ENG2613/501/0/2020

Tutorial Letter 501/0/2020

Applied English Literature for

Intermediate Phases – First Additional
Language (FAL)
ENG2613

Year module

Department of English Studies

This tutorial letter contains important information

about your module.

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 CONTENTS
Page

1 PREFACE .................................................................................................................................... 4
2 PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES ...................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Purpose ........................................................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Outcomes ..................................................................................................................................... 5
3 Overview of the Course .............................................................................................................. 6
3.1 ENG2613: Applied English Literature for Intermediate Phase – First Additional Language (FAL) 6
3.2 Prescribed Books .......................................................................................................................... 6
3.3 Recommended Books................................................................................................................... 6
4 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURES ............................................................................ 7
4.1 What is Literature(s) and How Did It Begin?.................................................................................. 8
4.2 Making Sense of English Literature............................................................................................. 10
4.2.1 Genre.......................................................................................................................................... 10
4.2.2 Fiction and Non-fiction ................................................................................................................ 14
4.4.2.1 Fiction..................................................................................................................................... 14
4.2.2.2 Non-Fiction ............................................................................................................................. 27
4.3 Parts of a Book ........................................................................................................................... 32
4.4 Self-Assessment Exercises......................................................................................................... 38
5 UNIT 2: POETRY IN MOTION ................................................................................................... 41
5.1 What is poetry? ........................................................................................................................... 42
5.2 The Language of Poetry ............................................................................................................. 45
5.2.1 Poetry Appreciation Exercise ...................................................................................................... 55
5.3 Making Poetry ‘come alive’ for Children ...................................................................................... 59
5.4 Self-Assessment Exercises......................................................................................................... 65
6 UNIT 3: TELL ME A STORY - PROSE ...................................................................................... 67
6.1 Storytelling is a form of prose literature ....................................................................................... 68
6.2 Literary Criticism: ways of interpreting literature .......................................................................... 71
6.2.1 Literary Criticism: analytical tools for interpretation ..................................................................... 78
6.3 Stories in the Classroom: Factors to consider ............................................................................. 86
6.3.1 Reading development ................................................................................................................. 97
6.4 Self-Assessment Exercises....................................................................................................... 105

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7 UNIT 4: SHOW ME A STORY - DRAMA ................................................................................. 107

7.1 What is Drama? ........................................................................................................................ 108
7.1.2 What are the Different Types of Drama? ................................................................................... 111
7.1.3 Features of Drama .................................................................................................................... 114
7.2 The Basic Elements of Drama .................................................................................................. 117
7.3 Self-Assessment Exercises....................................................................................................... 123
8 UNIT 5: DEVELOPING LITERACIES ...................................................................................... 125
8.1 Conceptualizing Multiliteracies/Multimodalities .......................................................................... 126
8.2 Development of literacies through the learning and teaching of literatures ................................ 130
8.3 Self-Assessment Exercises....................................................................................................... 136
9 UNIT 6: GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................... 137

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1 PREFACE
Dear ENG2613 Student
Welcome to this Applied English Literature module for Intermedia Phase (FAL). As the title of
this module implies, the course seeks to introduce you to English Literature and its applications
at the Intermedia Phase. The course is designed to equip you, as future teachers of English as
a First Additional Language with the knowledge of the workings of literature and how literature
reflects varying realities.
ENG2613 explores literary genres by first interrogating the notion of ‘literatures’. You will notice
that in this guide we refer to ‘literatures’ in the plural from rather than the traditional ‘literature’, in
the singular. This is done to highlight that although we explore literature through its
conventional genres of prose, poetry and drama, the expression of these genres across time
has changed. The idea of what constitutes a poem in the 21st Century is quite different to what
was considered poetry in the time of Shakespeare. Similarly, the manner in which we teach
and approach literature in the 21st Century has also changed. Literature in all its manifestations
is culturally bound and we therefore all experience literature in different ways. In your journey
through this module, we would like to continuously be aware of this plurality of literature(s) and
the literary experience.
In order to guide you through this module, each Unit has a number of Activities that will allow
you to revise, discuss and interrogate the concepts and notions relevant to each area of
literature and its expression. At the end of this Tutorial Letter, you will also find a glossary of
terms that are relevant to your exploration of literature. Make use of this tool to familiarise
yourself with the jargon of literary exploration and analysis.

Although this is a literature module, remember that no course lives in isolation. The skills you
have acquired in your language modules are also important. Literature is after all, the creative
expression of language. Without language, literature in its written and spoke form would not
exist. It is therefore important to keep the language skills you have learnt in mind when reading
and interacting with texts. Reading texts actively leads to understanding not only what it being
said, but how it is being said and why.
We hope you will find this module engaging and that the knowledge you gain in exploring the
different literary genres and their expression will allow you to bring the joy of literary
engagement into your classroom.

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2 PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES

2.1 Purpose
The purpose of this module is to equip students with:

 the skill of reading short passages of children’s literature in three different genres: prose,
poetry and drama with close attention paid to author’s creative choices regarding
language usage;

 The ability to write about these passages coherently and with compliance to the
requirements of academic English.

2.2 Outcomes
Outcome 1
Students should be able to identify the typical English language attributes of prose, poetry and
drama.
Outcome 2
Students should be able to discuss the use of figurative language in a variety of literary texts
and genres.
Outcome 3
Students should be able to read literary language as a means of positioning the reader in order
to elicit a particular response.
Outcome 4
Students should be able to discuss the creative choices made in literary texts.
Outcome 5
Students should be able to employ key concepts and debates in children’s literary theory.
Outcome 6
Students should be able to identify various storytelling approaches such as myths, legends,
sagas and tales.

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 3 Overview of the Course
3.1 ENG2613: Applied English Literature for Intermediate Phase – First Additional
Language (FAL)
The Content page of this Tutorial Letter will provide you with a quick overview of what this
course entails. There are six units in this Tutorial Letter which includes the Glossary of key
terms and their meanings as used in each individual unit.
As an introduction to ENG2613, Unit 1 interrogates the concept of Literatures as opposed to the
concept of Literature in the singular. Units 2-4 applies the concept of literatures to the genres of
Poetry, Prose and Drama. In each of these units the genres are interrogated from a
multicultural perspective. In Unit 5, the question of Literacies and the development of literacies
through literature is explored.
The Units are set up in such a manner as to assist you in your studying. At the beginning of
each unit you are provided with an outline of the outcomes as well as a study programme. The
Units are designed to be interactive which means that each section within a unit has activities
for you to engage with either individually or within your tutor groups. The Tutorial Letter is
meant to assist you as you work through your textbooks. To this end, each unit references the
relevant chapters or sections in your textbooks as well as additional resources that have been
used. At the end of each unit there are self-assessment exercises. These exercises should be
used as revision and assessment tools.

3.2 Prescribed Books

Horning, K.T. 2010. From Cover to Cover. Evaluating and Reviewing Children’s Books. Revised
Edition. NY: Collins.
Reynolds, K. 2011. Children’s literature: a very short introduction. NY: Oxford University Press.

3.3 Recommended Books

Finazzo, D.A. 1997. All for the children. Multicultural Essentials of Literature. New York: Delmar
Publishers.
Lynch-Brown, C.G.,Tomlinson, C.M. & Short, G.S. 2014. Pearson New International Edition.
Essentials of children’s Literature. London: Pearson Education Limited.

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4 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURES

AN OUTLINE OF THIS UNIT

When you have worked through this study unit you should be able to:

1. Discuss the meaning of literature(s) by looking at theory, history and genres;

2. Understand the importance of literature in a child’s development;
3. Differentiate between Fiction and Non-fiction texts for children;
4. Understand how books are produced and constructed.

This guide is based on the following textbooks and chapters:

Cover to Cover: Chapters 1 & 2

Children’s Literature: a very short introduction: Introduction & Chapter 1.

Study programme
Activity Time spent (approximately)
Reading the textbook chapters 6 hours
Defining Literature(s) + exercises 2 hours
The value of child’s literature + exercises 3 hours
Fiction and Non-Fiction + exercises 6 hours
Books and Publishing + exercises 2 hours
Assignment: Preparing; Drafting; Revising 6 hours

Activity

Before you start, reflect on the following questions:

1. How would you recognise or describe literature?

2. What makes people enjoy literature?
3. Is literature important in children’s lives?
4. How do you find the right literature for children?

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This is a starting point for your study of this module. Keep your answers in mind or jot them
down.

4.1 What is Literature(s) and How Did It Begin?

Literature refers to humanity’s entire body of shared expression in any size, shape or form. It is
a body of shared texts with cultural meaning and value.

For thousands of years people made sense of their lives through stories, histories or songs
which were passed on from one generation to the next. Many cultures expressed ideas about
their lives and their history in oral performances. These stories or histories could change over
time or even be forgotten. When stories were written they could not be changed or lost.

Since the invention of mass printing, 500 years ago, and the development of new technologies,
literature has developed into many new forms.

These days, libraries and bookshops make books available to many people and literature can
be enjoyed as printed hardcopy books, magazines or eBooks, to name a few. Literary
publications can be viewed on stage, television or in the cinemas.

Why is Literature(s) in the singular and plural form?

The history of literature shows that people’s forms of expression change across time. There is
therefore no single form of literature (the traditional view was limited to Western norms of
literature).

Using the plural form thus reminds us that each culture, for example, Asian, African or Oriental,
has their own types of literature. The plural form reminds us of this diversity.

People’s responses to literature have also changed. Therefore, there is no single, unchanged
interpretation of the term ‘literature’. The norm of ‘what is literature changes.

Using the plural form thus reminds us of the modern view that literature is a plural concept
inclusive of culture, diversity and change.

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ACTIVITY 1
The speakers below are debating the meaning of literature.
Read the dialogue and work out if their answers are correct:

 What does Speaker 1 say about literature?

 What does Speaker 2 say about literature?
 Which answer do you believe is most correct? Why?
 Help both speakers by giving your definition of literature.

Dialogue Worksheet Maker http://www.mes-english.com/worksheets/dialogmaker.php, accessed 14 December 2017

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4.2 Making Sense of English Literature

The literature chosen for this course is English literature. There are two main types of prose:

 Fiction and
 Non-fiction.

Texts have been categorised into genres for convenience.

There are 3 main categories or genre:

 Prose,
 Poetry and
 Drama.

4.2.1 Genre
Each of these genres looks different on the printed page and uses different language. It is
important to use the right terms for each genre.

 Prose uses chapters to divide sections of the text. Prose consists of fiction and non-
fiction and its language sounds like everyday speech. Novels and short stories are
common examples.
 Poetry uses stanzas to divide sections of the text. Poetry, or verse, is written in lines of
different lengths. These lines are carefully arranged with patterns of sound and rhythm.
 Drama uses Acts for different sections. Acts can be divided into Scenes for a change of
situation or place. Drama lines can be either prose or poetry.

Sub-genres
Literature is like a tree. It has 3 main branches (genres). These 3 genres have grown their own
little branches, called sub-genre. Add to the diagram below as you learn more about each
genre and their sub-genres.

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In this course the use of a wide variety of texts is encouraged for children: fiction and non-
fiction, fantasy and information books.

Before we continue to look at the different types of texts, let us take a moment to explore the
question of:

What do children gain from literature? ‘A place to grow’

1. Vocabulary and language development

Literature enriches children’s vocabulary. This enables them to express and understand their
experiences, emotions and relationships. Children realise that language is not just for getting
things done, or understanding how the world works, but for making sense of their lives.

2. Literacy

Literature helps children achieve better literacy because it motivates children to read. There
are many key skills linked to literacy, especially those required in the modern world of
information technology (IT).

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DID YOU KNOW?

There are governments and organizations that believe literacy is essential for individuals. This is
definitely the case in South Africa.

In 2016 the International Reading and Literacy Study tested Grade 4 students across South
Africa in their home language. The poor results have caused deep concern.

Fortunately there are South African organizations helping to combat illiteracy. Read to Rise is a
literacy organisation which provides schools with mini-libraries. There is also Read to Lead, a 5
year literacy campaign which was launched by the government in 2015.

3. Imagination

Literature excites a child’s imagination and opens up their mind to new horizons or new
possibilities. This encourages a child to think, to question, and to challenge.

By stimulating their imagination and intellect, literature builds a child’s critical awareness. This
empowers their decision-making.

4. Emotional and psychological well-being

Literature contributes to a child’s emotional and psychological well-being. The world of

imagination offers children a safe place to work through issues like conflict. This is why dream
experiences are common in child stories. The dream world in fiction, helps children to deal with
hidden fears or anxiety imaginatively, and therefore safely. For example, The house in the night
by Swanson (2008), shows a young girl’s creativity in her dreams at night.

From stories and other literature, children learn new ways to express their thoughts and feelings
when they read about the characters. Bruno Bettelheim, a child psychologist, noticed that
children who are playing, act out situations similar to those they have encountered in stories.

By gaining in confidence and getting in touch with their feelings, children grow in self-
realisation as individuals. This leads to a more secure sense of their own identity and how they
relate to their culture.

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5. Meaning

Literature is an enjoyable medium for a child to gain understanding of the world. Images,
characters and narratives become a meaning-making process. When Bettelheim worked with
severely disturbed children, he saw his main task as restoring meaning to these children’s lives.
He believed that literature is one form of providing children with meaningful experience. (A good
example, for instance, is the book Daddy’s roommate by Wilhoite (2000), where the child reader
is exposed to different types of families and learns the importance of love.)

Literature shapes moral values; a sense of right and wrong. Children discover ideas such as:
crime does not pay, good will triumph over evil.

ACTIVITY 3

Create a checklist of 12 points to assess the content of a child’s book of fiction.

Sum up the main values presented in the preceding section.

This is what a checklist should look like. One criterion is given as an example:

CHECKLIST ON CONTENT OF A STORY (Suitable for Ages 8-11)

TITLE:

AUTHOR:

CRITERIA  or X

There is age-appropriate as well as challenging vocabulary to

1 extend a child.

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4.2.2 Fiction and Non-fiction

Fiction is writing created from the imagination such as novels or short stories. It is not
presented as fact, though it may be based on real life.

Non-fiction is about real people or events based on fact although there might be some fictional
elements. Examples are travel writing, histories or speeches.

Audience: Remember that literature is written for different audiences: some for children and
some for adults. Often there is no distinction.

NOTE:

This module will refer to fiction and non-fiction texts for children. The other modules will
cover the other genres in more detail.

4.4.2.1 Fiction
The power of storytelling

For thousands of years storytelling has captured the human imagination. Stories entertain and
inform people about life.

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Over centuries stories have become part of human culture: its religion, beliefs and knowledge
systems. For instance, there are stories about how the world began and why natural
phenomena such as the four seasons occur. Stories thus create meaning and help humans to
make sense of the world.

Today stories are printed in books and can be performed in movies, plays or on TV.

Why do stories appeal to a child?

Stories are enjoyed from an early age. They are powerful because they appeal to a child’s
imagination and take them on an emotional journey

An outline of this imaginative, emotional journey:

A story unfolds, the action rises  children are caught up in the action.

The main character faces difficulties  children sympathise with the hero.

The hero shows qualities of strength  children admire the hero.

The hero solves his difficulties  children feel safe.

Which fiction is the best choice: realism or fantasy?

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Look at the differences in the chart below.

Realism means ‘true to life; based on fact; a representation of the world as it is and can be
observed. However, it is not real life but an imitation of life. It can be 1 or 2 steps away from
reality depending how imaginative it the content is.
Fantasy means ‘far removed from life or unreal’.

ACTIVITY 4

1. In your own words describe the differences between Fantasy and Realistic literature.
2. Is realistic literature true?
3. Can you think of stories that fit into these different categories of fiction?

Building your knowledge of children’s literature will be a very rewarding experience.

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Fantasy Fiction

A Fantasy Story discussed.

Where the Wild Things are by Maurice Sendak (Published 1963)

This story was published in 1963 and regained popularity when the movie was released in
2009. It is enjoyed by adults and children, but the main character Max is 8 years old. The
reading level is aimed at 4 to 8-year-olds.

Images:https://www.google.co.za/search?q=images+of+where+the+wild+things+are&rlz : accessed 24 December 2017

The dream world of a child is often used as a convention in stories to help a child deal with
some hidden fear or anxiety. At first, some parents thought this modern fairy-tale had ugly,
terrifying monsters or ‘wild things’ that would scare a child. However, the majority of children
love the story, do not fear the monsters and relate very well to the hero, Max.

A summary of the content of the story

While reading the story and analysis below, ask yourself why an adult would also enjoy the
story.

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Max is sent to his room without any supper after putting on his fantasy wolf costume and doing
naughty things. He falls asleep and has a dream about sailing away in a boat to a faraway land
where there are wild creatures. He shows no fear and becomes their king. With Max in charge,
the wild things are commanded to ‘let the wild rumpus start!’ But he grows tired of their
craziness and sends his subjects to bed without their dinner, just as his mother did to him. He
begins to miss his home and decides it is time to leave the wild things and sail back to the place
where he is loved most of all.

The value of this story

It deals with real issues and so conveys meaning to a child. It expresses a child’s anger towards
those who restrict and discipline them. Through the power of his imagination, Max is lifted from
the real world. He sails to a land of monsters, shows he is fearless, and becomes their king.

He spurs the wild creatures on to wild adventures. A child reader will identify with the wonderful
freedom of Max’s imaginary world. But more importantly, when Max becomes tired of the
monsters’ destructive behaviour, the child reader will realise that Max discovers the reason for
his parent’s punishment of him.

When Max returns home and finds a warm supper waiting, the child reader, like Max, is
reassured by the love and security associated with adults. The imaginary world of Max resolves
his inner conflict.

Activity 5

1. Although there is only this short description of ‘Where the Wild Things are’, what are your
main impressions of this story? What is its appeal and value?

