :

“The complement of a product is equal to the sum of the complements.”

i.e., If A and B are inputs then (A.B) = (A+B)

Waveforms of Logic Gates:

In a practical logic circuit, the inputs, and consequently the outputs of the gates change state with time,
and it is convenient to represent the changing inputs and outputs by waveforms, referred to as timing
diagrams. For example:
Constructing Logic gates:

Materials Needed:

 Thermacol
 Logic gates (e.g., AND, OR, NOT)
 Connecting wires
 Power supply (e.g., battery or power source)
 LEDs or resistors (for visual output)

Steps:

1. Position the thermacol on a stable surface. It provides a platform for connecting and arranging
the logic gates.
2. Insert the desired logic gates into the Thermacol .bDepending on the logic gate function, add
input sources such as switches, buttons, or other logic gates to control the input values.
3. Connect the output of the logic gates to LEDs or resistors. This step provides a visual
representation of the output states.
4. Connect the power supply to the circuit. Now, turn on the power supply. The logic gates should
receive power, and the circuit is ready for operation.

Example Circuit:

As a simple example, we could construct an AND gate circuit with two switches as inputs and an LED as
the output. The LED will light up only when both switches are in the ON position.
Applications of Logic Gates:

Logic gates find widespread applications in various fields, serving as the fundamental building blocks for
digital circuits. Basic logic gates are often found in circuits such as

i. Safety thermostats

ii. Push-button locks

iii. Automatic watering systems

iv. Light-activated burglar alarms &

v. Many other electronic devices

COCLUSION:

In essence, logic gates are the backbone of the digital world, enabling the creation of sophisticated
electronic systems that impact nearly every aspect of modern life. Their applications extend from the
core of computing to a myriad of technological fields, making them indispensable in our interconnected
and digitalized world.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.wikipedia.org
 www.byjus.com
 www.vedantu.com
 www.cbse.in
 www.researchgate.net
 www.britannica.com
 www.khanacademy.org