READING AND WRITING SKILLS

I. Text as Connected Discourse

All ideas in the text must be related in the sense that they would express one main idea,
or that the text must have unity by combining all ideas to emphasize the central ideas.
Examples:
1. Journal Diary
2. News Articles
3. Anecdotes
4. Procedures
5. Critiques
6. Opinion Piece
7. Research Articles

A. Reading – Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in

order to construct or derive meaning.
B. Reading Comprehension – "Reading Comprehension is the active process of
constructing meaning from text." - Vaugh and Linan-Thompson (2004)

Text
➢ Latin: "texere"- to weave
➢ a large unit of a written language
➢ a coherent set of words, phrases, and sentences that expresses an idea
➢ not all group of words/letters can be considered as texts; they are called gibberish
➢ a group of ideas put together to make a point or central idea made up of sentences

Discourse
➢ Latin: "discursus"- conversation speech
➢ the unity of words, phrases, and sentences driven by specific meanings and
purpose in communication
➢ used in language development process
➢ is an expression of ideas
➢ refers to utterance, speech, talk, discussion, conversation

II. Selecting and Organizing Information

A. Strategies in Selecting and Organizing Information
1. Brainstorming – is a technique to generate ideas within a group or
individual setting.

Four Brainstorming Tips as suggested by Mark Nichol:

i) Cubing – a topic or idea is examined from 6 viewpoints.
(1) DESCRIBE – What is the topic?

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 (2) COMPARE – What is it like or unlike?
(3) ASSOCIATE – What does it make you think of?
(4) ANALYZE – What constituent parts is it made of?
(5) APPLY – How can it be used?
(6) ARGUE FOR AND AGAINST – How can you support or
oppose it?
ii) Freewriting
➢ Just keep on writing.
➢ Do not mind errors in spelling and grammar.
➢ Write what comes to your mind.
➢ Review what you have written later.
➢ Come up with a specific topic that would interest you.
iii) Listing
➢ List down what comes to your mind.
➢ If your intention is to come up with a topic to write about,
enumerate them.
➢ Do not list your ideas in an outline form because an
outline will require you to organize items and your
thoughts.
iv) Mapping (Clustering/Webbing
➢ a graphic form of listing which involves jotting down ideas
on an extensive writing surface
➢ make connections by associating similarity-themed ideas
with color-coded circles or underlines distinct patterns
➢ indicate other relationships by linking with lines

2. Outlining – serves as a road map or blueprint when writing. It helps

organize the ideas as it shows the hierarchical relationship or logical
ordering of information.

Two Types of Outline

i. Topic Outline
➢ also known as traditional outlining
➢ uses words or phrases as headings without punctuation
ii. Sentence Outline
➢ uses a sentence to summarize a paragraph’s point or a
major sub-point in a paragraph
➢ enables the writer to judge the overall organization of
their paper in terms of clarity, coherence, and flow

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 Two Formats of Outline
i. Number-Letter Format
ii. Decimal Outline Format

3. Using Graphic Organizers – Graphic organizers are visual and

graphic displays that show the relationships among concepts or ideas.

Kinds of Graphic Organizers Depending on the Type of Information

i. Descriptive or Thematic Map – usually used in stories
ii. Network Tree – used to show hierarchical relationships;
organizations, positions
iii. Problem and Solution Map – mapping out the influences the
causes, then the effect and proposed solutions
iv. Compare and Contrast Matrix – shows the similarities and
differences of two or more concepts/things
v. Fishbone Map – maps out the different factors that affect the
outcome/effect of something
vi. Problem Solution Outline – maps out the details of the problem
by providing answers for 5W and 1H questions, put attempted
solutions, and end results

III. Patterns of Development in Writing

These are structures writers use to organize their ideas. These are used to arrange ideas to
achieve the writer’s purpose in writing the text and determine the central idea of the text.

Transitional devices are necessary in the process of developing your paragraphs or

written materials. Meanings and purposes are implied and understood, respectively
according to the pattern of development you are using through these words.