2. Write a short paragraph using the following sentences as your introduction: ‘Children have
a love of adventure, nonsense and humour. This book fulfils these needs because… But
it also offers…’

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Other fantasy fiction choices

Harry Potter, for example, is a choice that can be made for readers 8 years and older. It is a
series of fantasy novels by J. K. Rowling rated as YAL (Young Adult Literature) and is popular
worldwide. The novels track the life of a young wizard (a male witch), and his friends who are at
Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story concerns Harry’s struggle against
Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard who wants to control the world. The first novel in the series,
Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, was published in 1997.

Fantasy Fiction: Arguments and Counterarguments

There are adults who view fantasy in a negative light and believe that realistic fiction is better for
children. This brings us to one of the central facts of child literature:

 It is adults who create published children’s literature;

 Adults are guided by their expectations of what childhood should be;
 Child literature therefore contains constructed versions of childhood. That is, stories are
created according to how adults interpret childhood.
Concerns Counterarguments

Witches and wizards encourage Children are exposed to good and evil spirits in
interest in witchcraft and magic religion, not only in fantasy.

Witches and their dark magic Fear about the world already exists in a child. It
create fear. is a form of therapy for children to confront
these inner fears. Fairytales, for example, offer
children the promise that if they are
courageous they can overcome any obstacle.

Fantasy is escapist and doesn’t Fantasy tales help children to come to terms
tackle real situations in a child’s with the world by addressing the inner world of
life. the child.

The make-believe world of fantasy In fact familiar setting and situations are
is too abstract for a child. reshaped and rearranged in fantasy tales.
There are recognisable scenes and objects
included in a fantasy world, like houses and
rivers.

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Realistic Fiction

Realism means ‘true to life; based on fact; a presentation of the world as it is and can be
observed.

Fiction means ‘an imaginative representation of life; it is not real life but an imitation of it’.

To sum up this contradiction, realistic fiction, presents stories that are close to reality but not
real.

A Realistic Story discussed

Realistic texts are regularly used in schools as core readers. Here is an example of a short story
titled, Ayanda’s triumph from a Grade 5 Home Language Core Reader. The story shows how
Ayanda’s situation changes from one of isolation and loneliness to acceptance and
appreciation.

Image 1 Image 2

Image 1: http://clipart-library.com/clipart/rcnrpaeei.htm#
Image 2: https://www.google.co.za/search?q=family+images+clipart&rlz=1C5CHFA_

Ayanda’s Triumph

Extract from: Solutions ENG HL Grade 5 Core Reader Extract: 37

Ayanda was not in a good mood. From where he was hiding in his bedroom, he could clearly
hear the laughter and happy voices drifting in from outside. He heard his dad’s deep voice and
knew he was entertaining the guests by telling one of his many classroom tales.

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Mr Mbanjwa, Ayanda’s father, was a teacher at a local high school and he knew how to make
people laugh. Everyone burst into laughter as Mr Mbanjwa finished his story. Their laughter
irritated Ayanda. He didn’t want to be there. He missed his friends and his neighbourhood; he
wanted to go back.

The Mbanjwa family had recently moved into a new house and Mr Mbanjwa had invited a
couple of friends and neighbours to a braai. Although there were other children at the braai,
they didn’t pay much attention to Ayanda, who was several years younger than they were. The
youngest was a boy in Grade 8 and high-school kids took no notice of 11-year-olds like Ayanda.

A summary of the whole story:

Ayanda hides away from the party group feeling sorry for himself. There is a robbery, and his
family and others are held-up by robbers demanding their valuables. Although fearful, Ayanda is
able to use his cell phone for help, press the alarm button, and so ensure that everyone is
rescued. He is cheered as a hero.

ACTIVITY 6

Consider the plot of the story:

1. Who is the hero? Why would Grade 5’s identify with him?
2. What are the difficulties he faces?
3. Does he show qualities of courage?
4. What is Ayanda’s real triumph?

How does the story appeal to a child reader and provide meaning?

1. Young readers connect with Ayanda’s emotions of loneliness and resentment. He has to
adapt to change but his parents seem insensitive.
2. Ayanda’s physical triumph is overcoming his fear of the robbers. Through caution and
bravery he interrupts the robbers.
3. Ayanda’s emotional triumph is overcoming the fears and insecurities of his inner world. His
desire to protect his parents becomes a positive experience.
4. The story gives meaning to a children’s experience of change, parental conflict and the
need for reassurance. In the end Ayanda no longer feels isolated and insecure.

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Realistic Fiction: Arguments

Ayanda’s Triumph is an example of realistic writing created for children.

However, there have been arguments against this type of writing. Let’s look critically at
Ayanda’s story:

Criticisms Examples in Ayanda’s triumph?

The children are always middle Ayanda’s family is middle class. (His father is a
class teacher; Ayanda has his own cell phone and lives
a comfortable lifestyle)
They live in suburban areas Ayanda’s family is suburban. (There is a
(city life) ‘neighbourhood’; there are police to phone; a local
high school).
There is stereotyping of gender The hero of this story is a boy. (Why could there
roles not be a policewoman rescuer too?)

Why is it important for educators to be aware of these factors in realistic fiction?

Realistic fiction seems like real life. But educators need to be aware of the culture, values and
beliefs represented in any story. Most contemporary stories try to be inclusive of gender,
race and culture so that no child feels excluded.

Remember however, that all stories for children are created with good intentions.

Activity 7

The story ends with Ayanda feeling that everything is going to be fine.

He feels that ‘even living in the new neighbourhood was not going to be as bad as he had
thought’.

1. Consider how ‘realistic’ this is. After experiencing a terrifying home invasion would a young
child really feel so assured in his new neighbourhood?

2. What questions would you ask to elicit children’s interpretations of the ‘happy’ ending?
(Ayanda’s belief that ‘even living in the new neighbourhood was not going to be as bad as
he had thought’).

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3. An educator can facilitate inclusiveness by finding elements to which all children relate. In
Ayanda’s case, moving home brings unwelcome change. A teacher could also discuss the
life skills associated with this.

4. Which elements in this story distinguish it from fantasy fiction?

Children’s Literature: Which fiction is best?

“Do you think the children will enjoy reading this type of book?” School librarians may ask you to
help them choose suitable books.

Step 1: Look at the books

Here is a list of basic guidelines on choosing child fiction. In addition, each point has current
theories on children’s literature from the textbook by Kimberley Reynolds 2011: 1 – 30

General guidelines Recent theory

1. Consider whether the book The concept of a ‘children’ literature as we know it
can be classified as child today, took root in the 1700s when commercial
literature. publishing for children began. However, child’s
literature began long ago when stories were
adapted so children could learn and enjoy them.
Today child’s literature includes a wide variety of
genres: everything from folk tales, legends from
preliterate eras, to such things as computer
games in our transliterate age. Media sources
and IT are now also regarded as children’s
literature. Remember that there is no fixed, set
definition of children’s literature. As interpretations
of childhood change so too, does child literature.
For convenience, children’s literature now applies
to those aged 0-16 (in the UK and US). Bear in
mind that Western countries have dominated
publishing.

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 2. Determine the interests, Books should be chosen with this diversity in
needs and abilities of the mind, including gender and culture.
child readers.
3. Consider whether the book As ideas about childhood change so do ideas
provides enjoyment for about the value of books in a young child’s life.
children. In the past there was more emphasis on
educating children rather that entertaining
them. These days it is vice-versa.
4. Analyse the story. A book’s This is affected by how writers perceive
narrative should deal with children. Writers address children based on
meaningful issues in a child’s their constructions of childhood. This in turn
life. It should also appeal to a influences how adults view childhood, and
range of emotions to which indeed how children see themselves.
the child can relate (fear, Versions of childhood change through time and
hope, joy, success) vary according to social environments. The
history of children’s literature from ancient to
modern times highlights the changing
perceptions of childhood.
5. Define the main characters. Characters in fiction are examples to child
They should be clearly readers. The main characters model a
defined, show strengths and successful and fulfilling life. But modern ideas
weaknesses, and grow and about childhood have changed. Writers now
develop in the course of the take into account the more complex lives of
story. children. Teenage readers have also
influenced the content of child literature and
role models who are relevant.

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6. Assess the style of writing. Children’s books are generally regarded as

Books should be appealing shorter and simpler. But this is contradicted by
and written in a style that is many of the works enjoyed by children. There
clear and evocative. It should are long works like Harry Potter, and children
use language that is age- can enjoy complicated vocabulary. Also,
appropriate. simple writing does not mean that the book’s
content is simplistic. Simple writing can have a
depth of thought and meaning. Simplistic
writing uses language and forms of address
that speak down to a child.
7. Evaluate the attractiveness of Illustrations are features used by publishers to
the pictures and illustrations. attract child readers. New print technologies
They should enhance and have made this easier and very innovative.
complement the text. The modern generation is regarded as very
visual.
Publishers use paratextual features of books
such as handy sizes, colourful covers and
novelty packaging to attract young readers
(and their buying parent).

8. Books should not include Modern writing for children has challenged
sex, bad language or too much many of these traditional assumptions.
violence. The ending should be Readers in their late teens read children’s
uplifting rather than depressing literature. Sex, swearing and some violence
and demonstrate clear moral occur and stories can sometimes end in a
boundaries. depressing or ambiguous way.

Step 2: Think about context: Past and Present

Looking at time and place:

Child literature is based on constructions of childhood and reflects the perceptions writers have
of children and childhood at a particular time and place. Below is a quick history of these
changing constructions based on Anglo-American culture:

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During the 17th and 18th centuries children were regarded as minors who needed to be taught
dutiful behaviour so they could become good citizens.

In the 19th century, views of childhood expanded. Childhood was viewed as a time of playful
adventure, even for girls.

In the early 20th century, significant changes occurred in ideas about childhood. After the World
Wars in Europe, adults were disillusioned. Childhood thus became romanticized as a time of
freedom, and creativity. However, child characters in stories were stereotypically white, middle
class and living in a patriarchal culture.

As the 20th century progressed, new developments emerged. A teen culture was born as well as
the idea of a conflicted childhood. The 20 th Century is called a child-centred age and the 1987
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child affirms this. There is greater sensitivity to
diverse childhood experiences: “different backgrounds, ethnicities and latterly sexualities”;
different types of families: blended, single-parent, same-sex (Reynolds: 23).

Modes of writing have become more varied in a post-modern age. Tragedy, realism, comedy
and fantasy are used to capture the range of issues children deal with today.

These days, literature tries to be representative of diversity. Plurality, multiculturalism and

multilingualism need to be considered in the classroom.

ACTIVITY 8

Think of a child’s book and write a short evaluation for a school librarian. You may like to
imagine a particular context for the school.

Evaluation means that you must offer more than a personal response to the book. Your
professional responsibility is to offer an informed, well-supported response. Here are some
ideas:

 Identify the writer’s construction of childhood and how children are represented in the
book;
 Discuss whether child readers would relate to the book;
 Suggest groups of children to whom this book would appeal.

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4.2.2.1 Non-Fiction

Books of information
Nonfiction is an essential part of every child’s library whether
the child reads it for specific information, recreation, or both.
(Kathleen Horning 2010: 23)

Writing within an American context, the author believes that non-fiction for children has gained
more status since the 1980s. Three factors have made a difference: awarding more book
medals to non-fiction, the development of a visually-oriented public and improved technology.

Factors influencing the status of non-fiction today

 Adult and children nowadays, have a stronger response to pictures than printed words. For
example photo-biographies and photo essays have a strong appeal.
 There are new, unconventional methods in non-fiction. A series like the Magic School Bus
combines fact and fiction.
 The Newberry Medal and Caldecott Medal have a great impact on the popularity of child
literature. People rely on these awards when looking for excellent books. Traditionally,
non-fiction is given less attention.
 The Robert F. Silbert International Book Medal was created in 2001 to compensate for this
neglect. It is awarded to non-fiction only. The winning books are merited on both text and
illustrations.

A Quality Guide for Children’s Non-Fiction:

ACCURACY AND RESPONSIBILITY

An author shows respect to a young reader:

 By ensuring the content of a book is accurate. The author’s qualifications must be

provided on or in the book, or the names of the specialists they consulted.
 By the use of inclusive language and illustrations. Through providing realistic diversity in
illustrations, no boys and girls from any background should feel excluded. In other words, if
possible, topics should be approached with the widest vision possible.

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ORGANISATION

Look critically at how the book is organised. Try to gain a sense of how sub-topics fit together:

 Enumeration: A subject is organised into categories. A book on house designs for

example could be arranged into types of houses: country, beach, city.
 Chronology: timelines are usually followed in history books. Sometime the direction can
be reversed from past to present to create more impact.
 Table of contents: These are given in longer books. They provide an overview of the
book’s organisation. However, sometime the chapter headings indicate the sequence of
information.
 Index: This is an alphabetical list at the end of the book that helps you to find specific
information in the book.
 Moving from the familiar to the unfamiliar: This pattern is used for younger children.
Using their general knowledge for instance on birds, a book could move from garden birds
to less familiar birds of prey.

ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustrations have become one of the most important features of non-fiction. It is also vital to
question whether they are up-to-date and clearly captioned:

 Graphic novels: Some of these fall under non-fiction, like biographies.

 Scientific texts: Pictures in the form of photographs or drawings not only illustrate the text
(printed information) but invite children into the scientific process. Children feel like
scientist themselves when they are asked to analyse details in pictures.
 Colour photographs: These allow children to gain a sense of extreme places like space
and deserts.
 Photo-essays: These combine text and photographs and are very effective in conveying
real life experience to children. A photo-essay could for example, document a typical day
in the life of a South African social worker.
 Authenticity: History books that incorporate copies of letter, reports, diary entries and
business account are exciting for children. These items of primary reseach make children
feel like real historians.

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DESIGN

Look carefully at elements of design that create originality and convenience:

 Typography: This is one of the most important elements of design. It refers to the size,
styles, colour and arrangement of type. In other word, it is the physical appearance of
printed words. Using the same style of font, for instance, links sections together. On the
other hand, contrasting typography can indicate difference.
 Format: Scrapbook style for example, can bring a period of history to life.
 Appropriateness: Assess whether the type size is suitable for the intended audience.
Children react negatively if they feel the type is too large for their age group. Too much
printed text is unappealing to them.
 Placement of illustrations: The pictures should not be inconveniently placed. A reader
should not have to constantly flip over pages to match information with the text.

WRITING STYLE

This determines the success of a book.

 Clarity: the prose must be clear and engaging for a child.

 Tone: A motivated writer has an enthusiastic tone make his content sound exciting. A tone
that is too simplistic talks down to young readers and disinterests them. A respectful,
conversational tone is highly effective. Humour can also enhance the content.

DOCUMENTATION OF SOURCES AT THE END OF THE BOOK

 There is no clear agreement on how detailed this should be. There can be footnotes or
endnotes listing sources used in research. The use of primary as opposed to secondary
sources is evidence of more original research.

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ACTIVITY 9

Can you think of non-fiction books suitable for South African learners? Here are two websites to
explore:

 http://www.penguinrandomhouse.co.za/childrens-non-fiction

 http://www.se7en.org.za/2016/03/18/se7ens-great-big-list-of-the-100-best-non-fiction-
books-for-kids
Non-fiction example: An autobiography

Extract from: (From: Solutions ENG HL Grade 6 Learner’s Book: 110.

While you are reading make notes about the following:

 Is the language appropriate to a Grade 6 level?

 How is the writer’s style effective? Think of the use of first person narrative, ‘I’; the relaxed,
conversational tone; humorous details like the ducks and sheep.
 Is this a suitable text for learners?

Mark Shuttleworth

I’m the founder of the Ubuntu Project, a free operating system for computers, that is available
worldwide.

I’m passionate about ensuring that everyone everywhere will be able to have access to free
software one day.

A long time ago, on 18 September 1973 to be exact. I was born in the dusty mining town of
Welkom in the Free State.

Mom, Dad and their three children moved to Cape Town. There I studied finance and
information technology (IT) at the University of Cape Town after completing my schooling.

I then went on to found my internet security company called Thawte, which was bought out by
Verisign in 1999.

I also founded The Shuttleworth Foundation, which funds creative people who can bring about
change in society.

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I moved to London in 2001 and began preparing for the First African in Space mission, training
in Star City, Russia, and Khazakstan.

In April 2002, I flew in space, as a cosmonaut, to the International Space Station.

Today, I live on the lovely Isle of Man, along with the equally lovely Claire, 12 ducks, and
occasionally, the neighbour’s sheep.

ACTIVITY 10

Think of some design elements for this text. What illustrations would you choose and how would
you place them.

Which typography would be effective?

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4.3 Parts of a Book
A summary of (Horning 2010: Chap 1).

The Binding

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The Front Matter

Picture 1: The half title page

Picture 2: The copyright page

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Picture 3: The title page

Picture 4: The contents page

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Picture 5: The preface

The Back Matter

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Types of Publishing

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The Publishing Process

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REFERENCES

Horning, K.T. 2010. From cover to cover: evaluating and reviewing children’s books. Revised
edition. NY: Collins.

Literature 2017. Britannica Kids. Available at:

https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/literature/275501 (accessed on14 December 2017).

Reynolds, K. 2011. Children’s literature: a very short introduction. NY: Oxford University Press.

Strauss, C.H.B. & Moller, E. 2012. Solutions for all English home language. Grade 6 learner’s
book. Gauteng: Macmillan.

Viljoen, L. & Latha, R.H., (eds) (Sa). English: modes of meaning: mythology and folklore;
literacy and children’s literature: Only Study Guide for EED203L. Pretoria: Unisa

4.4 Self-Assessment Exercises

Well done on having completed Unit 1. You now have the opportunity to evaluate your
knowledge of key elements in this unit.

Here are questions on each section with points to guide your response:

1. What is the meaning of literature(s)?

This broadly covers literary theory, history and genres: The traditional versus the broader
multicultural definition of literature(s); the cultural role of storytelling across time; the main
genres and sub-genres of literature.

2. In what ways does literature offer children ‘a place to grow?’

Literature facilitates the development of vocabulary, literacy, imagination, emotional and

psychological well-being as well as moral values.

