PHYSICS

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
2023-2024

Apoorv Singh
XII-A
Roll No.: 3
Sch. No.: 5536
INDEX
1. CERTIFICATE
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3. TOPIC
4. INTRODUCTION
5. IMPORTANT CONCEPTS BEHIND LOGIC GATES
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 TRUTH TABLES
 DE MORGAN’S THEOREMS
 LOGIC SYMBOL DIAGRAMS
 WAVEFORMS
6. TYPES OF LOGIC GATES
7. CONSTRUCTION OF LOGIC GATES (with model)
8. APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES
9. CONCLUSION
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Apoorv Singh of
class XII-A of Puranchandra
Vidyaniketan has conducted genuine
investigations and related data
collections with original paperwork, and
thusly has successfully completed the
investigatory project titled
‘‘Logic Gates’’ under the guidance of
Mr. Atul Malhotra (Physics teacher)
during the session 2023-2024 in partial
fulfilment of Physics Practical
Examination conducted by AISSCE.

Signature of Signature of
External Examiner Physics Teacher
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The successful completion of any project would be
incomplete without the acknowledgement of those who
made it possible. I take this opportunity to express my
gratitude and respect for all who helped me in the
completion of this project.
I would like to dearly acknowledge our subject teacher,
Mr. Atul Malhotra, for his valuable support, constant
guidance and ceaseless encouragement, without which,
this project would not have come to fruition.
I also cannot fail to mention the immense regard I hold
for our principal, Mrs. Sobhana Mukherjee, for creating
the ideal nurturing environment that fuelled the
progress of this project. I would also like to thank the
lab assistant and the non-teaching staff for their
constant support.
Lastly yet importantly, I would extend my vote of
thanks to my parents, friends and classmates whose
encouragement helped me with smooth execution of
the investigatory project.
LOGIC
GATES
Introduction:
Logic gates are crucial components in the realm of digital electronics,
serving as fundamental building blocks for the creation of complex
circuits and systems. These gates operate based on the principles of
Boolean algebra, a binary mathematical framework based on 0 and 1.
These gates manipulate binary signals, where ‘0’ typically represents a
low voltage or false input, and ‘1’ represents a high voltage or true input.

Important concepts behind logic gates:

(I) Boolean algebra:

Boolean algebra, named after mathematician and logician George Boole,

is a mathematical structure that deals with binary variables.
In Boolean algebra, variables can take on one of two values: true (usually
represented by ‘1’) or false (usually represented by ‘0’). Logical
operations in Boolean algebra include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and
XOR, which are implemented through logic gates in electronic circuits.

Laws of Boolean algebra:

There are six types of Boolean algebra laws. They are:
1) Commutative Laws:
(i) A . B = B . A
(ii) A + B = B + A
(where A and B could be 1 or 0)

2) Associative Laws:
(i) (A . B) . C = A . (B . C)
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(where A and B could be 1 or 0)

3) Distributive Laws:
(i) A . (B + C) = (A . B) + (A . C)
(ii) A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
(where A and B could be 1 or 0)

4) AND Laws:
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore, they are called AND laws.

(i) A .0 = 0
(ii) A .1 = A
(iii) A . A = A
(where A could be 1 or 0)
5) OR Laws:
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called OR laws.

(i) A + 0 = A
(ii) A + 1 = 1
(iii) A + A= A
(iv) A + Ā = 1 *Concept of inversion: Ā = opposite value of A
(where A could be 1 or 0) i.e. if A = 1, then Ā = 0 and vice versa

(II) Truth Tables:

A Truth Table is used to perform logical operations in Maths. These

operations comprise Boolean algebra or Boolean functions. It is
basically used to check whether the propositional expression is true or
false, as per the input values. It consists of columns for one or more
input values, say, A and B, and one assigned column for the output
results. The output which we get here is the result of the unary or binary
operation performed on the given input values.
Example truth table:
For an A+B operation, the following truth table can be made:

A B (A+B)
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
Types of Logic Gates:
There are several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital
systems. The common ones are:
(i) OR Gate
(ii) AND Gate
(iii) NOT Gate
Additionally, these gates can also be found in a combination of one or two. Therefore,
we get other gates:

(iv) NAND Gate

(v) NOR Gate

i) OR Gate
 In an OR gate, the output of an OR gate attains state 1 if one or more
inputs attain state 1.
 The Boolean expression of the OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A
‘OR’ B.
 The truth table of a two-input OR basic gate is given as:

