BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

BAHIR DAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

NAME: HABIB MUHAMMED

ID.NO: BDU 1201857

Submitedto:mr.tinbit
Submision date :10/05/2023
1. One element of cache design is the address of cache memory. Based on this
design element
a cache could be classified as using logical or physical address. Identify/draw
the organization
of the cache in each case and list out the main features of each design options.

A logical cache, also known as a virtual cache, stores data using virtual
addresses. The processor accesses the cache directly, without going through the
MMU. A physical cache stores data using main memory physical addresses.

One obvious advantage of the logical cache is that cache access speed is faster
than for a physical cache, because the cache can respond before the MMU
performs an address translation.
The disadvantage has to do with the fact that most virtual memory systems
supply each application with the same virtual memory address space. That is,
each application sees a virtual memory that starts at address 0. Thus, the same
virtual address in two different applications refers to two different physical
addresses.The cache memory must therefore be completely flushed with each
application context switch, or extra bits must be added to each line of the cache
to identify which virtual address space this address refers to.
Physical address is a location that exists in the memory; it allows accessing a
particular storage cell in the main memory..it is an accessible physical location
existing within the memory.
The user program does not have the ability to view the physical address
directly.

2. The different types of memories in the Memory Hierarchy Diagram could be

further classified
as: On chip storage; In board storage; Outboard storage; Offline storage.
Identify memories
that belong to each of the listed categories.

The computer memory can be divided into 5 major hierarchies that are based on
use as well as speed. A processor can easily move from any one level to some
other on the basis of its requirements. These five hierarchies in a system’s
memory are register, cache memory, main memory, magnetic disc, and magnetic
tap.

On chip storage:registers and cache.

In board storage: cache memory, register memory, main memory.

Outboard storage : Magnetic disk CD-ROM CD-RW DVD-RW DVD-RAM

Blu-Ray.

Offline storage: Magnetic tape

3.Further enhancement to DRAM architecture yields the Synchronous DRAM
(SDRAM) and
Double Data Rate DRAM (DDR DRAM). List out main characteristics of each.

Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

the SDRAM exchanges data with the processor synchronized to an external

clock signal and running at the full speed of the processor/memory bus
without imposing wait states.

With synchronous access, the DRAM moves data in and out under control of

the system clock. The processor or other master issues the instruction and
address

information, which is latched by the DRAM.the master can safely do other

tasks while the SDRAM is processing the request.SDRAM has a
multiple-bank internal architecture that improves opportunities for on-chip
parallelism.

the mode register and associated control logic is another key feature
differentiating SDRAMs from conventional DRAMs. It provides a mechanism
to customize the SDRAM to suit specific system needs.

he SDRAM performs best when it is transferring large blocks of data

sequentially, such as for applications like word processing, spreadsheets, and
multimedia

Doubledata-rate DRAM (DDR DRAM)

To address these shortcomings a newer version of SDRAM, referred to as

doubledata-rate DRAM (DDR DRAM) provides several features that
dramatically increase the data rate.

DR achieves higher data rates in three ways. First, the data transfer is
synchronized to both the rising and falling edge of the clock, rather than just
the rising edge. This doubles the data rate; hence the term double data rate.
Second, DDR uses higher clock rate on the bus to increase the transfer rate.
Third, a buffering scheme is used, as explained subsequently.

4. Solid State Drives (SSDs) are starting to replace or complement the Hard
Disk Drives (HDD) both as internal and external secondary memory.
Identify the basic characteristics, organization and advantages of SSDs
exhaustively
SSD is used to provide satisfactory performance and also to reduce power usage in an
existing computer system.Generally, SSD is developed using NAND flash memory,
DRAM-based device can also be deemed a solid-state drive.SSD handles vibration and
shock much better than that a rotating hard disk drive since it has no moving parts.The
most notable Solid state device form factor is 2.5 and it has a SATA interface. A 2.5”
SSD is installed in the same way as a regular hard disk drive.

Characteristics of Solid State Drive (SSD)

An SSD takes the place of an HDD in applications that require one of the following
characteristics:
 It has a higher Performance rate particularly small block transfers utilized for
assignable processing

 It has a Lower Absolute Cost when a lesser quantity of memory is required.

 It has a Smaller Physical Size that could be withdrawn in the case of SD Card,
Compact Flash, and so on.
Advantages of Solid State Drive (SSD)
Below are limited reasons why SSD look interesting to most people:

 They make use of fewer moving fractions which renders them less possible to
undergo damage from drops, vibrations, accidents, and others.

 Fewer moving fraction likewise implies that SSDs are much quicker, delivering
instant-load accomplishment.

 SSDs lightweight parts make them simpler to carry.

 They have a long battery life, which makes them require less power to operate on
like the hard drives that requires much power to operate.

Organization of SSDs
5 .Explain the difference between a simple CAV system and a multiple zoned
recording system.

A simple CAV system has a disk that is divided into a number of pie-shaped
sectors and into a series of concentric tracks.For the constant angular velocity
(CAV) system, the number of bits per track is constant.The advantage of using
CAV is that individual blocks of data can be directly addressed by track and
sector. To move the head from its current location to a specific address, it only
takes a short movement of the head to a specific track and a short wait for the
proper sector to spin under the head. The disadvantage of CAV is that the
amount of data thatcan be stored on the long outer tracks is the only same as
what can be stored on the short inner tracks

Because the density, in bits per linear inch, increases in moving from the
outermost track to the innermost track, disk storage capacity in a straightforward
CAV system is limited by the maximum recording density that can be achieved
on the innermost track. To increase density, modern hard disk systems use a
technique known as multiple zone recording, in which the surface is divided
into a number of concentric zones (16 is typical). Within a zone, the number of
bits per track is constant. Zones farther from the center contain more bits (more
sectors) than zones closer to the center.This allows for greater overall storage
capacity at the expense of somewhat more complex circuitry. As the disk head
moves from one zone to another, the length (along the track) of individual bits
changes, causing a change in the timing for reads and
writes.