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3. How do fiction and nonfiction prose texts impact children?

There are the two main genre of prose: fiction (creative) vs nonfiction (fact). Fiction offers
children the power of storytelling with two main sub-genres: realistic fiction versus fantasy.
However, there are arguments about the benefits of fantasy and realism texts for children. It is
also important for teachers to be sensitive to the values and beliefs represented in texts. The
criteria for choosing suitable fiction for children are: style, language level, relevance, dramatic
appeal and moral value. Non-fiction has become more appealing to children and the criteria for
selecting good texts are: writing style, accuracy of detail, illustrations, organization and
documentation of sources.

4. Describe the parts of a book, types of publications and the processes.

The main parts of a book are the binding, front matter and back matter. The main three types of
publications are: text books, mass market books and trade books. The publishing processes
follow the same basic paths but deviate after editing depending on whether the book is
illustrated or plain text: (author/artist editor - printing).

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5 UNIT 2: POETRY IN MOTION

AN OUTLINE OF THIS UNIT

When you have worked through this study unit you should be able to:

1. Define poetry;
2. Discuss the value of poetry;
3. Understand poetry;
4. Gained insight into how to Teach poetry to children;
5. Identify children’s preferences in poetry.

This Unit is based on the following texts:

‘Tongues of their Mothers’: the 1st 2 Stanzas;
Cover to Cover: Chapter 4;
Wessels Maguritte: Practical Guide to facilitating Language Learning: Chapter 9;
Lynch-Brown, Tomlinson & Short: Essentials of children’s Literature (51-71);
Robin Malan, Poetry Works: Introduction

Study programme

Activity Time spent (approximately)

Reading Textbook Chapter 2 hours
Background to Poetry and exercises 3 hours
Poetry types and devices and exercises 6 hours
Poetry Appreciation and exercise 3 hours
Teaching Poetry to Children and exercises 4 hours
Children’s preferences in poetry 1 hour
Drafting and revising your assignment 6 hours

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ACTIVITY 1
Try these questions before you begin reading through the Unit.

Keep your answers in mind as you work through the Study Material.

1. How would you recognise or describe poetry?

2. What makes poetry meaningful?
3. What is the best type of poetry for children?
4. How can poetry be made meaningful to children?

This unit is called POETRY IN MOTION. This reminds educators that poetry must not be left on
the page but brought to life. The printed text should not be the only source of meaning. We can
also make meaning through visuals, movement, sound effects or just speaking. In other words,
poetry should be extended into multimodal experiences.

5.1 What is poetry?

What is the difference between poetry and prose? It has been said that prose is like walking
but poetry is like dancing. Prose is the form of writing in novels, textbooks, emails, reports.
Poetry can be in many styles or forms.

Poetry is not easy to define but it is easy to recognise.

ACTIVITY 2

Look at the poem below and think about the following:

1. What is the sound, look and shape of the poem?

2. What are the dictionary definitions of whispering, shouting, laughing, sighing, a star and a
moon? Are they written in prose?
3. Think of how the poet has used these ordinary objects and events. In a few words, he not
only describes poetry but its insight into life and ourselves.

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What's A Poem? by Charles Ghigna

A whisper,
a shout,
thoughts turned
inside out.

A laugh,
a sigh,
an echo
passing by.

A rhythm,
a rhyme,
a moment
caught in time.

A moon,
a star,
a glimpse
of who you are.
From: http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/poetry/whatsa.html retrieved 29.12.17

From this short poem you can see that a poem works on many levels:

1st level is literal: The poet refers to the actual things we do and see in life.

2nd level is figurative: The poet compares moments in life to images in poems.

3rd level is symbolic: Poems are a vision of our inner and outer world.

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How did poetry begin?

There are theories that poetry began thousands of years ago as part of rituals in early
societies. Magical spells were chanted to bring a good hunt or harvest. Oral histories of
greatness were probably recited in poetic form. The sound and rhythm of poetry would make it
enjoyable and easier to remember.

Whatever the truth of these theories, in time there began to be objects called poems.
Although people no longer believe that poetry is magic that works on the natural world, they
believe that it works in powerful ways on the human spirit.

What does poetry offer?

All good literature is enriching, but there are reasons why poetry is special.

It offers surprises
 It causes us to look at everyday life and ordinary things in new ways;
 It gives us fresh visions about life;
 It deepens and awakens new insights;
 It opens a window on to thought or experience;
 The poet surprises readers with unexpected but perfect comparisons;
 Poetry extends the meaning we find in everyday life.

It makes connections
 Poetry connects with our hearts and minds by drawing on all five senses.
 We feel connected as individuals to the emotions of all humans.

It is a powerful experience
 ‘Dynamite comes in small packages’: poems are compact. There can be no wasted words
to achieve the desired effects.
 A poem is to a novel what a smart phone is to a computer. Poems seem amazing. They
achieve so much but are so small and compact.
 Imaginative and beautiful language is used precisely and rhythmically.
 Poetry invites us to new worlds of thoughts and feelings.
 A poem is an attempt to tell the truth, not scientifically but imaginatively.

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ACTIVITY 3

Consider all the points listed above. Which of them provide the strongest reason for teaching
poetry to children? Support your views with examples from the poem.

5.2 The Language of Poetry

Figurative language is the basic language of poetry. The poet uses words to create images

that your imagination and senses respond to, like images on a movie screen. However, there
are many other features of poetry to also remember.

https://i.pinimg.com/236x/06/9f/e4/069fe427cf35eb1cc7ab1fc0f290e0cd.jpg

F I L M S: Form, Imagery, Look, Meaning, Sound

Form Narrative - narrative poem, ballad, epic.
Lyric - sonnet, ode, free verse, haiku, cinquain.
Songs – folksongs, rap.
Imagery Similes, metaphors, personification, hyperbole. The images can
appeal to the 5 senses.
Look Shape, what a poem looks like on the page.

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 Meaning On the line meaning (literal); between the line meaning
(figurative); beyond the line meaning (projections). Meaning
includes all figurative devices.
Sound Rhyme created by similar-sounding words.
Rhythm created by meter, sentence length, word choice,
punctuation.
Repetition like assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia.

Read this poem and then refer to the FILMS notes below.

Lighting a Fire by X J Kennedy

One quick scratch

Of a kitchen match
And giant flames unzip!

How do they store

So huge a roar
In such a tiny tip?
(Poem from Horning 2011:78)
Image: https://www.google.co.za/search? q=lighting+a+match retrieved 5.01.18

IMAGERY: Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Hyperbole.

Imagery can appeal to the 5 senses: sight, sound, touch, smell, taste

Metaphors: Can you spot the metaphors in the poem, Lighting a Fire? For example, the
matches are said to ‘roar’. The poet is comparing them to a lion but does not show this
directly. It is thus an implied comparison, not a direct one.

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Simile: A simile is a more direct way to compare two things. Similes use the words like or as to
show how one thing is similar to another. How would it change the poem if the poet had simply
stated, ‘The matches roar like a lion’? Is it more or less effective?

Personification: This is when objects or animals are given human feelings or qualities. In a
poem called Alexandra, for example, Serote personifies Alexandra, the township and place in
which he lives, as his mother:
“Were it possible to say,
Mother, I have seen more beautiful mothers,”
(From: http://www.englishexperience.co.za/sample-sections/absolution/Enrichment-Tasks.pdf. Retrieved 3 January 2018)

Hyperbole: Look at the hyperbole in: ‘And giant flames unzip!’? Are the flames really giant?
This is an exaggeration for effect.

ACTIVITY 4

1. Can you spot other metaphors in the poem? Hint: Think of the word ‘unzip’.
2. Why is the poet’s use of hyperbole so effective in this poem?

SOUND:
1. Patterns of sound in:
Rhythm (meter, sentence length, diction)
Rhyme (End-rhyme and Internal Rhyme)
2. Repetition of sound: alliteration, assonance, consonance
3. Onomatopoeia: Where the word becomes the sound, like the word ‘Bang!’

Rhythm

Meter: This term is used to describe the ‘beat’ of words in a line of verse.
The beat of words is created by patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables.

47
 Some syllables receive more emphasis than others.

  
‘One quick scratch
    
Of a kit chen match’,

 = unstressed syllable

 = stressed syllable

Syllable: This is rough guide that might help. You can measure the number of syllables each
time your mouth moves when pronouncing a word. This is usually according to the vowel
sounds. For instance, in the above lines, the word ‘kitchen’ requires two movements.

In traditional poetry, metre was formal and had to follow strict rules. Patterns of unstressed
versus stressed syllables were in a fixed order. Modern poetry such as free verse does not
need a fixed metre. To sum up, all poems have rhythm.

Word choice and Sentence length: These also influence rhythm:

 Choice of words (diction): In the match poem, notice how the fast rhythm of striking of
a match is captured in: ‘one quick scratch’. These are short, sharp words.
The words ‘slowly’ in the poem Slowly by James Reeves (cited in Lynch Brown: 2014)
have the opposite effect. They slow the rhythm.
“Slowly the tide creeps up the sand,

Slowly the shadows cross the land,

Slowly the cart-horse pulls his mile,”

 Repetition of words: Read these lines aloud. The repetition of ‘slowly’ will convey a
sense of the gradual, steady movements.
 Sentence length: Shorter or longer sentences can quicken or slow the rhythm. Compare
the length of sentence used in previous poems. Remember too, that punctuation can
enhance the effect.

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 Repetition of Sounds: A poem may repeat sounds:

o Alliteration: The first sound of a word is repeated. For example, in the match
poem: ‘tiny tip’.

o Consonance: This is where consonants are repeated close to one another. Look
at the repetition of ‘p’ sounds in ‘tide creeps up the sand’. What effect is created
here?

o Assonance: This occurs where similar vowel sounds are repeated: ‘sand’ and
‘land’. The long ‘a’ sounds have an echoing effect and convey the atmosphere of
wide stretches of open space.

o Onomatopoeia: Word can represent sounds. Such words imitate natural sounds
in word form; they help us form mental pictures about the things, actions or objects
being described. Think of words like ‘Bang! and ‘click’.

Can you think of others?

Rhyme:

 End-Rhyme: Look for similar-sounding words at the end of a line. Think of ‘scratch and
‘match’ in the match poem. Can you find any other rhyming end-words?
 Internal Rhyme: The rhyming is inside the same line.

MEANING: It is essential to grasp the central meaning of the poem.

Remember that everything in the poem should be leading up to and supporting the meaning of
the poem. In other words, all the poetic devices should reinforce the meaning.

ACTIVITY 5
Re-read the poem Lighting a Fire.
1. The poem’s main effect is surprise. How does the poet achieve this?
2. Explain why the poet made the title ‘Lighting a Fire’ instead of ‘Lighting a Match’?
3. Has this poem enriched our view of life? Refer to list of points made earlier then read the
guided response below. Find two relevant proverbs for the concluding sentence of the
paragraph below:

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This poem’s entertaining image of striking a match ‘lights up’ an everyday truth for us; not to
judge by appearance and especially size. Experiencing this truth in a vivid image, rather than
hearing it told, is much more effective. Proverbs that relate to this truth are: …

LOOK: The way a poem looks on a page.

Poems are arranged in stanzas but can also be any shape.

Stanzas: Poems are divided into different sections, like a paragraph in prose. A stanza is
sometimes referred to as a verse.

Line-length: They can be one word or even one syllable; the length of lines can vary or be the
same length in a stanza.

Shape: Consider the overall shape of a poem. Does it have a traditional structure or is it free
verse? Nowadays there are picture poems in shapes such as a cat, snake, ball.

ACTIVITY 6

1. How many stanzas are there in the poem, What’s a Poem?

2. How many stanzas are there in the poem, Lighting a Fire?
3. Explain how the shape of What’s a Poem reinforces its meaning.

Begin with the following words: The narrow shape helps the poet to convey his idea that poetry
is…

FORM: Poetry falls into two main sub-genres:

Lyric: This type of poem is mainly concerned with describing a feeling, a scene, a special
moment.
Narrative: This type of poem tells a story or narrates a series of events.

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Narrative Poetry
The poem below is a narrative poem. It draws from Arabian folk stories and takes place in the
month of Nous Sha’aban, an important month in the Islamic faith.

Abou Ben Adhem by Leigh Hunt (1784 – 1859)

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase!)

Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace,
And saw within the moonlight in his room,
Making it rich and like a lily in bloom,
An angel writing in a book of gold.

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold;

And to the presence in the room he said,
"What writest thou?" The vision raised its head,
And, with a look made of all sweet accord,
Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord."

"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so,"

Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low,
But cheerly still; and said, "I pray thee, then,
Write me as one that loves his fellow-men."

The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night

It came again, with a great wakening light,
And showed the names whom love of God had blessed;
And, lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.
From: https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Poems_That_Every_Child_Should_Know/Abou_Ben_Adhem retrieved 6.01.18

ACTIVITY 7

1. What story is told in this poem?

2. Applying the FILMS formula, work out which poetic features would be most appealing to
children.

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3. In a short paragraph, describe why this poem might or might not be successful for young
children. Refer to the poem and notes on poetry.

Ballad: This is a traditional type of poem that tells a story that can be sung. Years ago people
travelled from place to place, sharing poems and songs. These songs were often heroic or
romantic. Ballads remind us of the oral nature of poetry. Essentially, poetry is meant to be
spoken aloud, shared and enjoyed.

 Would you say that rap songs are modern forms of the ballad? Discuss this with your
fellow students on the myUnisa Discussion Forum.

An epic: This is a very long narrative poem with many stanzas. It is an ancient form of writing
that glorifies heroes and heroic action. A ballad is similar but much shorter and less formal that
an epic poem.

 Can you think of an epic poem? Discuss this with fellow students on the myUnisa
Discussion Forum.

Lyrical Poetry

Sonnet: This is a traditional form of poetry that conveys a poet’s thoughts and feelings. The two
main types are Italian and Shakespearean. They are always 14 lines long, with a compulsory
rhyme and metre scheme.

Ode: This is also a traditional form poetic. Its purpose is to praise but also show truth and
insight. In the 1800s John Keats was famous for writing odes: Ode to a nightingale is one
example. Later mock-odes became a popular way of mocking people and human weaknesses.
Children have fun writing these types of odes.

Free Verse: Modern poetry no longer places importance on strict, formal rules of rhyme and
rhythm. Poets can use all the elements of poetry creatively with more freedom. Here is a fun
example, using the same sentence.

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Try one yourself and post it on the myUnisa Discussion Forum.

Here is a simple example to ignite your creative flame.

I can write my own poem.

Do you enjoy poetry?

Do you enjoy poetry?

Do
you?
Do
you?

I
do.

Haiku: This is a Japanese style poem. There are seventeen syllables written in three lines.
Syllables are arranged in a ratio of 5:7:5 per line. Here is an example written by a young girl,
Kaitlyn Guenther:

Sand scatters the beach

Waves crash on the sandy shore
Blue water shimmers.
From: http://www.kidzone.ws/poetry/haiku.htm retrieved 5.01.18.

Did you notice the many ways this haiku appeals to our senses in each line? The poet builds an
exciting picture of the beach but closes with a calming image of the sea.

Haikus are meant to express harmony or beauty in nature.

 Refer to the notes on rhythm and try to work out the 7:5:7 syllable structure in this poem.

Cinquain: This is a five-line poem. Here is an example where a traditional nursery rhyme is in
the form of a cinquain:

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Higglety, pigglety, pop!
The dog has eaten the mop.
The pig’s in a hurry,
The cat’s in a flurry.
Higglety, pigglety pop! (Cited in Lynch-Brown et al 2014)

Songs
Are songs really poetry? Songs can be useful stepping-stones for children to enjoy poetry.
There are many folksongs to choose, and they carry interesting cultural histories. Since the
1950s Jamaican dub poetry set to reggae rhythms has become popular as well as rap poetry.

ACTIVITY 8

1. Make sure that you understand each of the FILMS terms, their definitions and examples.
Research poetry and add more terms to this short list.

2. Create your own poetry project. Look for good anthologies of poetry for children and build
a teaching collection.

Bear the following points in mind:

 There should be a balance between older and modern poems

 A broad range of cultures should be represented

 Some adult poems can also appeal to children

 Ensure a variety of themes and experiences for different age levels.

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5.2.1 Poetry Appreciation Exercise

This poem has multicultural and multilingual subject matter that appeals to a wide audience. It
also has value because it challenges dominant cultural views of gender. A guided analysis of
the poem follows.

Tongues of their Mothers by Makhosazana Xaba

I wish to write an epic poem about Sarah Baartman,

one that will be silent on her capturers, torturers and demolishers.
It will say nothing of the experiments, the laboratories and the displays
or even the diplomatic dabbles that brought her remains home,
eventually.
This poem will sing of the Gamtoos Valley holding imprints of her
baby steps.
It will contain rhymes about the games she played as a child,
stanzas will have names of her friends, her family, her community.
I wish to write an epic poem about uMnkabayi kaJama Zulu,
one that will be silent on her nephew, Shaka, and her brother,
Senzangakhona.
It will not even mention Nandi. It will focus on her relationship
with her sisters Mawa and Mmama, her choice not to marry,
her preference not to have children and her power as a ruler.
It will speak of her assortment of battle strategies and her charisma as a
leader.
It will render a compilation of all the pieces of advice she gave to men
of abaQulusi who bowed to receive them, smiled to thank her,
but in public never acknowledged her, instead called her a mad witch.
From: http://bookslive.co.za/blog/2008/08/06/book-excerpt-tongues-of-their-mothers-by-makhosazana-xaba/ retrieved 2.01.18.

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GUIDED ANALYSIS

Introduction

The two stanzas above are from a longer poem in Makhosazana Xaba’s book, ‘Tongues of
Their Mothers’ published in 2008.

In each stanza the poet begins ‘I wish to write an epic poem about …’ and names a woman:
the first two are Sarah Baartman and uMnkabayi kaJama Zulu. There are five other women
introduced after this.