I. Definition
➢ This pattern explains a concept, term, or subject.
➢ Its main purpose is to tell what something is.
➢ Commonly used in sciences, humanities, and business.
➢ Subjective Definition – defines complex terms in a personal way
➢ Scientific Definition – defines complex terms in the most factual way.

II. Description
➢ It is similar to narration for having many specific details,
➢ description “emphasizes the senses by painting a picture of how
something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels.“
➢ It uses transitional devices that signal spatial order.

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 ➢ Objective Description
■ It is primarily factual. Omits any attention to the writer, especially
with regards to the writer's feelings. Its purpose is to create an
accurate mental representation of the subject in the reader’s mind.

➢ Subjective Description
■ Includes attention to both the subject described and the writer's
reactions (internal, personal) to that subject. It is based on
opinion, emotion, or feelings. It is intended to be complex. It is
interpretable.

➢ Figurative Description
■ Relies on creating likenesses between objects, often through
simile or metaphor
■ Examples:
● Simile: like a snowflake...
● Metaphor: fragile as a snowflake…
III. Classification
➢ the method by which one divides things into groups, classes, or
categories.
IV. Exemplification
➢ the method of providing examples and illustrations in order to further
clarify or explain a concept or subject matter.
V. Narration
➢ Refers to a sequential telling of a story or recounting of a series of
events.
➢ Supports the thesis statement with enough details which includes the
elements of a story.
➢ Uses transitional devices that signal time order.
VI. Compare and Contrast
➢ This is used when a writer would like to critically discuss two things in
relation to each other by citing their similarities as well as their
differences.
VII. Cause and Effect
➢ Explains why something happens or what results a particular event
produces.
➢ It is a practice of critical thinking for one must be able to logically trace
connections among different ideas or phenomena in order to establish
cause-effect relationships.
VIII. Problem and Solution
➢ Focuses on either a problem or solution in a particular area or situation.

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 ➢ Probably the most useful pattern of text development in terms of
expressing the writer’s concern for other people.
IX. Persuasion
➢ A piece of writing used to convince readers to agree to an argument or
claim about a particular topic.

IV. Properties of a Well-Written Text

A. Organization – This refers to the arrangement of ideas in a text.
➢ This can be best achieved through:
● Text Structure – It refers to the framework of a text’s
○ beginning (lead or the hook);
○ middle (body); and
○ end/conclusion (restatement of the thesis and major
points).
● Signal Words – This refers to the textual cues that readers use to
follow a text.
● Physical Format – It is observed in how the text physically
appears
○ headings and subheadings
○ bullet points
○ font emphasis

B. Coherence and Cohesion – This refers to the connection of ideas between

sentences and between paragraphs. These two make use of transitional/cohesive
devices to achieve it. It refers to the relationship between grammar and words
within a text or sentence.
➢ Coherence – clear, smooth, and logical flow of ideas from one sentence to
another and from one paragraph to the next that creates meaning for the
readers
➢ Cohesion – grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that
holds a text together and gives it a meaning

C. Appropriate Language Use – This refers to the acceptable style of language for
a particular form of text.
➢ An effective language is:
● Specific
● Concise
● Familiar
● Correct
● Appropriate

➢ Levels of Language Use

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 ● Informal / Personal – slang, local expressions, text messaging
● Standard / Academic – widely accepted words and phrases found
in books, magazines, and newspapers
● Business / Technical – scientific terms, jargons, and special
expressions
D. Proper Mechanics – It refers to the conventions of writing.
➢ Guide questions for conventions:
● Are your sentences complete?
● Does your piece demonstrate standard usage?
● Are punctuation, capitalization, spelling, and paragraphs used
correctly in your piece?