1.1 I/O Channels

The I/O channel represents an extension of the DMA concept. An I/O channel

has the ability to execute I/O instructions, which gives it complete control over

I/O operations. In a computer system with such devices, the CPU does not
execute
I/O instructions. Such instructions are stored in main memory to be executed by
a

special-purpose processor in the I/O channel itself. Thus, the CPU initiates an I/O

transfer by instructing the I/O channel to execute a program in memory. The

program will specify the device or devices, the area or areas of memory for
storage,

priority, and actions to be taken for certain error conditions. The I/O channel
follows

these instructions and controls the data transfer.

Two types of I/O channels are common,selector channel controls multiple high-
speed devices and, at any one time, is dedicated to the transfer of data with one
of those devices

1.2 I/O processor

An input-output processor (IOP) is a processor with direct memory access

capability. In this, the computer system is divided into a memory unit and
number of processors.

Each IOP controls and manage the input-output tasks. The IOP is similar to CPU
except that it handles only the details of I/O processing. The IOP can fetch and
execute its own instructions. These IOP instructions are designed to manage I/O
transfers only.

Block Diagram Of I/O Processor

Below is a block diagram of a computer along with various I/O Processors. The
memory unit occupies the central position and can communicate with each
processor.

The CPU processes the data required for solving the computational tasks. The
IOP provides a path for transfer of data between peripherals and memory. The
CPU assigns the task of initiating the I/O program.The IOP operates independent
from CPU and transfer data between peripherals and memory.

The communication between the IOP and the devices is similar to the program
control method of transfer. And the communication with the memory is similar
to the direct memory access method.

The Input Output Processor is a specialized processor which loads and stores
data into memory along with the execution of I/O instructions. It acts as an
interface between system and devices. It involves a sequence of events to
executing I/O operations and then store the results into the memory

2 External Interconnection Standards In this section

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB is widely used for peripheral connections. It is the default interface for
slowerspeed devices, such as keyboard and pointing devices, but is also
commonly used for high-speed I/O, including printers, disk drives, and network
adapters.USB has gone through multiple generations.A USB system is controlled
by a root host controller, which attaches to devices to create a local network with
a hierarchical tree topology.
FireWire Serial Bus

FireWire was developed as an alternative to the small computer system interface

(SCSI) to be used on smaller systems, such as personal computers, workstations,
and servers. The objective was to meet the increasing demands for high I/O rates
on these systems, while avoiding the bulky and expensive I/O channel
technologies developed for mainframe and supercomputer systems.

FireWire provides for what is known as hot plugging, which makes it possible to
connect and disconnect peripherals without having to power the computer
system down or reconfigure the system.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

SCSI is a once common standard for connecting peripheral devices (disks,

modems, printers, etc.) to small and medium-sized computers. Although SCSI
has evolved to higher data rates, it has lost popularity to such competitors as
USB and FireWire in smaller systems.

The physical organization of SCSI is a shared bus, which can support up to 16 or

32 devices, depending on the generation of the standard.

Thunderbolt

The most recent, and one of fastest, peripheral connection technology to become
available for general-purpose use is Thunderbolt, developed by Intel with
collaboration from Apple. One Thunderbolt cable can manage the work
previously required of multiple cables.

InfiniBand

InfiniBand is an I/O specification aimed at the high-end server market.InfiniBand

has become a popular interface for storage area networking and other large
storage configurations. In essence, InfiniBand enables servers, remote storage,
and other network devices to be attached in a central fabric of switches and links.
The switch-based architecture can connect up to 64,000 servers, storage systems,
and networking devices.
PCIe (peripheral component interconnect express)
 An interface standard for connecting high-speed components.
 Uses high-bandwidth, processor-independent bus that can function as a mezzanine
or peripheral bus.
 Uses a point-to-point access bus that provides outstanding data transfer speed
improvement over its predecessors.
 Allow motherboard to connect with your PC’s most critical components and provide
key functionality.
 They supply with numerous customization and upgrade options when you’re ready
to venture beyond reloaded features like graphics and storage.
 PCIE slots are able to insert a variety of cards, such as graphics card, network card,
USB, SATA, operation card, video capture, transfer serial port, memory, solid state
drive(SSD ), wireless network card, mini PCIe to CF card module, Bluetooth card,
etc.

SATA (Serial ATA): a standard for connecting storage devices such as hard drives
and solid-state drives to a computer. Here are some of the key characteristics of SATA
external memory:
 Speed: SATA provides a data transfer rate of up to 6 Gbps, making it faster than its
predecessor, IDE.
 Size: SATA connectors are smaller and more compact than IDE connectors, which
makes them easier to use in smaller devices such as laptops and small form factor
desktop computers.
 Cable length: SATA cables can be up to 1 meter long, making them ideal for use in
desktop computers.
 Power consumption: SATA drives are designed to be power efficient, consuming
less power than IDE drives, which helps to extend the battery life of laptops and
other portable devices.
 Hot-swapping: SATA drives can be hot-swapped, which means that you can remove
and replace them without having to shut down the computer.
 Enhanced features: SATA includes features such as Native Command Queuing
(NCQ), which allows the drive to receive and execute multiple commands in the
order that optimizes performance, and TRIM support for solid-state drives, which
helps to keep them operating at optimal performance.
Compatibility: SATA is widely used and is compatible with a range of operating systems,
including Windows, MacOS,