It is as if Xaba wants to be a praise singer like the izibongo, so that she can honour women and
make them the centre of history instead of men. In the act of taking on an izibongo role, Xaba
herself is challenging a traditional role of men.

Exploring meaning in 3 stages: literal; figurative; deeper, central meaning

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Poetry Analysis:
The annotated poem below illustrates an in-depth reading of ‘The tongues of Their Mothers’ by
Makhosazana Xaba.

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 1. Sarah Baartman 2. uMnkabayi kaJama Zulu

Image1: http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/sara-saartjie-baartman

Image 2:http://www.ulwaziprogramme.org/2017/03/princess-mkabayi-kajama-an-early-zulu-feminist/#lightbox/1/

ACTIVITY 9
Do this activity with your e-tutor on myUnisa

1. What do you know about the women in the first two stanzas?
2. Find vocabulary in the text (see boxes) that is unfamiliar and look up the meaning.
Research the history of the two women.
3. Discuss the multicultural and multilingual elements of the poem. (Consider the names;
vocabulary; language; places.)
4. In your own words, describe the writer’s main intention in this poem.
5. The poet has not relied on much figurative language. The language is mainly factual and
her tone is conversational. What effect does this achieve? (Consider the main idea, and
how her style adds to, or reinforces it.)
6. Describe the length of lines and the shape of the stanzas. How do they reinforce the
poet’s purpose?
7. Has Xaba presented a ‘new way’ of seeing the world? Write a short paragraph justifying
your answer.
8. Comment on the poet’s repetition of the first line in each stanza, ‘I wish to write an epic
poem …’.

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9. Why do you think the poet constantly repeats; ‘ I will be silent on …’

What is she silent about in each stanza?
10. Would you regard the subject matter of this poem suitable for teaching young children?
Discuss your reasons.

5.3 Making Poetry ‘come alive’ for Children

For children, understanding a poem is key to their enjoyment. The first step is to ensure that
young learners understand the literal level, the basic meaning of words and concepts in the text.
Once learners have grasped this they can explore deeper levels of meaning. A teacher needs to
work out which words and concepts will be unfamiliar.

STAGE 1: Pre-Reading Activity

1. The title, topic and strange words can be discussed using the learners’ existing knowledge
and moving from the familiar to the unfamiliar.
2. The poem must then be read or presented on a video or CD.
3. Teaching aids will make concepts clearer (pictures, models or examples).

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STAGE 2: Interpretation

The interpretation stage unlocks the meaning of the poem. Using a guided reading approach,
the teacher will build an awareness of the main idea in the poem. Once children understand the
main idea in the poem, the rest of the poem will make more sense. Keep in mind too that
children lose interest when discussion time is long.

1. The central meaning, and meaning of each stanza can be discussed.

2. This can lead to more detailed focus on key images, word or concepts.
3. Learners should be reassured that there are no right or wrong answers.
STAGE 3: Post-Reading Activity

This can be the most relaxing but valuable part of the lesson.

1. Learners enjoy reciting, miming or drawing responses to the poem.

2. Choral speaking or dramatizations in groups is also a good follow-up.
3. The poem can link up with other subjects like history and IT.

ACTIVITY 10
Do an analysis of this poem and consider how you would teach it to your students.
(Bear in mind that it is lengthy and you might have to teach each stanza in 3 steps)

If the world was crazy by Shel Silverstein

If the world was crazy, you know what I'd eat?

A big slice of soup and a whole quart of meat,
A lemonade sandwich, and then I might try
Some roasted ice cream or a bicycle pie,
A nice notebook salad, an underwear roast,
An omelette of hats and some crisp cardboard toast,
A thick malted milk made from pencils and daisies,
And that's what I'd eat if the world was crazy,

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If the world was crazy, you know what I'd wear?

A chocolate suit and a tie of éclair,
Some marshmallow earmuffs, some liquorice shoes,
And I'd read a paper of peppermint news.
I'd call the boys "Suzy" and I'd call the girls "Harry,"
I'd talk through my ears, and I always would carry
A paper umbrella for when it grew hazy
To keep in the rain, if the world was crazy.

If the world was crazy, you know what I'd do?

I'd walk on the ocean and swim in my shoe.
I'd fly through the ground and I'd skip through the air,
I'd run down the bathtub and bathe on the stair
When I met somebody I'd say "G'bye, Joe,"
And when I was leaving--then I'd say "Hello."
And the greatest of men would be silly and lazy
So I would be king... if the world was crazy.
From: https://genius.com/Shel-silverstein-if-the-world-was-crazy-lyrics retrieved 5.01.18.

1. What elements in this poem appeal to children? Consider elements such as Humour and
Rhyme.

2. Mark unfamiliar words. (For instance ‘quart’ is a unit of measurement for volume.)

3. Here is an imaginary teacher-learner conversation during the pre-reading stage. (Perhaps

it is better to teach one stanza at a time in this long poem):

T: What do you like to eat?

Ls: Ice Cream! Sweets!
T: And what are your favourite drinks or juice?
Ls: Cooldrinks!
T: I’m going to read the first part of this poem, and I want you to find all the things to
eat.

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4. Write a teacher-learner conversation showing how the poem could be presented in the
interpretation stage. Focus on what children would find funny.

5. After completing the poem, which of the following post-reading activities would you
choose?

 Choral speaking (groups and individuals reading different lines);

 Drawing pictures of crazy food and clothes;

Writing lists of crazy things to do;

 Making crowns for crazy kings and queens;
 Miming actions like walking in liquorice shoes or a chocolate suit;
 A questionnaire on leadership qualities based on ‘the greatest of men would be silly and
lazy’.

Creating a lifelong love of Poetry

All writers on children’s literature agree that young children love poetry. Starting with nursery
rhymes in early childhood, they grow to enjoy the rhymes and rhythms of narrative poetry. Yet
as they grow older they often lose their enjoyment of poetry. They respond easily to the rhythm
and rhyme of popular songs and commercials but poetry seems too challenging; they miss the
point that poetry offers more originality and depth.

How do we ensure that poetry is meaningful to children?

The Do’s and Don’ts:

1. Children are reached by poetry though their interests. Typical interests and concerns of
childhood are:
i. Relationships with friends and family;
ii. The outdoors;
iii. Daily routines;
iv. Play;
v. Animals;
vi. Ordinary everyday things.

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2. They also enjoy fantastical, extraordinary situations. Word fun and weird humorous ways
of seeing the world have great appeal.
3. Children are not reached by poetry when the following occurs:

i. There is unfamiliar or difficult language;

ii. Poems express emotions or describe situations beyond their understanding;
iii. Poems are used for memorisation and handwriting practice.

Steps to creating a love of poetry

1. Often teachers feel unconfident about their own poetry skills and are reluctant to share
poetry. They may lack confidence about their ability to choose poems. They may feel
unconfident about reading them aloud with correct expression. ‘Practice makes perfect’ is
a sensible motto here. It is easy to spoil a poem by mispronunciation or overemphasis of
words and rhythm. On the other hand, there are now many handy recordings of poems.

2. If poetry is encouraged, children will be less frustrated when they later face difficult poetry
with ‘hidden meanings’.

3. Feelings of success go hand in hand with enjoyment. Children relate best to poems that
are within their language ability and range of interest. Children generally prefer narrative to
lyric poetry but their enjoyment can be extended step-by-step.

4. Read poetry aloud as often as possible. Good poetry sounds natural.

Reading three short poems at a time may be more effective as young children enjoy
variety.

5. Make opportunities to hear, speak and write poems in other learning subjects.

Tips on getting around children’s dislike of analysis

 Children may communicate a dislike of poetry when they have to express what they think
and feel about a poem.

 Children need reassurance that there are no right or wrong answers. A poem can have
many interpretations as long as there is some accuracy about the central ideas of the
poem.

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 Perhaps children can be persuaded that poetry analysis is what they do in everyday life.
The argument goes like this: people constantly have to make the effort to understand their
own feelings and thoughts as well as communicate them; they also have to understand the
feelings and thoughts of others. Poetry analysis is therefore an opportunity to practice
important life skills that everyone needs.

REFERENCES

Boswell, B. 2016. "Conjuring up her wholeness”: Post-transitional black South African women’s
poetry and its restorative ethic, Scrutiny2, 21:2, 8-26. DOI:10.1080/18125441.2016.1192675
(Accessed 6.01.2016).

Ghigna, Charles. Nd. “What’s a poem?” Available from:

http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/poetry/whatsa.html (accessed 29 December 2017).

Horning, K.T. 2010. From Cover to Cover. Evaluating and Reviewing Children’s Books. Revised
Edition. NY: Collins.

Hunt, Leigh. Nd. “Abou Ben Adheim”. Available from:

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Poems_That_Every_Child_Should_Know/ Abou_Ben_Adhem
(accessed 6 January 2018).

Kidzone Poetry. Nd. “Haiku” Available from: http://www.kidzone.ws/poetry/haiku.htm (accessed

5 January 2018).

Literature 2017. Britannica Kids. Available at:

https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/literature/275501 (accessed 14 December 2017).

Lynch-Brown, C.G.,Tomlinson, C.M. & Short, G.S. 2014. Pearson New International Edition.
Essentials of children’s Literature. London: Pearson Education Limited.

Malan, R. 1997. Poetry Works 2. Grade 6 Learner’s Book. Gauteng: Macmillan.

Serote, W “Alexandra”. Nd. Available from: http://www.englishexperience.co.za/sample-

sections/absolution/Enrichment-Tasks.pdf (accessed 3 January 2018).

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Siverstein, Shel. (Nd). “If the world was crazy” Available from: https://genius.com/Shel-
silverstein-if-the-world-was-crazy-lyrics (accessed 5 January 2018).

Xaba, Makhosazane. Nd. “Tongues of their Mothers”. From:

http://bookslive.co.za/blog/2008/08/06/book-excerpt-tongues-of-their-mothers-by-makhosazana-
xaba/ (accessed 2.01.18).

5.4 Self-Assessment Exercises

Well done on having completed Unit 2. You now have the opportunity to evaluate your
knowledge of key elements in this Unit.

Here are questions on each section with points to guide your response:

1. Why is this unit entitled: ‘Poetry in Motion’? Here is a reminder:

Poetry must not be left on the page but brought to life. The printed text should not be the only
source of meaning. We can also make meaning through visuals, movement, sound effects or
just speaking. In other words, poetry should be extended into multimodal experiences.

2. How would you recognise or describe poetry and what does it offer?

In the spectrum of prose/poetic writing, the more creative and richly expressive writing
becomes, the more it leans to the poetic. Poetic expression is associated with ancient cultural
practices and rituals that had mystical value. It is not surprising then that good poetry is
characterised by the way it delights, moves and profoundly connects with people.

3. What do you need to know about analysing poetry?

Refer back to the FILMS formula. This formula helps to decode the meaning of poetry. FILMS
refers to the main features of poetry: Form; Imagery; Look; Meaning; Sound.

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4. How can poetry be made enjoyable and meaningful for children

Teachers can facilitate understanding and thus enjoyment of a poem if children are led to more
abstract levels after they have understood the basic meaning of a poem. A three-step teaching
process can be followed: decoding words; interpretation of figurative detail and central meaning;
post- reading activity. Above all, teachers need to consider the age, interests and reading levels
of child when selecting poems that will foster a love of poetry.

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6 UNIT 3: TELL ME A STORY - PROSE

AN OUTLINE OF THIS UNIT

When you have worked through this study unit you should be able to:

1. Define prose as a genre of story fiction;

2. Study and interpret story fiction;
3. Identify the literary elements used in storytelling;
4. Evaluate good story books for children.
5. Understand reading development.

This Unit includes references to the following textbook and chapters:

Cover to Cover: Chapters 3 – 6

Study programme
Activity Time spent (approximately)
Prose as a genre of story fiction 1 hour
Ways to study and interpret story fiction 4 hours
The literary elements in storytelling 5 hours
How to evaluate good story books for children 6 hours
Understanding reading development 3 hours
Assignment: Preparing; Drafting; Revising 6 hours

ACTIVITY 1
Before your read through this Unit, here are a few questions to begin your journey. Write down
your responses and keep them in mind as you work through the Unit:

1. What is the value of literature and stories? (See Unit 1)

2. What is the difference between prose and poetry? (See Unit 2)
3. How can teachers become good critics of storybooks?
4. What is meant by multicultural literature?
5. How are storybooks adapted to different reading levels?

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This unit is called TELL ME A STORY. Stories, either read or spoken, are one of the most
powerful sources of learning in a child’s life. Educators thus need to learn about fiction: its
literary terms, how to interpret it, and how to teach it. They also need to evaluate good
children’s literature. Confident, skilled teachers, help children become confident well-informed
readers who read independently and progressively.

6.1 Storytelling is a form of prose literature

Prose is one of the three main genres in literature. Shown below is a section of the diagram
from Unit 1:
 There are two main subdivisions: fiction and non-fiction.
 Fiction has sub-genres such as realism and fantasy.
 Non-Fiction has sub-genres such as diaries, informational books and speeches.

Defining Prose

Prose can be ordinary:

Ordinary language, that we speak everyday, is called prose. Written language that uses
sentences and paragraphs is called prose.

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Prose has different purposes:

Prose is divided into types, based on purpose: narrative, expository, descriptive and persuasive.
Any piece of writing can also be a mixture of these types, depending on purpose.

Prose changes according to audience and purpose:

When writers use prose in storytelling, they use many creative techniques. When orators
prepare speeches, their prose includes rhythm, repetition and figurative language to persuade
audiences. It is no surprise therefore that prose can even overlap with poetry in the form of
prose poem and free verse.

Think of a prose spectrum: it can move from the ordinary to the poetic:

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Prose Literature for children

Genres and their topics (Lynch-Brown et al 2014)

Note: The context is Anglo-American.

Fiction Non-
Fiction

Realism Fantasy
Informational
Books
Realistic Historical Fiction and Traditional Modern
Fiction Biographies Literature Fantasy

Families Early Civilisation Myths Modern

folktales
Peers The Ancient World Epics
Animal Fantasy
Challenges The Medieval World Legends and tall
tales Toys and
Community Modern World Objects as real
Folktales people
Animals Industrial Society
Fables Imaginary
Sports World War I characters and
Religious Stories situations
Mysteries World War II
Worlds of little
Moral choices Life after the Wars creatures

Romance Living in Conflict Supernatural

Tales
Growing up
Mystery
Adventure fantasy

Survival Historical
Fantasy

Quest stories

Science Fiction
Note: In modern fiction there is a tendency to blend genres.

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ACTIVITY 2

The above list in based on genre of children’s literature in European contexts.

1. Read the topics carefully. Which ones do you think are relevant to children locally?
2. Which topics do you think are less relevant? Give your reasons.
3. Can you suggest topics that are more relevant to the local context?

Multicultural and multilingual factors in Literature

There are multicultural and multilingual factors to consider when choosing

literature for children.

For your interest, there is research on these factors in South African child
literature. Below are websites you can visit:

http://unisapress.bookslive.co.za/blog/2012/04/05/elwyn-jenkins-examines-south-african-
childrens-literature-in-seedlings/
http://literator.org.za/index.php/literator/article/viewFile/266/239

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1021224712942

6.2 Literary Criticism: ways of interpreting literature

Teachers have to make choices about how they will encourage their students to respond to
stories. In order to do this, they:
1. Have to be aware of different types of literary criticism;
2. They will need to find an approach that is suitable for both traditional and modern forms of
stories.

Different types of literary criticism

Texts influence people and societies. It is therefore essential to examine texts critically and
evaluate their truth.

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Literary criticism means reading texts critically, analysing meaning and how meaning is
constructed. Reading texts critically give us a chance to evaluate the way truth is presented to
us.

Different theories about literary criticism

There are various theories about how literature should be studied. Theories change over time;
what seemed right in the past might not suit the modern age. When these theories are applied
in practical situations, they are called ‘approaches’ to literature.

Educators learn and understand different approaches to literature so that they can guide
children’s responses. This is an important skill: children need to feel safe when making
suggestions or answering questions; a well-trained teacher will guide children sensitively and
relevantly in their interpretations.

New Criticism (also named structural criticism)

 This approach is still popular. The theory was developed in the early 1900s;
 The aim of New Critics was to find the ‘correct’ interpretation;
 The words and structure of a text is the main focus. Knowledge of genres, literary
structures and techniques is therefore essential.
 Educators using this approach believe there is one correct interpretation and that the
reader must only take from the text only what the writer puts there;
 A learner is thus limited to guessing the ‘right’ answer;
 A learner’s success is judged by how closely their interpretation ‘matches’ the writer’s
meaning.

Reader Response Criticism (also called the transactional view of reading)

1. This approach was introduced in 1938 by Louise Rosenblatt;

2. According to this theory the reader is important in determining the meaning of a text. The
focus in not just on the writer’s meaning.

READER + READING SITUATION + TEXT = MEANING

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3. Readers’ interpretation of meaning will be influenced by:

a. Knowledge of traditional genres and literary forms; understanding genre builds a

frame of reference and can help their comprehension of the text. Also, in modern
works, the boundaries between genres blur, and in fact, blend. For instance, even
informational books can blend fiction and nonfiction. By becoming familiar with
traditional genres, learners are able to gain more understanding about the effects of
this blending.
b. Social relationships and experiences; this will impact on readers’ responses to the
actions and motivations of characters in a work of literature.
c. Cultural knowledge: the reader’s own cultural beliefs and values (demonstrated in
gender roles, traditions, social structures) will help them to interpret a text. Being alert
to these cultural influences also helps them to reflect on their responses to stories;
d. Topic knowledge or knowledge of the world; this can extend and enrich a reader’s
understanding of a text.

4. Although there is some limit to interpretations of a text, the meaning of texts can vary from
reader to reader;

5. Personal interpretations are therefore encouraged, provided that they are supported.

6. There are different purposes for reading which also need to be considered:
 Reading for knowledge (efferent reading);
 Reading for a literary experience and enjoyment (aesthetic reading).