V. Critical Thinking as a Way of Thinking

➢ Critical reading, also known as active reading, refers to the process of analyzing,
interpreting, and, sometimes, evaluating texts.
➢ When you are reading critically, it means that you apply certain processes,
models, questions, and theories that result in enhanced clarity and comprehension.
➢ Critical reading involves evaluating the validity of facts, opinions, and inferences
presented.
➢ Implicit – hidden meaning
➢ Explicit – obvious and direct meaning

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 Characteristics of a Critical Reader

★ Facts – statements that can be proven through verifiable evidence such as

historical documents or statistics
★ Opinion – statements which express the writer’s personal preferences, judgments,
predictions, or values; a view or judgment formed about something, not
necessarily based on fact or knowledge
★ Inferences – also called ad intellectual guess, these are concluding statements
based on evidence and reasoning which are made after considering all the other
ideas presented in the text

A. Claim
➢ The central argument or point or thesis statement of the text made by the
author. It is what the writer tries to prove in the text by providing details,
explanations, and other pieces of evidence.
➢ A statement that is not considered acceptable by all; can be unverified or
controversial to a certain degree.
➢ Usually related to one side of the issue, that’s why it’s also called a
position and is argumentative and specific in nature.

a. Claim of Fact
● states a quantifiable assertion or a measurable topic
● it relies on reliable sources to be validated
● it usually answers “what” questions

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 ● when an author is claiming that a particular statement is true
● relate to statements that can be easily verified and not dependent
on a person’s preference
● asserts that a condition has existed, is existing, or will exist and are
based on facts or data
● Are often qualified by such terms as generally, probably, or as a
rule
● Questions to ask to verify statements as claim of fact or not:
1. Is it debatable? Is it verifiable?
2. Is it specific? Can it be solved objectively?

b. Claim of Value
● assert something that can be qualified
● consist of arguments about moral, philosophical or aesthetic topics
● attempts to explain how problems ought to be valued
● when an author is claiming in the argument that something is
important.
● involves judgments and evaluations. It judges whether something
is good/bad, right/wrong, just/unjust, ethical/nonethical, etc.
● attempts to prove that some things are more or less desirable than
others.
● establishes standards of evaluation

c. Claim of Policy
● posit that specific actions should be chosen as solution to a
particular problem
● it usually uses “should”, “ought to”, and “must”
● when an author is claiming in the argument that something should
be implemented.
● advocates a specific course of action. It asserts that specific
policies should be instituted as solutions to problems.
● almost always “should” or “ought to” or “must” are included in
this claim.

B. Identifying the Context of the Text Development

Context is defined as the social, cultural, political, historical, and other related
circumstances that surround the text.
● When was the work written?
● What are the circumstances that produced it?
● What issues does it deal with?

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 I. Intertextuality – is the modeling of a text’s meaning by another text. It is
seen when the author borrows and transforms a prior text or reference one
to another.

II. Hypertextuality – is a nonlinear way of showing information. It connects

one topic to another by using images, videos and music which are in the
form of clickable links.

VI. Critical Reading as a Form of Reasoning

★ Reasoning refers to the act of giving statements for justification and explanation.
It is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some questions, and to solve
some problems.
★ Techniques to Develop Reasoning
1. Focus on the main ideas which are explicitly or implicitly expressed in the
text.
2. Organize your thoughts and ideas either in chronological order, or by
emphasis (Deductive Process or Inductive Process)
3. Examine the pros and cons of your argument/resolution.
★ Evaluation Guide for Critical Reading
a. Content – This is the substance of the text. (POV: TEXT)
■ Are the opinions/ideas comprehensive? Do they have depth?
■ As a whole, is it captivating for the audience/readers?
b. Objectivity – This is the stand of the author. (POV: AUTHOR)
■ Are facts included in it?
■ Does it present both sides of an argument?
■ Does the author have ethical and moral consideration in his/her
article?

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 c. Significance – This is the intention of the author. (POV: READER)
■ Can the reader preferably connect the issue to his/her life?
■ Is it open for interaction?
■ How is it valuable to the readers?
★ Evaluative Statement
★ is used in giving a sound judgment – a judgment that can be backed up or
supported by valid reason or evidence
★ presents the strengths and weaknesses of something based on a set of
criteria which needs to be factual, substantial, and unbiased
★ One needs to read the entire text carefully and critically to understand
and check possible fallacies in the argument presented by the writer.