Inputs Output
A B (A+B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
ii) AND Gate
 In an AND gate, the output of an AND gate attains state 1 if and only if
all the inputs are in state 1.
 The Boolean expression of the AND gate is Y = A . B
 The truth table of a two-input AND basic gate is given as:

Inputs Output
A B (A.B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

iii) NOT Gate

 In a NOT gate, the output of a NOT gate attains state 1 if and only if the
input does not attain state 1.
 The Boolean expression of the NOT gate is Y = Ā
 The truth table of NOT gate is as follows:

Input Output
A Ā
0 1
1 0

*When connected in various combinations, the three gates (OR, AND and NOT) give us
basic logic gates, such as NAND and NOR gates, which are the universal building blocks
of digital circuits.
iv) NAND Gate
 This basic logic gate is the combination of NOT and AND gates.
 The Boolean expression of the NAND gate is Y =
 The truth table of a NAND gate is given as:

Inputs Output
A B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

v) NOR Gate
 This gate is the combination of NOT and OR gates.
 The Boolean expression of the NOR gate is Y =
 The truth table of a NOR gate is as follows:

Inputs Output
A B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

(III) DeMorgan’s theorems:

Augustus De Morgan was a British mathematician and logician. He gave
several theorems which are widely utilized in many fields. De Morgan’s
theorems contextual here are as follows:
1) First theorem:
“The complement of a sum is equal to the product of the complements.”
i.e., If A and B are inputs then =

2. Second theorem:
“The complement of a product is equal to the sum of the complements.”
i.e., If A and B are inputs then =

(IV) Waveforms of Logic Gates:

In a practical logic circuit, the inputs, and consequently the outputs of
the gates change state with time, and it is convenient to represent the
changing inputs and outputs by waveforms, referred to as timing
diagrams. For example:

Construction of Logic gates:

Materials Required:
 Thermocol
 Logic gates (e.g., AND, OR, NOT)
 Connecting wires
 Power supply (e.g., battery or power source)
 LEDs or resistors (for visual output)

Steps:
1. Position the thermocol on a stable surface. It provides a platform for
connecting and arranging the logic gates.
2. Insert the desired logic gates into the thermocol. Depending on the
logic gate function, add input sources such as switches, buttons, or
other logic gates to control the input values.
3. Connect the output of the logic gates to LEDs or resistors. This step
provides a visual representation of the output states.
4. Connect the power supply to the circuit. Now, turn on the power
supply. The logic gates should receive power, and the circuit is ready for
operation.

Example Circuit:

As a simple example, we could construct an AND gate circuit with two

switches as inputs and an LED as the output. The LED will light up only when
both switches are in the ON position.

Applications of Logic Gates:

Logic gates find widespread applications in various fields, serving as the
fundamental building blocks for digital circuits. Basic logic gates are often
found in circuits such as:
1) Computing and Processors:
 Logic gates are the basic components of processors and
microcontrollers in computers. They perform logical operations and
help execute complex tasks.
2) Memory Units:
 They are used in the design of memory units, such as RAM (Random
Access Memory) and ROM (Read-Only Memory), for storing and
retrieving data.
3) Digital Signal Processing:
 Logic gates are essential in digital signal processors for tasks like
filtering, encoding, and modulation in signal processing applications.
4) Communication Systems:
 In communication systems, logic gates are employed for tasks like
encoding, decoding, and error detection in data transmission.
5) Control Systems:
 Logic gates play a role in control systems, regulating and controlling
processes in various industrial applications.
6) Security Systems:
 In security systems, logic gates are employed for tasks like access
control and alarm systems, ensuring secure and controlled access to
specific areas.
7) Consumer Electronics:
  Logic gates are present in everyday consumer electronics, such as
calculators, digital clocks, and home appliances, contributing to their
functionality.
8) Automotive Systems:
 They play a role in automotive systems, controlling functions like
engine management, braking systems, and safety features.

CONCLUSION:

In essence, logic gates are the backbone of the digital world,

enabling the creation of sophisticated electronic systems that impact
nearly every aspect of modern life. Their applications extend from
the core of computing to a myriad of technological fields, making
them indispensable in our interconnected and digitalized world.
These electronic components, such as AND, OR, and NOT gates,
enable the manipulation and processing of binary information,
forming the core of modern computing and communication systems.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.wikipedia.org
www.byjus.com
www.vedantu.com
www.cbse.in
www.researchgate.net
www.britannica.com
www.khanacademy.org