Choosing an approach
Many believe the Reader Response method is best because it is more flexible: although
different interpretations of the same story are encouraged, genre is still significant to
interpretation as well as other literary conventions. Reader Response theory is therefore
suitable for modern and postmodern stories as well as those with traditional structures.

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How are postmodern stories recognisable?:

The postmodern movement was a game-changer in literature last century. Although modern
storytelling began to break with tradition, postmodern stories overturned ‘rules’ about genre,
form and structure.

1. Postmodern stories often make reference to popular culture (films and television for
example);
2. There are newer unconventional story forms: graphic (picture form), poetry (verse form)
for example.
3. There may be a creative mixture of genres (fantasy + realism, for example).
4. The stories try to resemble the way life happens; stories lack a definite beginning,
middle and end.
5. Emotion is central to the story rather than events;
6. There is ‘over-the top’ usage of story conventions:
a. Multiple main characters (protagonists)
b. Multiple viewpoints;
c. Multiple narrators;
d. Multiple or parallel layers of time and place.
7. Postmodern writers adopt many narrative voices. They may:
a. Address readers directly;
b. Invite readers to decide the story ending;
c. Become a character in the story.

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ACTIVITY 3

Read the following two passage and then answer the questions. Ensure that you understand
the highlighted words:

Passage 1
Extract from Matilda by Roald Dahl (1988)
From:(https://lesleycarruthers.wikispaces.com/file/view/Narrative+writing_MrsTrunchbull-characterdescription.docx.pdf)
Retrieved 10.02.18

http://villains.wikia.com/wiki/File:Miss-trunchbull.jpg

Miss Trunchbull, the Headmistress, was something else altogether. She was a gigantic holy
terror, a fierce tyrannical monster, who frightened the life out of pupils and teachers alike.
There was an aura of menace about her even at a distance, and when she came up close you
could almost feel the dangerous heat radiating from her as from a redhot rod of metal. 4

When she marched – Miss Trunchbull never walked, she always marched like a storm trooper,
with long strides and arms swinging. When she marched along a corridor you could actually
hear her snorting as she went, and if a group of children happened to be in her path, she
ploughed right on through them like a tank, with small people bouncing off her to left and right. 8

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She was above all a most formidable female. She had once been a famous athlete, and even
now the muscles were still clearly in evidence. You could see them in the bullneck, in the big
shoulders, in the thick arms, in the sinewy wrists and in the powerful legs. Looking at her, you
got the feeling that this was someone who could bend iron bars and tear telephone directories
in half. 13

Passage 2
Extract from A series of unfortunate events #13 by Lemony Snicket 1999
https://www.bookbrowse.com/excerpts/index.cfm/book_number/1882/the-end Retrieved 10.02.18

https://loganlibraries.org/explore/if-you-love/

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Chapter One

If you have ever peeled an onion, then you know that the first thin, papery layer reveals another
thin, papery layer, and that layer reveals another, and another, and before you know it you have
hundreds of layers all over the kitchen table and thousands of tears in your eyes, sorry that you
ever started peeling in the first place and wishing that you had left the onion alone to wither
away on the shelf of the pantry while you went on with your life, even if that meant never again
enjoying the complicated and overwhelming taste of this strange and bitter vegetable. 6

In this way, the story of the Baudelaire orphans is like an onion, and if you insist on reading
each and every thin, papery layer in A Series of Unfortunate Events, your only reward will be
170 chapters of misery in your library and countless tears in your eyes. Even if you have read
the first twelve volumes of the Baudelaire's story, it is not too late to stop peeling away the
layers, and to put this book back on the shelf to wither away while you read something less
complicated and overwhelming. The end of this unhappy chronicle is like its bad beginning, as
each misfortune only reveals another, and another, and another, and only those with the
stomach for this strange and bitter tale should venture any farther into the Baudelaire onion. I'm
sorry to tell you this, but that is how the story goes. 15

Questions

1. Style: These extracts are from two popular children’s books suitable for ages 8 to 12 years
and onwards. Which of these extracts has obvious postmodern elements?
Give reasons for your answer.

2. Genre: Use the URLS (under each extract) to do some research on each book. Refer to
the list of genres and identify the genres of these books.

Complete details for the second book.

Genre
Book 1: Matilda is a work of fiction that could be categorised
as a humorous fantasy with adventure.

Book 2: A series of unfortunate events #13 is a work that…

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 Discuss your answers with your e-tutor on myUnisa.

3. Applying the Reader Response method

Using the notes on the Reader Response method, explain how a teacher could guide
earners’ responses to the questions below. Show what aspect of the method has been
applied.

The introductory statement for each paragraph has been given.

Matilida

Question: Why does Miss Trunchbull sound strange?

Use your knowledge and experience of schools to explore why Miss Trunchbull is
not a normal school principal.

A series of unfortunate events No 1

Question: What is strange about the introduction of this story?

What do you make of the introduction of the story? Concentrating on what you find
unusual.

Discuss your answers with your e-tutor on myUnisa.

6.2.1 Literary Criticism: analytical tools for interpretation

The Tools of Analysis for prose fiction

By passing on these tools to their students teachers create a vocabulary for teachers and
students to share their responses to stories.

http://deacondance.com/tools-of-the-carpenter/

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Literary analysis is achieved by examining different parts or elements of writing, and each part
is given a literary term. These literary terms become our tools of analysis. Understanding
the different parts of a work of fiction and how they work together enables us to understand how
meaning is created in stories. It is important to emphasise that it is the unity of all these
elements that produces the story.

Literary Elements

Theme

Additional
Main Definition Identification Examples
information
When referring to a It could also be to Ask what the A theme can be
theme, often it is a express an writer’s purpose is expressed as a
word like ‘peace’, appreciation of nature or what the writer is complete sentence
‘family life’. and beauty or a saying in the story. rather than a single
However, writers also viewpoint of a social It can be directly or word if you want to
want to convey issue. Children read indirectly stated. include the writer’s
significant ideas stories for pleasure, A theme tries to purpose.
related to a theme. and the theme must convey a truth. Examples:
Sometimes, ‘theme’ not be over- Education is life
refers to both an idea emphasised at the (versus Education)
and a purpose. expense of the story. Friendship is uplifting
(versus friendship)

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 Characterisation

Main Definition Additional information Identification Examples

Characters are the Characterisation is how Ask ‘who’ or ‘what’ In the story Matilda,
people who are the the author creates the is a story. the main character is
‘actors’ in a story. character: the author There are Matilda and Miss
They can be animals can describe a characters who are Trunchbull is a minor
character or, portray developed fully as character.
them through what they a main character
say or their (round
relationships with characters); less
others. fully developed are
The main character is minor characters.
called the protagonist; In folk tales, fairy
the opposing character stories and fables
is called the antagonist it is unnecessary
There is usually to develop
character devel- characters in depth
opment of the main and they are thus
character who faces flat characters.
many challenges

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Plot

Additional
Main Definition Identification Examples
information

The story is not the A good plot creates There is a pattern in Plots that relate
same as a plot. A plot conflict. This builds the the plot: event in order over
is the order in which suspense that keeps a time period are
the events in a story The situation (or called
the reader involved.
exposition) at the
are arranged. chronological:
The conflict usually beginning
involves the main  Progressive: If
character. It can be Rising tension as events happen in
person versus person; the conflict builds a week will be
person against society. The climax where presented in that
Inner conflict: person- the conflict reaches order
against-self. a peak  Episodic: there
Sometimes there are are separate
multiple conflicts. The resolution stories each with
(ending) their conflict
pattern (often
seen in folktales)
 Plots with
flashbacks: the
reader is taken
back to an earlier
time.
Types of Plots:

Chronological plots cover a set of events in a time order.

1. Progressive: this is a straightforward linear plot.

2. Episodic: there are separate stories or episodes.

3. Flashbacks: there are flashbacks to an earlier time.

4. Complicated plots: parallel, simultaneous, circular

Diagrams of the most common plots (based on Lynch-Brown 2014: Ch. 3)

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 1. Progressive plot

2. Episodic

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3. Plots with Flashbacks

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 Setting

Additional
Main definition Identification Examples
Information

The setting of the In historical fiction Ask ‘W’ questions: Books set in
story refers to the the details of the  Where? particular historical
time and place of a setting are specific  Where? periods have to
story. and accurate. The setting can be in ensure that the
In fantasy the the past, present or characters dress
setting can be future and speak
imaginary; in according to the
folktales the setting time; the buildings
is vague and also have to evoke
timeless. the period.

Style

What are the elements of style?

Main Definition The writer makes choices about:

1. Words: (emotional, abstract, simple).
2. Sentences: (easy to read, long, flowing, rhythmic).

Style is the way a writer 3. Organisation: chapters, preface, length of the book.

tells the story 4. Narration: the person who tells (or narrates) the story
from their point of view.
Point of view:

 Third-person narrator (the use of he, she or it).

 First-person narrator (the use of I); this develops a

closeness with the reader and limits you to the information
only available to this character.

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 Omniscient point of view: the author has an ‘ all-seeing

role’ into the minds of all the characters and be everywhere
in the story.

 Shifting point of view: this permits the reader to see

events from the point of view of different characters.
5. Tone: (formal, informal, humorous, ironic, serious, many
more).
6. A variety of stylistic elements for example: (descriptive
language; the whole range of figurative devices like symbolism;
the blending of genre.)

The writer’s purpose is central to the choice of style and tone. In other words,
tone and style work together to reinforce the meaning of the text.

ACTIVITY 4

Let us do a quick analysis of Matilda which was discussed earlier.

Study each statement below and link it to an appropriate literary term.

(Q5 is completed.)

Compare your answers on myUnisa and discuss with your e-tutor.

LITERARY TERMS

Theme Characters Plot Setting Style

1. In Matilda, a love of books brings characters together like Mrs Phelps and Matilda. But
books also separate Matilda from her family. When her father rips up one of her books, he
hurts what she values and therefore hurts her personally.

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2. Roald Dahl is a playful writer whose exaggerated descriptions are funny and appealing to
children. He is an omniscient, third-person narrator who mainly focuses on Matilda.

3. At the beginning, the narrator focuses on Matilda’s family, the Wormwoods. The tensions
develop and the climax happens when Matilda faces and overcomes Mrs Trunchbull’s
power.

4. Because this is a fantasy tale, the setting is vague. However, most of the references
indicate that it takes place in a small town in England.

5. (CHARACTERS)

Mrs Trunchbull and Mrs Honey play very different roles in Matilda’s development.

6.3 Stories in the Classroom: Factors to consider

When teachers choose children’s literature they must decide what books and stories to share
with their students. They must give consideration to their context and learners. Nowadays,
diversity and its representation in children’s literature, is an increasing factor in the classroom.
This is where multicultural literature plays an important role.

Multicultural literature as a choice factor

Children’s literature that is multicultural includes stories that
reflect diverse cultures and places and help to tell the truth
about people and their lives (Finazzo 1998: 133).

The authenticity and appearance of culturally diverse themes

and characters are also very critical in contemporary
education, and they foster the continuation of multicultural
historical perspectives in our schools (Finazzo 1998: 138).

In good multicultural literature children can:

 Experience main characters who are a different race, ethnic group, or religion. They learn
that others have the same emotions and needs that they themselves have;

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 Enjoy reading books about characters with similar backgrounds and main characters who
play heroic roles.

Culture refers to the common identity among a group or society who are connected by similar
customs and beliefs that determine their lives.

Choosing good multicultural literature

https://openclipart.org/detail/5490/magnifying-glass

1. Characters

Characters and their culture should be portrayed realistically and positively. They should not be
depicted as stereotypical cultural figures. These reflect the fixed, prejudiced perceptions about
culture. It is unacceptable to influence children with these perceptions. Text should present
culturally diverse groups and individuals in active as well as passive roles.

For example, strong males and weak females; athletic and

rhythmic African-Americans; intellectual Asians; lazy and
unpunctual Latinos; hot-tempered Italians; savage Native
Americans; frugal Jews; inactive, failing elderly people.
(Finazzo 1998: 123)

2. The Author

The author’s research efforts should be checked, especially if they are unfamiliar with the
culture.

3. The Text

If the writer presents a traditional tale it should be checked with the original version. Much
multicultural literature is in the form of traditional literature such as folk stories, fables and
legends. If possible, the story can be compared to the original to find its defects. Very often
writers adapt and undermine original tales.

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Multicultural literature:

Traditional literature is from various cultures around the world. It is a popular choice for
teachers. Their origin in oral storytelling has features that appeal to children: action; familiar
characters, repetition, rhythm. Many of them began as oral tales and this quality is kept in their
storytelling.

Stories in Traditional Literature

Traditional literature consists of myths, epics, legend, tall tales, fables and folktales.

They were originally oral stories that were passed down from one generation to another.
Traditional stories therefore became part of a people’s culture.

Common types of traditional literature (Horning 2010: Chap 3)

Myths These are stories, often considered sacred which

explain the origin of life and the world. There are gods
and goddesses.

Epics These are mythical stories about the heroic deeds of

mortal (human) heroes.

Legends These are stories which about famous people. They

are often called ‘stories lost in the mist of time’
because they seem to combine history and myth.

Tall Tales These are exaggerated types of legend, sometime

making fun of the hero.

Urban Legends These have a modern basis. Urban legends refer to

stories that can be set in any real place in the city or
country. They pass from person to person like
rumours, with vague details of people and place.

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Fables This is a very short story with few characters, usually

animals. They always end with a moral lesson.

Modern style tales The Literary tale and Fractured (fun) Fairy Tales are
not traditional stories. They imitate the characteristics
of traditional stories or nursery rhymes.

Folktales These are imaginary stories with either human or

animal characters. They have clear moral themes of
good vs evil. There are many sub-categories,
including fairy tales.

ACTIVITY 5
Three traditional stories from learner’s textbooks are presented below. Read each story, check
unknown vocabulary, and answer the questions that follow.

Your e-tutor will discuss one of these stories with you on myUnisa

Story 1: Clever English FAL, Sannie Langtand (p186-187).

Story 2: Solutions FAL, Learner Book 5, How the Sun came to be in the Sky (p115).

Story 3: Core Reader 6, Old Mother Frost (p126).

Story 1: Sannie Langtand

It was a grey day in the Cape. Rain was coming down in clouds over the dark mountains and
the sea was snapping irritably at the harbour wall. Mountain water kept seeping into Sannie
Langtand’s cave and making her firewood wet. After a while she threw down her bellows and
stamped on them in a rage.

“Go and tell Slangbek to come and give me a light!” she commanded me. So out I had to go into
the cold and rain.

Maybe I should warn you that Sannie Slangbek is a savage old dragon who spends most of his
time draped over a pile of loot in his cave. That is, when he is not flying or smoking with Sannie
Langtand.

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And then there is me, Boggom. I’m Sannie Langtand’s familiar, which means that I do most of
the dirty work around her cave and that she sometimes rides me on business when she can’t
persuade Slangbek to give her a lift. I’m a baboon, by the way, which is quite a nice thing to be
if you live up on Kalk Bay Mountain, or even if you don’t.

(Source: Sannie Langtand and the Visitor from Madiba Magic – Nelson Mandela’s Favourite
Stories for Children.)

a. Where do you think this tale belongs on our ‘Story-o-meter’ ?

Myths Epics Legends Urban Legends Tall Tales Fables Modern style Folktales
tales

Would you say this is a folk tale, a myth, or a fable? Why?

b. How would you describe its multicultural features.

Clue: Look at the names of the characters and the setting.

South African South African South African South African

(Afrikaans culture) (English culture) (Xhosa culture)

c. Narrative style of traditional stories:

Action Familiar Repetition Rhythm Setting is Time is 1st, 2nd, True to

characters simple vague – 3rd the
and there is a person original
vague. timeless narrator story
quality

Write a short paragraph analysing the narrative features that this story demonstrates. Comment
particularly on the use of the first person, and the quick flow of the story.

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Story 2. How the sun came to be in the sky (A San story)

Long, long ago the sun was an old man. When the sun lifted up his arms everything became
bright. When he put his arms down, darkness fell. One day an old woman spoke to the mother
of some children.

“Tell your children to find the sun,” she said. “They must speak to him and tell him that he must
become the sun all the time, so that the rice will dry when he is passing along in the sky.”

The children listened to the old woman and their mother. When the old man was asleep they tip-
toed quietly up to him and lifted him up. They could feel how hot he was.

“Oh sun, you must stay where you are wherever we throw you. You must remain hot”, they said.
And they threw the old man as high as they could. The children returned home and told the
villager how they had done what the old lady had asked and thrown the sun high up into the
sky. They also told the village that the sun was told to dry the rice and keep the earth light and
warm. So now when the sun comes, the darkness goes away and people can see each other.
People can visit each other when the sun shines on the Earth.

a. Where do think this tale belongs on our ‘Story-o-meter’?

Myths Epics Legends Urban Legends Tall Tales Fables Modern style Folktales
tales

i. Would you call it a myth or legend? Justify your answer.

b. Narrative style of traditional stories:

Action Familiar Repetition Rhythm Setting Time is 1st, 2nd, 3rd True to the
characters is vague – person original
simple there is a narrator story
and timeless
vague. quality

ii. How does the narrative style of this story compare to that of Sannie Langtand?

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Write a short paragraph comparing their narrative features. In particular, comment on timeless
sense and more formal tone and language of How the sun came to be in the sky.

c. Read the following extract about the San people:

The San are the oldest inhabitants of Southern Africa, where they have lived for at least
20000 years. The term San is commonly used to refer to a diverse group of hunter-gatherers
living in Southern Africa who share historical and linguistic connections. The San were also
referred to as Bushmen, but this term has since been abandoned as it is considered
derogatory. There are many different San groups - they have no collective name for
themselves, and the terms 'Bushman', 'San', 'Basarwa' (in Botswana) are used. The term,
'bushman', came from the Dutch term, 'bossiesman', which meant 'bandit' or 'outlaw'.