★ Two Ways of Formulating Evaluative Statement

■ Assertion
● a stylistic approach or technique involving a strong
declaration, a forceful or confident and positive
statement regarding a belief or a fact.
● Often, it is without proof or any support.
● An honest and appropriate expression of one’s feelings,
opinions, and needs.
● It is expressed as an argument.
● It usually contains languages that express evaluation such
as useful, significant, important, insightful, detailed,
up-to-date, comprehensive, practical, impressive, etc.

Four Types of Assertion

1. Statement of Fact – a statement that can be proven
objectively by direct experience, testimonies of witnesses,
verified observations, or the results of research.
2. Statement of Convention – a way in which something is
done, similar to traditions and norms. Its truthfulness can
be verified only by reference to historical precedents,
laws, rules, usage, and customs.
3. Statement of Opinion – based on facts, but are difficult to
objectively verify. It results from ambiguities; the more
ambiguous a statement, the more difficult it is to verify and
they are open to disputes.
4. Statement of Preference – states a personal choice in
which the writer is under no obligation to support or prove
the truthfulness of the statement. It is subjective and
cannot be objectively proven or logically attacked

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 ■ Counterclaim
● claims made to rebut a previous claim.
● a statement that contradicts one’s claim and is usually
proven and supported by both reasons and evidences
○ Claim: your position, stand or side in an argument
○ Counterclaim: a counter argument from a claim
given
○ Rebuttal or Reason: response to a counterclaim,
part of an argument where a statement offers an
explanation behind a party’s claim
○ Piece of Evidence: statement that proves the truth
of a claim that leads to the conclusion of an
argument

★ Determining Textual Evidence

■ Also called as Textual Statements, these are verified text that has
been collected from the original source or document that supports
a thesis or an argument, often appearing as a quotation or
descriptive text. It functions to strengthen the validity of someone’s
writing.
■ It requires the reader to support their ideas, questions, and claims
with factual evidence rather than irrational notions. Meaning, it
enables us to go back to what we have read and give evidence from
it to prove that you are not just manufacturing your thoughts.
■ Examples of Textual Evidence
● Statistics: numerical or quantitative data
● Anecdotes: true stories about individual experiences or
case studies
● Expert Testimony: statements or commentary from a
subject-matter expert (e.g. a doctor serving as an expert
witness might testify about their reading of an x-ray)
● Illustrations: drawings, photographs, or any type of image
(not including charts)

■ Three Types of Factual Evidence

1. Facts – the best tools to be used in an argument; used
primarily to convince the readers about the topic
2. Judgment – assumptions that the writer makes about
his/her subject after carefully considering the facts. The

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 success or failure of the entire argument rests on whether or
not the writer can utilize adequate reasoning.
3. Testimony – final type of evidence used in writing a
convincing argument
○ Two types of testimony:
■ the account of an eyewitness – eyewitness
can supply important facts for the writers to
use
■ the judgment of an expert who had the
chance to examine and interpret the facts –
an expert can provide valuable judgments in
order to give strength to the argument

VII. Writing a Project Proposal

Project Proposal is a document that is written for problem solving, service provision,
event planning, or equipment selling.
➢ Steps in Writing a Project Proposal
1. Gather the data.
■ Background about the problem you intend to solve
■ What the project intends to achieve in terms of results
■ Target Beneficiaries
■ Methodology
■ Activities and Timeline
■ Budget
2. Organize your data.
3. Write the project proposal.
4. Revisit the project proposal.
■ Make sure to review your proposal for accuracy and organization
before you send it out. A good proposal will be comprehensive and
will put your organization in the best light.
➢ Components of Project Proposal
1. Executive Summary
2. Project Background
3. Project Description
4. Budget Information
5. Project Activities and Time Table
6. Project Management
7. Project Attachments

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