(From http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_bushmen.html)

i. Authenticity: Refer to this description of the San as hunter-gatherers. Research the

meaning of this term ( it refers to nomadic people who live mainly by hunting and
fishing, and harvesting wild food). Explain why rice would seem an unlikely food in their
culture.

ii. Children can be given the opportunity to look more closely at traditional stories to
question their authenticity and value.

Which of the following research options do you think would be most effective for children to
explore the validity of this ‘San’ story?

To briefly research:

a. San culture and their preferred foods;

b. The cultivation requirements of rice;
c. The history of rice in Africa;
d. Some ‘real’ San Stories’;
e. A combination of these three topics.
Write a short paragraph discussing the best option or options.

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Story 3. Old Mother Frost

Modjadji is known as the rain queen of South Africa, but believing that there is a deity that
controls the weather is not limited to African culture. In Germany, where the winters are
particularly severe, and snow and frost are common occurrences, they tell stories of an old
woman called Mother Frost. When she shakes the feather pillows on her bed, snow falls to the
earth.

There was once an old widow who lived alone at the edge of the woods with her two daughters.
One young girl was beautiful and very hardworking; the other was ugly and as lazy as the day
was long. The mother only showed love and affections towards the lazy girl, because she was
her own daughter.

a. Where do think this tale might belong on our ‘Story-o-meter’ ?

Myths Epics Legends Urban Legends Tall Tales Fables Modern style Folktales
tales

Would you call it a legend, a folktale, or a myth? Give your reasons

b. Study this recent news publication on the Modjadji or Rain Queen:

In a landmark decision, President Jacob Zuma has proclaimed the recognition of the queenship
of the Balobedu tribe in Limpopo. The first Rain Queen to be officially acknowledged in South
Africa, she will join the ranks of 10 recognised Kings. Masalanabo Modjadji is in line to become
the next queen after her mother, the last rain queen (Makobo Modjadji) died in 2006. The
young royal is only 11-years-old and will be crowned when she comes of age, as Queen
Modjadji the seventh. According to Mathole Motshekga, lawyer for the Modjadji royal family, the
princess is at boarding school and in the care of the Basic Education Minister. He explains that
Masalanabo Modjadji will be initiated into the practices of the Balobedu people over the school
holidays. Limpopo Premier Chupu Mathabatha will appoint her a regent, most likely her uncle,
Mpapatla Modjadji.

From: http://www.702.co.za/articles/13919/rain-queen-heir-masalanabo-modjadji-11-officially-recognised-by-
president-zuma

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 i. In the preface to Old Mother Frost, there is a comparison between this story and the
beliefs about Modjadji, the rain queen of the Balobedu people in South Africa.

Taking into account that the queen is an actual, living person who is worshipped as a God of
Rain, do you agree that there are parallels between the German traditional tale and Modjadji?
Carefully justify your answer.

c. Stereotyping: Refer to the short introduction of Old Mother Frost.

There is mention of two daughters: one is described as ‘beautiful and very hardworking’, the
other as ‘ugly’ and ‘lazy’.

i. The illustrator of the story has created pictures of each sister:

I. The ‘ beautiful and very hardworking’ daughter is portrayed with a light skin.
II. The other sister, described as ‘ugly’ and ‘lazy’ is portrayed with a darker
skin.
Imagine a South African parent of the learner who notices these portrayals, feels they are
prejudiced, and writes an email to the school teacher. Write the email that you think this parent
would write. What reply could a teacher formulate?

d. Read the full story online using the link below. Why is this story a good example of
a circular plot?

http://fairytalesoftheworld.com/quick-reads/old-mother-frost/

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Illustrations in Stories

It is true to say that pictures are an important part of storybooks for children.

So far, we have concentrated on the text of children’s books, their genre, structure and
language. However, illustrations and their visual element are also important considerations
when evaluating children’s literature. To evaluate a picture, it should be broken down into
individual parts (or components) which are called visual elements.

The purpose of evaluating visual elements is to see whether they work together as a whole to
express meaning in story illustrations.

Visual Elements and Principles of Design

Element Definition Effect Principles of design

Line Straight and curved Focuses on Vertical, horizontal, fine or
points of interest bold
and showing
movement
Shape Curved or Angular (full of Object are given Curved object represent
sharp lines) and outlined and nature;
convey the Angular (like rectangles)
feelings of the represent artificial objects,
artist created by man

Texture The surface of the Invites a sense of Smooth (rough)

shapes in pictures touch Soft (hard)
Colour The hue (blue, red), Warm or cool colours
value (light, darkness),
chroma (brightness,
intensity)
Medium The type of material that Creates the Each medium has its own
is used: watercolour, oil mood and tone of principles – painters can
paint, pen and ink, a story book. use thin, light, heavy or
pastels, drawing, collage, thick brushstrokes
Composition The total arrangement of Dominance; balance;

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 all the visual elements contrast; gradation;
alternation; variation;
harmony; unity
Style The specific way an artist Gives a unique Realistic, abstract, surreal,
shares feelings about the quality to the impressionistic,
story or the style of picture to create expressionistic, naïve, folk
artistic expression the an impact on the art; cartoon, digital art,
artist has adopted for viewer photography.
their purpose

ACTIVITY 6

‘The cultures of people are reflected strongly through colour’ (Finazzo 1997; 141)

Do you agree?

Describe colours that could be associated with the traditional tales presented above, in
particular the first two stories.

A note about critical reading

Critical readers ask three different types of question: factual (or literal), interpretative, and
evaluative.

Factual or literal questions involve investigation and simple truth. Answers are direct and
reflect ‘who, what, where, when’. Usually there is only one correct response to this type of
question.

Interpretative questions allow more open-ended thinking. A variety of answers may be right.
Readers have to ask probing questions, and be insightful. There are no right or wrong answers
to questions such as ‘why did the main character respond like that?’.

Evaluative questions bring the reader into the story or situation. A reader is asked to make
projections about how they would respond in similar circumstances to the story. A question such
as, ‘If you were the protagonist in this story, would you make a different decision? Explain why.’

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6.3.1 Reading development

(Based on Horning 2010: Chapter 6)

http://clipartbarn.com/books-clipart_3524/

A key objective in promoting a love of literature is to encourage children to become

independent readers. Children are given the opportunity to progress from easy readers to full
chapter books. It is important for primary teachers to understand how reading levels advance
from Grade One.

Publishers have various categories of books to help educators achieve this. There are 3 main
types.

1. Trade books are created for the consumer market and the institutional market. (Schools
and libraries)

2. Textbooks are produced for the institutional school market only. They are produced in
response to teaching needs for learners at different grade levels. The reading books used
in the classroom are called basal readers.

3. Mass-market books are created only for the consumer market. These are the mass
produced books that are usually cheaper, and available at any shop.

Refer to Unit 1 and the textbook (Horning 2010: Chapters 1& 2) to revise details of book
structure and publication.

Note: Trade books should not be confused with textbooks (Horning 2010: 8)

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Promoting independent reading

There are the 3 types of trade books. They supplement textbook learning and promote reading
development:

Picture books
1.

Most picture books are intended to be read aloud to children and are written at a reading level
beyond that of a child in first grade.

Easy readers (beginning readers or readers)

2.

These type of trade books have gained status in recent years because their illustrations and
content are more imaginative and creative than textbooks.

They are ideal supplementary readers, and teachers usually have collections in the classroom
or library.

Publishers also realized that children like to feel like ‘big kids’ so they created easy readers that
look more like chapter books than picture books. This helps to build the self-esteem of young
readers.

Transitional books
3.

For many years parents, teachers and librarians wanted a ‘third grade book’: more challenging
than the hardest easy reader, but not too difficult. Many publishers responded by producing
transitional books.

What happens when a child learns to read?

Reading aloud to decode the words Reading silently for meaning.

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Decoding words

 Children learn that printed symbols stand for familiar words in their oral vocabulary.
 Decoding the words is easier when they practice the sounds and hear them.

Sight words

 Children learn a store of sight words.

 Sight words are common words that they learn to recognise immediately, such as ‘play’,
and ‘run’, ‘ball’, ‘bus’, mother.
 Sight words are taught in the classroom’
 A child who is able to read these sight words is regarded as ‘reading at grade level’.

Eye movement coordination

 Children face difficulty in training their eyes to move from left to right across line of print.
 The eye is controlled by small muscle movements. In reading, the eyes have to move
across a line of print, the eyes make little jumps then focus briefly. Small muscle
movements are a challenge for children.

A child reader versus an adult: what is seen from point of focus?

Letters to the Letters to the Abilities

right left
Early child Words must be less than 5
1 1
reader letters
Later child Begins to take in Copes with new words and
reader (more more letters to longer sentences. Sight
developed eye the right vocabulary grows
muscles )
Adult reader 2 6-8 Reads silently for meaning

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How are books adapted to reading development?

Easy readers and transitional books take the reading process into account.

1. Easy Readers

Content

Vocabulary Sight words of first and second grade + easy short words.

Unfamiliar words have context clues

Short statement-type sentences with 5 words are ideal. As confidence

grows 10 words are fine and sentences can alternate in length as
Sentence
competence grows. Longer sentences can be broken up into shorter
Length
sentence on a few lines.

So Big Bear begins to make soup

in the big black pot

Repetition and rhyme also make longer sentences easier.

Many genres are suitable, but animal fantasies and realistic fictions are
popular.The first two pages must present the context and catch
Plot
children’s interest.Most stories. The stories usually have two or three
main characters. The plot is fast-moving.

These appear on every double-page spread, and vary in size through

the book. As well as complementing the story they give child readers
Illustrations
clues to work out word meanings.

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Design

Size of Typeface 18 is the standard size typeface for beginners

5 – 10 words in a line for beginners. It is easier if new sentences

Line Length
start at the beginning of a line.

Space between words Space is an important signal to young readers.

The space between words should be noticeably wide.

If the typeface is 18

Space between lines

Then 18 is the right space between words.

Number of lines per 15 lines per page is best.

page

White space gives children a chance to rest their eyes. It is hard

White space per page
work for them to decode words.

llustrations appear on every double-page spread (that is, two

Positioning of pictures facing pages, like that in a newspaper). They are there to
enhance the text and must not overwhelm it.

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 Levels

Typeface Word Line Sentence Illustrations/ White

Usage Length Structure/ space
Vocabulary

First 17 - 20 5 words 2-7 lines Short simple Two thirds of the page
Grade point type per line per page sentences

Second 5 words 4-15 Longer sentences A balance of illustrations

Grade per line. lines alternating with and white space.
Some short simple
longer sentences.
words
Close to
Third size of 5–8 6- 15 A mix of The text may cover up to
Grade first words lines compound and ¾ of page but there is
Grade per line complex large typeface, good
Reader sentences creates spacing between the
a more natural lines and plenty of white
sounding space. Pictures are
language. A fewer, and serve more as
controlled a decoration.
vocabulary is
used.

2. Transitional Readers

When children can read level three texts easily, they are ready for the next highest level, the
transitional book. This is an important stage in a child’s reading life is because this is when a
child gains confidence and discovers the pleasure and benefits of reading.

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Typeface Word Line Sentence Illustrations/ Chapters

Usage Length Structure/ White space
Vocabulary

Large 8 - 12 2 -7 The sentence Plenty of white There are usually about

words lines lines can be space on every 6 chapters but they look
per line per longer. page. like chapter books.
page
The right-hand There are wide Chapters are 6 – 8
margins form a margins at the pages long.
straight line. top, bottom and
They are short and
sides.
The episodic (each
vocabulary completes an event of
consists of the story).
Although there
common
is more text
everyday
there are
words for a 7 -
8 year old. many large
black-and-
white
illustrations.

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 Content

Plot: The content must have high-interest, but the plots must not be too complicated for
children to follow. If there are too many changes in time and setting young readers become
confused. Therefore:

 Chapters are kept short;

 Changes in time and setting generally occur between rather than within chapters;
 Signposting phrases are essential like, ‘The following day…, ‘When Mary reached
the park…’ are critical;
 Each chapter follows the actions of a few characters, three at most;
 Each chapter is limited to one episode of the story.

ACTIVITY 7

1. Become a critic of children’s books. Find as many books as you can, aim for variety and
rate them. Keep a record of good child literature.

2. Look for quality. Which books have been recognised and awarded? Make a note of them.

3. Keep up with the times. Find journals that review children’s literature and current topics in
the field.

֎֎֎

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REFERENCES

Dahl, R. 1988. Matilda. Extract available at:

https://lestleycurrutherswikispaces.com/file/view/Narrative+writing_MrsTrunchbull-
characterdescription.docx.pdf . Accessed on 10.02.18

Finazzo, D.A. 1997. All for the children. Multicultural Essentials of Literature. New York: Delmar
Publishers.

Govender, T., Hugo, M.C.W., Jacobs, E., Moller. E. 2013. Clever English First Additional
Language. Grade 7 Learner’s Book. Gauteng: Macmillan.

Harvey, L. 2012. Solutions for all English First Additional Language. Grade 5 learner’s book.
Gauteng: Macmillan.

Horning, K.T. 2010. From Cover to Cover. Evaluating and Reviewing Children’s Books.
Revised Edition. NY: Collins.

Lynch-Brown, C.G.,Tomlinson, C.M. & Short, G.S. 2014. Pearson New International Edition.
Essentials of children’s Literature. London: Pearson Education Limited.

Siyabona Africa. 2017. San,Bushmen.Kalahari, South Africa. Available from

http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_bushmen.html Accessed on 12.12.18

Snicket, L. 1999. A series of unfortunate events #13. Extract available at:

https://www.bookbrowse.com/excerpts/index.cfm/book_number/1882/th e-end . Accessed on
10.02.18

Strauss C.H.B. & Moller, E. 2012. Solutions for all English home language. Grade 6 Core
Reader. Gauteng: Macmillan.

Today’s Big Stories 702 (2016) Rain Queen heir Masalanabo Modjadji, 11, officially
recognised by President Zuma. 30 May. Available at:
http://www.702.co.za.co.za/articles/13919/rain-queen-heir- masalanabo-modjadji-11-officially-
recognised-by-president-zuma . Accessed on 12.02.18

6.4 Self-Assessment Exercises

Well done on having completed Unit 3. You now have the opportunity to evaluate your
knowledge of key elements in this unit.

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Here are questions on each section with points to guide your response:

1. What is meant by prose fiction and what are the main genres?

Written language that uses sentences and paragraphs is called prose. Prose fiction refers
to stories written in prose. The two main genres are fiction and non-fiction. Fiction has two
main sub-genres: realism and fantasy. Many categories of children’s literature occur within
these two sub-genres.

2. What is meant by literary criticism? Describe different methods.

Texts influence people and especially young children. Literary criticism is a means of
evaluating literature and so equipping young minds with the ability to think critically about
texts. There are theories about literary criticism that influence methods of analysis. There
are methods such New Criticism which is text-based, and Reader Response Criticism
where READER + READING SITUATION + TEXT = MEANING (at the same time integrating
traditional elements). The flexibility of Reader Response Criticism is especially suited to
the analysis of postmodern stories where narrative norms are overturned.

3. Discuss the key literary elements in fiction and their role in analysis.

The main literary elements in prose fiction are plot, setting, characterisation, style and
theme. Using these as tools of interpretation, children can be taught how to critically
examine how meaning is constructed in a text and thus evaluate the underlying truths
being conveyed.

4. Choosing stories for children: What are the important factors?

Nowadays it is important to make choices that are inclusive of diversity. Traditional stories
provide a means of representing diverse cultural experiences. However, these stories
must be chosen with care to avoid stereotyping as well as ensure accuracy. Stories with
pictures are a popular choice for children so it is also important to learn how to evaluate
the quality and purpose of illustrations in books.

5. How can reading development be promoted in the classroom?

By taking into consideration reading levels and abilities, educators can select books that
are appropriate to each stage of a child’s physical, emotional and mental development.

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7 UNIT 4: SHOW ME A STORY - DRAMA

AN OUTLINE OF THIS UNIT

When you have worked through this study unit you should be able to:

1. understand what drama is

2. discuss the different types of drama
3. consider and discuss the basic elements of drama.

This Unit is based on the following texts and chapters:

Sue Cowley’s, Getting the Buggers into Drama (Ch.5),

Wessels Maguritte’s, Practical Guide to facilitating Language Learning (Ch.4 P160-173), and
Keith West’s, Inspired Drama Teaching (Ch.4 P57-59).

Study programme

Activity Time spent (approximately)

Reading the textbook chapters 6 hours

What is Drama + Activities 2 hours
The Different Types of Drama + Activities 3 hours
The Basic Elements of Drama + Activities 6 hours
Self-Reflection Exercise + Revision 2 hours
Assignment: Preparing; Drafting; Revising 6 hours

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ACTIVITY 1

Before we begin the journey into Drama, take a moment to reflect on what you understand
‘Drama’ to be?

7.1 What is Drama?

At this point, you should already be familiar with plays. You may have even have studied them
at school and university. In this unit, you will learn to appreciate drama both as a script or text
and as a performance.

Drama, at its core, is a performance. It is not something that we just read, but rather a mode of
narrative that is written to be performed. We view a play first as a script, and then once it is
acted out, we see it as performance. The dramatic discourse in a script is intended for an
audience to visualize. In this way, we can understand that drama is meant to be acted out.

Just as drama cannot be read as a novel or a play, it also cannot be pigeonholed as a theatrical
performance. A play which encompasses actors, costumes, a live audience, and a stage is only
one type of a performance medium. To associate and interchange theatre with drama would
mean that we would omit TV plays, radio plays, or even films. Thus, let us come back to a
drama being a mode of narrative that is written to be performed by actors and watched by an
audience. We can build on this principle definition.

At this moment you may be asking yourselves whether all stories can be plays. Could we, for
instance, act out a novel? In theory, yes, you could do this, but you would lose the aspect that
makes drama unique in its genre. Drama has a different emphasis to a novel. Whilst a novel
relies heavily on description, drama relies on conversation. All the action is contained to what
the characters say, think, and feel. Thus, character and interpersonal relationships drive drama.

What do we mean by this? Let us take an excerpt from Taxi by Sibusiso Mamba.

Scene 3 has opened after Jan narrowly avoids an accident with Mzee’s taxi on the highway.
Mzee’s passenger, Senzo, witnesses the event.

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SCENE 3: INT. DAY – MZEE’S TAXI

FX. THE TAXI HAS STOPPED. THE WINDOW IS OPEN. OTHER CARS ARE STILL
HOOTING.

Mzee: Ngizok’phihliza! I’ll break you. You saw me coming. I even indicated. Hhayi, maan! Come
out of your car!

Mzee: [V/O] He was in a new 7 series BMW. The ones with a computer inside. (beat) You see…
on the road other motorists have to be understanding. When a taxi comes, give way, maan…
because we are in a hurry! Time is money. Okay?

Senzo: Mfethu, please, joh! … You are blocking traffic.

Mzee: Bastard is making me angry.

Mzee: [V/O] Black motorists know that a taxi driver’s time is precious… even some white
motorists, too. Sometimes you get stubborn ones. Like this.

FX. HE SHUTS THE WINDOW AND DRIVES OFF.

If this play was written as a novel the emphasis would be towards the description of the events,
rather than what the characters are thinking and saying.

Below is an example of what Scene 3 would look like if it were written in prose.

Example:

The traffic was now at its worst. Motorists from all over the city were tailgating one another,
creeping inch by inch, towards their destinations. A patina of metallic colours from the snake of
cars caressed the highway as far as the eye could see. Plumes of smoke curled towards the
morning sky. Vehicles trumpeted their hooters from impatient drivers, the majority of which were
directed at a white Toyota Sesfikile with a South African flag sticker displayed on both the front
doors below the window - in other words, a taxi.
The taxi was motionless like an island in the sea, as the traffic broke against its stoic
body and moved off. The driver’s window was down. He wasn’t young. He wasn’t intimated by
the confrontation and angry slurs of passing drivers. He had seen it all before. He had heard it
all before.
“Ngizok’phihliza! I’ll break you. You saw me coming. I even indicated. Hhayi, maan!
Come out of your car!’ Mzee shouted.

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 Mzee had been driving his taxi for many years. It wasn’t his first job, but it was the job he
loved doing and he wasn’t going to let some BMW driver get away with doing whatever he
pleased on the road. His passenger, Senzo, was embarrassed and trying to avoid the unwanted
attention. That 7 series BMW cost more than Mzee would make in a year, perhaps more than
what he would make in five years. What gave that white driver the right to do whatever he
pleased? Mzee carried hardworking and underpaid people all the time. People who needed
jobs, who needed to survive, who had employers that would not listen to late excuses. His
passengers worked for people that drove fancy cars like that BMW and had no tolerance for
others. Besides, time was money. It was always about money. If Mzee followed every rule on
the road he wouldn’t make half as much as he did now. What did the BMW driver know about
that? What did he know about putting food on table without it being just an expression?
‘Mfethu, please, joh! … You are blocking traffic,’ Senzo said.
‘Bastard is making me angry.’
The driver of the BMW wasn’t going to let it go. He knew the rules of road. He hadn’t
done anything wrong.
Mzee knew people like that didn’t understand; they could never understand. They were
the stubborn ones. Mzee shut his window, still raging and angry. Time was money after all.

Notice how in the Scene from the play/drama, very little description is given of the surroundings.
This is because a drama is performed on a stage and the audience relies on the set design,
lighting and actions of the actors (characters and interpersonal relationships) to set the scene.

ACTIVITY 2

1. Now that we know that character and interpersonal relationships drive drama could a
discussion between two friends about the weather be considered a play?

Write down your ideas and thoughts on the question.

2. We can tell from the above example that a novel consists of a lot more descriptive detail
compared to a play however, the audience is still given all the necessary information
through the action of the characters. Thus, is it fair to say that in drama, what is seen is not
as important as what is heard? Why?

Discuss this question in your Tutor Groups on myUnisa.

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Dialogue is a conversation between two people who have something to say. In order for
dialogue to be efficient it needs to carry the story. Speech between two people that does not
enhance the story or the characters in some way is a discussion. This is not the same as
dialogue. Does this mean that all dialogue in a drama should be dramatic? Absolutely not.
Dialogue should reveal what the characters are thinking and feeling. It should also seek to
enhance what is happening in the story and how the characters relate to each other.

We can then define drama as: a written story that relies on dialogue to be performed. A drama
or play is thus a form of storytelling in which actors make the characters come alive through
speech (dialogue) and action (stage directions).

These two faces represent

the two basic emotions of joy
and sorrow. The masks are
a symbol of theatre – known
as the comedy and tragedy
theatre masks, and they are
always portrayed together.
The origins of these masks
can be traced back to open-
air Greek theatre. Derived
from Greek mythology, the
theatrical masks are symbols
of the ancient Greek Muses,
Thalia and Melpomene.

Image from https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2015/07/06/15/38/masks-833421_960_720.jpg Accessed 16 November 2017

7.1.2 What are the Different Types of Drama?

The word genre comes from a French word meaning ‘type’. You looked at genre in Units 1 and
2 of this Guide. When we speak of the type of drama, we refer in part to genre.

In studying this modules, you will have noticed that not all stories are the same. There are many
particular types of stories and all are unique, full of individual dramatic tension.

It is important to remember that classroom drama is not the same as a formal production.
Children are not professional actors, and teachers are not professional directors. Drama in the

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classroom is designed to be fun, interactive, imaginative, a medium for self-expression, and a
tool to allow learners to become active listeners and observers.

Here are some of the more common types of genres:

 Romance – a central love story is always common in this type of genre.

 Horror – induces fear, shock, and scare in the audience. Can be, but is not limited to,
aspects of the supernatural.
 Mystery/Thriller – also known as crime drama, where professionals such as detectives try
to solve crimes by piecing together clues.
 Action and Adventure - this type of genre relies on fast-moving action, usually over
different locations.
 Science fiction – explores imagined locations and action, closely tied to science and
technology, and usually set in futuristic societies and worlds.

Anything that is considered art will have a form of inspiration behind it. This is as true with plays,
as it is for songs, novels or paintings. As the teacher in the classroom, it is your job to provide
the initial inspiration. Sue Cowley (2007:57) observes, ‘I always find that if I look around myself
wherever I am I can see a few items or images that I might use for inspiration. For instance,
right now I can see an empty cardboard box that could prove really inspirational’.

Storytelling is a great starting point for a play. But how do stories work and apply in plays? And
importantly, how does a story translate to an effective piece of theatre? In order to answer these
questions, we must first ask ourselves, what makes a good story?

This is an open-ended question that relies on the basic structure of genre. A story that is genre
specific to horror is not for everyone; however, there are certain elements that make a story at
least interesting.

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These elements are: characters, setting, pace, climax, conflict, and resolution.

A representation of the elements on a dramatic curve

This is all very well, but how do you introduce effective storytelling in a drama classroom?

You may find it useful to seek inspiration from the most basic form of storytelling- the nursery
rhyme (You have been introduced to this genre in Unit 2 of this guide). A nursery rhyme is a
‘simple’ form of play, as it lacks the elements of ‘tension and conflict’; however, it is a good way
to introduce learners to the idea of performance. For example, they can use hand actions to
illustrate the ‘twinkling of stars’ in Twinkle Twinkle Little Star. Everyone is familiar with nursery
rhymes, and your learners will find this medium of storytelling familiar and thus comfortable in
performing.

You could even explore traditional children stories like, Little Red Riding Hood, The Three Little
Pigs, or The Ugly Duckling. The characters are diverse, unique and relatable, the setting is
often imaginative, and there is natural pace and rhythm (tempo) in the stories.

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However, let us assume that you would like to create a piece of drama that is not a popular
story. With so many types of genres why wouldn’t you want to explore them with your children?
After all, genre can form an excellent springboard to inspire good drama. A good example of
this is the movie, Shrek which makes use of nursery rhyme, fairytale, fable and myth. Genres
have natural and unique dramatic tension, they have a built-in sense of atmosphere and in
today’s TV craze, many children are familiar with a wide range of dramatic genres.

ACTIVITY 3
List a few TV shows that you watch and identify which genres they exploit for performance. Give
reasons why you have ascribed the show to the specific genre. An example has been provided
for you.

Title of TV show Genre Reasons

The protagonist in this TV show is a
forensic anthropologist that works in a
state-of-the-art crime lab at the institution
Mystery / Thriller
Bones known as the Jeffersonian. Dr Brennan
(Crime drama)
(Bones), works together with her FBI
partner Booth and other scientists at the
institution to solve murder cases.

7.1.3 Features of Drama

There are certain features that all dramatic genres contain.

These are:

storyline: the arrangement of events in the play in a logical and coherent manner
setting: the central location of a story
places: the various sites where the characters will interact
characters: the people in a novel, film or play
events: what happens in the story
props: objects used in the set of a play or movie
costumes: the clothes characters wear
atmosphere: the tone or mood of the creative work.

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ACTIVITY 4

Image:
https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1509262593966-
d2e5f917d863?ixlib=rb.3.5&ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQiOjEyMDd9&s=5b47fde434fb70c2fff750564e21f924&auto=format&fit=crop&w=7
52&q=80 . Accessed 27/01/2018

Consider the image above and pretend that it is a puppet show that you have put on for your
learners.

1. Which features of this dramatic performance are visible and which are invisible? Why?

2. How do these features work together? Explain.

Answer the questions above and discuss your answers in your e-tutor groups on myUnisa

Let us now assume that your students are fascinated with the new Star Wars movie. This has
inspired them to create a piece of drama. The features used look something like this:

Storyline- an alien spaceship is seen heading towards Earth from the International Space
Station. The astronauts on board try to stop it entering Earth’s atmosphere.

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Setting- space.

Places- the International Space Station, the alien space craft, NASA’s mission control centre.

Characters- the evil aliens; the heroic astronauts ( commander, pilot, systems operator, flight
surgeon, and navigator); the head of NASA; the director of media relations for NASA; NASA’s
director of the International Space Station missions; NASA’s crew director.

Events- the astronauts have only 30 mins to try and stop the aliens by any means possible.

Props- desks can be joined together to make the space ship, laser guns, fashioned from paper;
a chalk board can be used to draw distant stars or control panels; files can be used for laptops.

Costumes- spacesuits, alien masks, formal wear for NASA employees on Earth

Atmosphere- (this can include backdrop, music, and tempo) fast moving, intense; music can be
used from 2001: A Space Odyssey.

These features can be applied to any genre, namely: horror, war, comedy, romance, action,
adventure, crime or fantasy.

ACTIVITY 5

Now take a few minutes and plan out a crime genre drama for your class using the features set
out above:

Storyline-……………………………………………………………..…………………..………………..

Setting-……………………………………………………………………………………….……………..

Places-…………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..

Characters-…………………………………………………………………………………..……………..

Events-……………………………………………………………………………………………….……..

Props-…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..

Costumes-……………………………………………………………………………………………..…..

Atmosphere-…………………………………………………………………………………….………..

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One of the hardest genres to teach is comedy. Cowley (2007) insists that children should ‘not
laugh at a performance unless it is intentionally funny’ and that ‘being laughed at when you are
trying to give a serious performance is potentially very damaging to your students’ self-
confidence.’ A child laughing at their own performance usually precedes embarrassment. It is a
tool to undermine their abilities as making an audience laugh is intimidating and often daunting.
One technique used to employ effective comedy is that actors need to be completely focused
and straight-faced.

Here are some exercises you could try to achieve this level of focus:

Twister

Students work in pairs and remain expressionless. Call out two body parts (thumbs, knees). The
students join these parts of their bodies together. Then call out another two body parts (feet,
nose). The students must keep the first two body parts connected whilst trying to connect the
next two. This is repeated until everyone falls over or starts laughing.

Naughty Hands

This is the same skit used on Whose Line is it Anyways? Students again work in pairs. One
student stands behind the other. The student in front wraps their arms behind the student
standing behind them. The student at the back places their arms through the crook of the elbow
of the student in front of them. The student at the back is now the student in front’s arms and
hands. They can now imitate a scenario set out for them like performing an operation or
preparing a meal.

7.2 The Basic Elements of Drama

Let us go back and look at the earlier example of Taxi from the playwright Sibusiso Mamba.

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You will notice that the play opens up, not with dialogue, but with a list of characters. We have
the character names followed with the actor’s name that portray them. This is commonly known
as dramatis personae or ‘the characters in a play’. Dramatis personae are employed in plays
because drama is a performance and characters take the centre role. The playwright needs to
condense the amount of information given to an audience in the most efficient way possible.

Keep in mind the difference here between the character and the actor as a person. It is
important to always distance the actor as a person in his/her own right from the character they
are depicting.

For example, just because Thandi is cast as the evil witch does not mean that Thandi as a
person is ‘evil’.

Following this, the playwright will set the scene with stage directions. If we consider Taxi, we will
notice that Sibusiso Mamba sets the opening scene as:

SCENE 1: INT.DAY- MZEE’S MOVING TAXI.

Interior in the day

These are the stage directions given to a director and the actors. We can gather from this that
the playwright has indicated that the opening scene should take place in the inside (INT) of a
moving taxi (MZEE’S MOVING TAXI) during the day (DAY). He has set the scene. However, he
has also left some details to our imagination. The playwright has not described what the taxi
looks like. He has not given us any details of his world other than the scene takes place in a
moving taxi during the day. Is it raining? Are the streets busy with people and cars? Is it
morning? Afternoon?

The script is merely a guide for interpretation. For example, a director from England may have a
different interpretation of how the taxi looks to someone in South Africa.

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ACTIVITY 6

Imagine you are the Director of the play, Taxi. Describe how you would interpret the scene
above.

Share your ideas with your fellow students on the myUnisa Discussion Forum.

Stage directions are also used to help the actors and the technical staff create the right
atmosphere. Very little description is given in a play but what is given, needs to be expanded
and utilized to the fullest.

Image from https://pixabay.com/en/vintage-book-illustration-literature-1721884/ Accessed 23 November 2017

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ACTIVITY 7

Let us now take a look A Midsummer-Night’s Dream, Act 2, Scene 2 by William Shakespeare.
The setting is the woods. Oberon and Titania are King and Queen of the fairy world. However, a
rift has been formed when Oberon becomes jealous of a changeling (an Indian boy) that Titania
has stolen from another King. When Titania refuses to give up her foster child, Oberon casts a
spell on her that makes her fall in love with an ‘ass’.

Extract:
http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/views/plays/play_view.php?WorkID=midsummer&Act=
2&Scene=2&Scope=scene

[Enter OBERON and squeezes the flower on TITANIA's eyelids]

Oberon. What thou seest when thou dost wake,

Do it for thy true-love take, 680
Love and languish for his sake:
Be it ounce, or cat, or bear,
Pard, or boar with bristled hair,
In thy eye that shall appear
When thou wakest, it is thy dear: 685
Wake when some vile thing is near.
[Exit]

1. The stage directions given are: Enter OBERON, and squeezes the flower on TITANIA’S
eyelids. Take on the role of the director of this play/drama. What is your vision for this
scene?

2. Assume the role of OBERON-the king of fairies. He can be seen as both good and bad in
the context of the play. Let us say that in this scene OBERON’S intentions are malevolent.
How have the stage directions helped you portray and interpret this side of the character?

3. Assume the role of a costume designer. This version of the play takes place not in 1595,
but rather in the contemporary 1990’s- an era of anti-fashion. How would you dress your
characters in this scene?

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Now let us go back and look at the play, Taxi.

In Taxi the playwright makes use of voice-over effects. This is the character narrating what he
is thinking rather than conversing or acting through dialogue. Dialogue however, forms the bulk
of any play. The dialogue reveals information about the characters that would otherwise be ‘told’
in a novel.

For example, in Taxi:

Senzo: Serious! This taxi seats 15 people, ne? You put 18.

Mzee: We must make money.

What can you gather about these characters from this exchange of dialogue?

A possible interpretation of the scene could be that:

Senzo is questioning the ethics of seating so many people in a taxi when the limit is 15 people.
He is aware that taxi drivers take irresponsible risks with their passengers. However, Mzee
reveals that being a taxi driver is not an easy profession. We can gather that he is struggling to
make a living as a taxi driver. From this we can acknowledge that Senzo is aware of Mzee’s
reckless approach to doing his job, and that Mzee is simply trying to survive. None of this
information is directly expressed, it is insinuated through dialogue.

A set is a representation of scenery and the stage is the canvas for your set. If your play takes
place in a haunted house then your set needs to represent this in a realistic way. You need
household furniture, doors, tables, paintings, walls, lights, and anything relevant to your
production era. For instance, a TV would not be an accurate prop for a play set in the 1900’s. A
realistic set needs to create an illusion so that the audience can relate to the setting of your
play. Furthermore, consider what message you want your play to send. Do you wish for your
audience to be solely entertained? Or do you want the message of the play to stand out more?
Set design influences this. A set that is richly detailed transports your audience, however, if you
want your audience to think about things other than how amazing your set is, then perhaps you
would be better off trying to limit your set design to something more neutral and less exciting so
that your audience can concentrate on the dialogue or the message of the play.

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Theatrical property or props is any object which enhances and accompanies a scene or actor.
However, props are not considered scenery, costumes or actors. Props are essential to the
action of the play and are considered anything that is moveable from the stage. For example,
you are directing a play about World War 2. Your prop master has selected all your actors to
carry replica M1Garand rifles; he has also given two actors (that portray Catholic characters) to
wear rosary beads around their neck.

Exercise

You are the prop master for the upcoming remake of Taxi. Make a list of the some of the props
that might be required for the play.

1)………………………………………. 2)………………………………………

3)………………………………………. 4)………………………………………

Costumes reveal a lot about a character, and as drama relies on visual presentation, costumes
undoubtedly play a big role in allocating a sense of artistic vision in a play. Costumes assist
actors in portraying a character. Like set design, they help the audience visualize the world of
the story. A costume can also tell us numerous things before an actor even utters a single word
of dialogue. They can reveal the era of the play and thus the historical background. They can
also reveal the actor’s class and status. Costumes can likewise be used to help enforce a
season or time of day.

ACTIVITY 8

Pretend that you are the director of a play. An actor has come to you for advice. The purse that
they need for a scene is missing and needs to be replaced. Would you send them to the
costume designer or prop master? Why?

REFERENCES

University of South Africa. Study Guide EED102G. Pretoria.

Byrne, D. Only study guide for ENG1501/501. Section 3. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Cowley, S. 2007. Getting the Buggers into Drama. London: Continuum.

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Craig, W.J. (ed) (-) The Complete works of William Shakespeare. London: Oxford University
Press.

Mamba, S. (2012) ‘Taxi’ in Malan, R and Mazibuko, N. (eds). South African Plays for TV, Radio
and Stage. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wessels, M. 2014. Practical Guide to Facilitating Language Learning. 4th edition. Cape Town:
Oxford University Press.

7.3 Self-Assessment Exercises

We hope you have found this Unit exciting. In this unit we have defined drama as a written
story that relies on dialogue to be performed. We have also touched on how genre can become
a springboard for inspiration in the classroom, and that there are certain features that all
dramatic genres contain. Furthermore, there are certain structural elements of drama that are
necessary for a performance, namely: characters, stage directions, costume designers, prop
masters and dialogue.

Do you think that musical elements are important to drama?

Take a few moments to jot down some ways in which music can enhance drama, and
specifically, how it can aid in the portrayal of certain types of genre in particular. Use Taxi or
any other drama as an example.

Post your reflections on your e-tutor site of myUnisa for feedback.

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8 UNIT 5: DEVELOPING LITERACIES

AN OUTLINE OF THIS UNIT

When you have worked through this study unit you should be able to:

1. discuss and conceptualize multiliteracies and mulitmodalities

2. be able to explain the development of literacies through the learning and teaching of
literatures
3. apply reading literatures as a window to lifelong learning.

This Unit should be read in conjunction with Units 1-4 of this Study Guide and the Chapters in
the textbooks related to these Units.

Study programme

Activity Time spent (approximately)

Reading the textbook chapters 6 hours
Conceptualising Multiliteracies / 2 hours
Multimodalities + Activities
Development of Literacies + Activities 8 hours
Self-Reflection Exercise + Revision 2 hours
Assignment: Preparing; Drafting; Revising 6 hours

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8.1 Conceptualizing Multiliteracies/Multimodalities
When you hear the word literacy, what comes to mind? Perhaps the first thing you think about is
that literacy is the ability to read and write. This definition would be accurate 50, 40 or even 30
years ago. But is literacy confined to this definition in modern times?

In today’s fast-paced world, and with new technologies being developed at a rate that is
unprecedented, we are naturally exposed to new forms of literacy and communication that are
multimodal. What we consider to be literacy, needs to be expanded to encompass our modern
world. Society has now been engulfed by digital communication, screen-based communication,
and a global transfusion of people and cultures. In our modern world we communicate through
GIF’s, emoji’s, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube etc. Thus, we need to ask what it means to be
literate in a digital world and revise how we approach and facilitate language, literacy, and
learning.

The notion that there is more than one type of literacy was explored by the New London Group
who coined the term ‘multiliteracy’(1996:60-92) to highlight two key aspects of texts.

 The first of which is the creation of multimodal ways of allocating meaning where the
written word is progressively part of visual, audio and spatial patterns.

This means that it is no longer enough for literacy teaching to focus solely on the rules of
standard forms of the lingua franca. Rather, the communication and representation of meaning
today requires that learners are able to figure out differences in patterns of meaning from one
context to another. These differences are influenced by a number of factors, such as culture,
gender, life experience, subject matter, social or subject domains.

 Secondly, the prominence of cultural and linguistic diversity characterised by local

diversity and global connectedness.

The second feature arises from the way in which meaning is created. Meaning is created in
ways that are increasingly multimodal – in which written linguistic modes of meaning interface
with oral, visual, audio, gestural, tactile and spatial patterns of meaning. This means that the
range of literacy pedagogy should be extended so that it does not alienate any representations,
but brings into the classroom multimodal representations.

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LITERACY
MULTILITERACY

Image from https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2017/02/21/09/35/arrow-2085195__340.png Accessed 2 December 2017

Children’s literature should thus evolve to incorporate multimodal ways of communication. The
New London Group (1996:60-92) proposed the teaching of all representations of meaning,
including linguistic, visual, audio, spatial, gestural and multimodal through a balanced classroom
of multiliteracies pedagogy. Learners need to draw on their own experiences and semiotic
literacy practices to represent and communicate meaning. Anastopoulou, Baber and Sharples
(2011:s.n.) define the concept multimodal as:

... the use of sensory modalities by which humans receive information. These
modalities could be tactile, visual, auditory, etc. It also requests the use of at least two
response modalities to present information (e.g. verbal, manual activity). So, for
example, in a multimodal interaction a user may receive information by vision and
sound and respond by voice and touch.

We can conclude that literacy is the fluency in reading and writing. However, in our modern
world, the term ‘literacy’ needs to change. Multiliteracies have emerged through technology
which we need to facilitate in our classrooms in order for students to communicate and
synthesise information from a multitude of sources, both text and electronic.

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ACTIVITY 1

Jot down some of your thoughts in response to these questions.

Do we all learn in the same manner?

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What other ways of learning are there?

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How can these different ways of learning be used in the English classroom to teach Literature?
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Read through the following extract:

The Thebuwa cloth

Denise Newfield and Robert Maungedzo- MODILISING AND MODALISING POETRY IN A SOWETO
CLASSROOM
The Thebuwa cloth is a collective, multi-semiotic assemblage which was produced by the whole class as an act
of self-constitution and communication to an unknown international audience. Measuring 3.0 metres by 2.8metres,
Thebuwa is constructed from 22 smaller cloths made by individuals and groups and then stitched together.
On each small cloth, made from a square of scrap fabric found in the family home or from a recycled old maize
bag, students have inked family or clan praise poems in their indigenous languages, and have embroidered a map
of the ‘new South Africa’, itself a form of post-apartheid recycling and reconfiguration. Poems in English which have
been placed inside recycled envelopes, traditional doll-like figures and colour photographs of the makers are
attached to the cloth. Lines of small brass safety pins crawl decoratively across it…
Sonnyboy’s praise poem, in Xitsonga, characterises the Mkhabela family in terms of animals, as the first stanza
shows:
Ngila! Ngila! Mkhabela
Huwa ra tinghala na Matimba ya tindloph
Tinsimu ta Swinyenyani ha ku nandziha ka tona
Swini ntsako loko swi vona Mkhabela.
[Noise of joy! Noise of Joy! Mkhabela,
Noise of lions and power of elephants
How wonderful are the songs of birds
They are filled with joy when they see Mkhabela.

According to their teacher, the praise poems in the vernacular opened up a pathway to their creation of poetry in
English…

Is ‘The Thebuwa cloth’ a good example of multimodal learning in the classroom? Why?
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Multicultural learning is vital in today’s ever-changing world. Along with learners needing to be
fluent in multiliteracies, classrooms need to support multicultural learning. Children’s literature is
different to literature in general, and in saying this, we should also exclude children’s literature
that is multicultural from the two former terms. Children’s literature that is multicultural supports
child development and cements the importance of parental interaction. Furthermore, children’s
literature that is multicultural encompasses its own unique style and qualities.

In basic terms, multicultural literature for children reflects various culture’s from a child’s eyes.
They embody a sense of world and portray a unique input of information about the diversity of
culture. It is, in essence, the recognition of differences and likenesses of various groups of
people. In this way, children’s literature that is multicultural can be explored for enjoyment as
well as for learning. Authors of such books seek to encourage children to discover more about
themselves and others. Author and teacher Mem Fox, confirms this stance by stating that:

[t]hose of us who teach need to be aware of [multicultural literature] so we remember

to provide affirming literature for all children in our care, not just for those who belong
to the prevailing, dominant ruling classes or gender. And those of us who write for
children need to be sure we are opening doors to full human potential, not closing
them (1993, p.657).

8.2 Development of literacies through the learning and teaching

of literatures
Multicultural children’s literature can be linked to the development of literacies. The theories of
development include language, cognitive, social-emotional, and artistic.

Language is always found in cultures and as children learn that sounds create meaning, they
enjoy the discovery of poetry and song from many different groups of people. Conversations,
questions and vocabulary are important facets of learning in the elementary years. Storytelling
is the finest example of this oral tradition. The passing down of a story from group to group and
age to age inspires conversation by children and their teachers or parents, entailing questioning
and restating. Haley’s A Story, a Story (1970) is a good example of this as it explains how
storytelling and the oral tradition first came to be. It is a tale based on African folklore which
retells how we came to have stories in the first place.

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As well as language, cognitive development is also important in its relationship to literature.

Cognitive development includes memory, classification, seriation, concept development,
relationships within time and space, and higher-level thinking skills such as comparing,
contrasting, organizing, hypothesizing, criticizing, applying and evaluating.

Students enjoy hearing and reading about real-life situations and contemporary fiction. They
seek to understand the world around them as a place where human beings and the
environment interact. Cognitive development seeks to provide children with a hands-on
experience with text/words as well as stimulate higher-level thinking processes.

Similar to cognitive development is social-emotional development. Erikson, an expert in the field

of psychosocial development theory (1959), states that a series of psychosocial conflicts occur
in the space of a young person’s lifetime that aid in emerging maturity. This conflict in one stage
must be resolved before the child can successfully move on to the next stage, and that this
movement can be fast-tracked through the use of children’s books.

The first stage known as trust versus mistrust (birth to 18 months) when babies require security
and affection can be overcome with predictable stories and nursery rhymes. In stage two,
autonomy versus doubt (18 months to 3 years) children try to establish their own identities and
books that offer moral dilemmas such as Potter’s The tale of Peter Rabbit (1900) helps children
achieve a sense of identity by understanding bad and good choices in life. Children aged 3 to 6
engage in stage 3, initiative versus guilt. During this stage, children begin to realize their own
responsibilities and start to understand interpersonal conflicts. In stage 4, industry versus
inferiority (7 to 11 years) children begin to work cooperatively and worry about peer acceptance.
It is also during this stage that children can begin to feel left out and unable to measure up to
others. Books such as Cleary’s Romona Quimby, Age 8 (1981) teach children how to deal with
friendships among peers and the related difficulties. The last stage of these psychosocial
conflicts starts at adolescence and above and is known as identity versus role confusion. It is
allocated to the unearthing of personal, cultural and social identity.

Artistic development is enriched by multicultural children’s literature. It involves critical and

creative thinking and makes use of imagination. Using books, young learners can role-play
characters, change story endings, and write stories or poems that reflect their own lives.
Communication, song, and language play into the imaginations of children when they look at

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others from different perspectives. This development theory also introduces creative dramatics
and movement.

Reading literatures as a window to lifelong learning

Before we begin, we need to examine why we believe in the importance of reading. Why must
children read? What are the main purposes and goals of reading?

ACTIVITY 2
Why do you think children should read?
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To these questions you may have answered:
 Reading foremost offers enjoyment;
 It develops reading and writing skills;
 It enhances the use of language;
 Stimulates the imagination;
 Helps to gain an understanding of the world;
 Helps children discover a moral compass;

Now, go back and review what was said in the previous sections of this Unit in terms of Literacy,
Multi-literacy and Multiculturalism.

ACTIVITY 3

Explain the terms: literacy and multi-literacy. Give examples of each.

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How can reading promote multiliteracy in the classroom?

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How can reading widen a child’s perspective of the world?

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How does reading introduce learners to new places and cultures? Give examples.
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From our discussions and reflections, it has become clear that there is a growing realization that
there are many forms of literacy. As educators, we need to be aware that learners are
developing multiliteracies which we need to incorporate in the teaching environment.

Some examples of multiliteracies are:

Cultural literacy - cultural and social values that shape our reading of texts

Critical literacy - the ability to critically analyze the contents and effects messages and texts
have on a reader

Visual literacy - the understanding of signs, pictures and non-verbal language

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The relationship a child has with books becomes the basis for children’s knowledge of who they
are, where they fit in the community and the world, and how they will one day affect society.
Children’s books that are especially multicultural best explain who children are and help them
deal with life situations and the environment around them. Thus, young readers see themselves
mirrored in books as they deal with situations about everyday life such as divorce, fear and
loneliness.

Activity 4
Select a text appropriate to a specific age group and think of ways in which you could
incorporate the idea of multiliteracy in your English classroom.
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Christine Bennet, in Comprehensive Multicultural Education: Theory and Practice (1990),

defines academic achievement as ‘the knowledge a student has previously acquired that relates
to what is being taught’ (p.177). The use of children’s literature can thus empower students of
all groups as it relates to their experiences and environment. This empowerment helps build
self- esteem and can therefore increase confidence in their ability to succeed academically.

One of the most effective methods of increasing academic achievement in learners is to read to
them aloud. As children’s books are meant to be heard, learners are stimulated by expressions
that help them visualize characters and scenes. Reading aloud to a child makes both the reader
and the listener more aware of the pictures and words that help drive the story which enables
recognition in the patterns of the text, thus aiding in what is construed as good writing and
storytelling.

Here are some of benefits of reading aloud to children:

 It provides a positive reading role model;
 Exposes students to new information about themselves and others around them;
 It gives pleasure to both the reader and listener;
 It exposes a rich and diverse vocabulary;
 It offers a variety of books that a child would not necessarily choose;
 It exposes the listener to a variety of languages, not just English.

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ACTIVITY 5

Compile your own list of why reading aloud could be beneficial to children.
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What are the advantages of an adult reading to a child?

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Discuss your answers with your e-tutor on the myUnisa site.

REFERENCES

University of South Africa. Study Guide EED203L. Pretoria.

University of South Africa. Study Guide ENG2613. Study unit 5. Pretoria.
Anastopoulou,S., Sharples, M., Baber, C. 2011. British Journal of Educational Technology.
42(2): 266-290.
Bennet, C. 1990. Comprehensive Multicultural Education: Theory and Practice. Boston: Allyn
And Bacon
Cleary, B. 1981. Ramona Quimbly, age 8. New York: Marrow.
Erikson, E. 1959. Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues Monograph 1. New York:
International University Press
Finazzo, D. 1997. ALL FOR THE CHILDREN: Multicultural Essentials of Literature. New York:
Delmar Publishers.
Fox, M. 1993. Men who weep, boys who dance: The gender agenda between the lines in
children's literature. 70 (2): 652-657.
Haley,G. 1970. A story, a story. New York: Atheneum.
Potter, B. 1900. The Tale of Peter Rabbit. New York: F. Warne.

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Reynolds, K. 2011. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Stein, P. 2008.Multimidal Pedagogies in Diverse Classrooms: Representation, rights and
resources. London: Routledge.

8.3 Self-Assessment Exercises

Do you agree with this statement?
What should teachers do to help children read literature?

Take a few moments to jot down some ways that teachers can encourage children to become
more interested in reading books.

Do you think that as educators, teaching young children about injustices will frighten them?
Why?

Discuss your answers to these questions with your e-tutor and amongst yourselves on the
myUnisa Discussion Forums.

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9 UNIT 6: GLOSSARY

This Unit contains a list of key terminology and words referred to in the Study Guide.

Abilities: referring to talents or skills. Having the skill to execute something.

Acts: portions of a play, usually defined by the rising of action, climax or
resolution.
Audience: people watching or listening to the drama. Audiences affect the
reception and nature of a play.
Authenticity: a feature of being real or true.
Character: a person involved in a play, novel or film.
Climax: the culmination of action. The point to where the dramatic action has
been built.
Conflict: the obstacle, opposition or complication characters need to navigate
in order to reach the climax.
Diction: the choice of words or phrases used.
Diversity: a range of different things.
Dramatic discourse: discussion, debate. Language and conventions appropriate to the
dramatic genre.
Dramatis personae: the characters in a play, novel or narrative.
Emphasis: special importance or value given to something.
Escapist: seeking relief or distraction from reality.
Fables: a short story often teaching a moral or ethical lesson.
Fantasy: imaginary events or situations, based on legend, myth or folktale;
imagining the impossible.
Fiction: imaginary description of people, places or events.
Folktales: a story passed on from beliefs or traditions, usually transmitted orally
and sometimes based on superstition.
Genre: a specific style or category.
Illustrator: the person responsible for creating or drawing images in a book.
Lingua franca: common language used by speakers whose native languages are
different.

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Multicultural: including a vast and diverse assembly of cultural groups.
Multimodal: the different ways in which knowledge is learnt and meaning is
made.
Multilingual: the ability to understand or express two or more languages. The
involvement of several different languages within a specific context.
Narrative: a spoken or written account of events.
Non-fiction: informative and factual account of people, places or events.
Oral performance: a form of communication where art, ideas, and knowledge are
transmitted, preserved, and received orally.
Pace: timing or rhythm affecting or assisting the development of action.
Pedagogy: the method and practice of teaching.
Preface: an introduction usually found at the beginning of a book stating its
purpose.
Prop master: a person responsible for acquiring, purchasing, manufacturing, or
placing props needed for a performance.
Prose: written or spoken language not containing rhythmic structure.
Realism: representing a person, event or situation accurate to real life.
Resolution: a part of a story, following the climax where the problem is resolved.
Romanticized: something that is idealized and unrealistic to make more appealing.
Self-realisation: the fulfilment of one’s potential or possibilities either in action or
thought.
Scene: a sub-division of a play and a division of an act. Scenes establish a
play’s development.
Script: the written text of a play, film or broadcast.
Setting: a location or position in time where events take place.
Stanza: a group of lines in poem separated by other stanzas through blank
space or indentation.
Stereotypical: a fixed and oversimplified idea or image referring to objects or
people.
Vocabulary: the body of words used in a specific language.

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