T1: MASS, MOMENTUM AND ENERGY

OBJECTIVES

1. Extend continuity and momentum principles to non-

uniform velocity

2. Apply continuity and Bernoulli’s equation to flow

measurement and tank-emptying

3. Learn methods for dealing with non-ideal flow

 NOTATION

Geometry
x ≡ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) position
𝑡 time

Field Variables
u ≡ (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) velocity (𝑈 or 𝑉 for velocity magnitude or speed)
𝑝 pressure
𝑝 − 𝑝atm gauge pressure
𝑝∗ ≡ 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 piezometric pressure
𝑇 temperature
 FLUID PROPERTIES

𝜌 density
𝛾 ≡ 𝜌𝑔 specific weight
s. g. ≡ 𝜌/𝜌ref specific gravity (or relative density)
𝜇 dynamic viscosity
𝜈 ≡ 𝜇/𝜌 kinematic viscosity
𝜎 surface tension
𝐾 bulk modulus
𝑘 conductivity of heat
𝑐 speed of sound
 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER
Air:
density: 𝜌 ≈ 1.2 kg m−3
(dynamic) viscosity: 𝜇 ≈ 1.8 × 10−5 kg m−1 s −1 (Pa s)
kinematic viscosity: 𝜈 ≈ 1.5 × 10−5 m2 s −1

Water:
density: 𝜌 ≈ 1000 kg m−3
(dynamic) viscosity: 𝜇 ≈ 1.0 × 10−3 kg m−1 s −1 (Pa s)
kinematic viscosity: 𝜈 ≈ 1.0 × 10−6 m2 s −1

Properties vary with temperature

NON-DIMENSIONAL PARAMETERS

𝜌𝑈𝐿 𝑈𝐿
Re ≡ ≡ Reynolds number
𝜇 𝜈

𝑈
Fr ≡ Froude number
𝑔𝐿
 DEFINITIONS
• fluids / solids

• liquids / gases

• hydrostatics / hydrodynamics

• hydraulics / aerodynamics

• incompressible / compressible

• ideal / real

• Newtonian / non-Newtonian

• laminar / turbulent
 STATICS
Hydrostatics Δ𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔Δ𝑧

d𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔
d𝑧

Δ(𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧) = 0

Ideal Gas Law 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

 EXAMPLES
Question
What is an atmospheric pressure of 1 bar equivalent to in:
(a) metres of water;
(b) millimetres of mercury (s. g. = 13.6)?

Question
The MECD building is 7 storeys high, with each storey having
height 5 m. Find the pressure difference between ground and roof.

Question
If sea-level pressure is 1 bar and the lower atmosphere is
isothermal, with temperature 𝑇 = 298 K, calculate the pressure at
a height of 10 km. (𝑅 = 287 J kg −1 K −1 for air)
 DYNAMICS
Continuity (mass conservation)
mass is conserved

For steady flow:

(mass flux)in = (mass flux)out

Momentum principle
force = rate of change of momentum

For steady flow:

force = (momentum flux)out – (momentum flux)in

Energy principle
change in energy = heat supplied + work done

For incompressible flow:

change of kinetic energy = work done
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
1 2
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌𝑈 = constant along a streamline energy (per unit mass)
2

𝑝 𝑈2
+𝑧+ = constant along a streamline energy (per unit weight)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
(total head)

Assumes:
• no losses
• incompressible
• steady

Losses
Often quantified in terms of a change in head:

𝑝 𝑈2
Δ( + 𝑧 + ) = change in head
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
 EXAMPLE SHEET

A long bridge with piers 1.5 m wide, spaced 8 m

between centres, crosses a river. The depth of water
upstream is 1.6 m and between the piers is 1.45 m.

Calculate the volume flow rate under one arch,

assuming that the river bed is horizontal, the banks
are parallel and frictional effects are negligible. Find
the maximum height to which water rises at the
front of the piers.
 FLOW RATE

A
u

volume flow rate (aka “discharge” or “quantity of flow”): 𝑄 = 𝑢𝐴

mass flow rate: 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝑢𝐴

 EXAMPLE
The figure shows a converging two-dimensional duct in which flow enters in two layers.
A fluid of specific gravity 0.8 flows as the top layer at a velocity of 2 m s–1 and water
flows along the bottom layer at a velocity of 4 m s–1. The two layers are each of thickness
0.5 m. The two flows mix thoroughly in the duct and the mixture exits to atmosphere
with the velocity uniform across the section of depth 0.5 m.

0.5 m 2 m/s

0.5 m

0.5 m 4 m/s

p1=15 kN/m2

(a) Determine the velocity of flow of the mixture at the exit.

(b) Determine the density of the mixture at the exit.

 CONTINUITY
(CONSERVATION OF MASS OR VOLUME)

In steady flow: total flow in = total flow out

෍ 𝑢𝐴 = ෍ 𝑢𝐴
in out

Volume flow rate, 𝑄

A
𝑄 = 𝑢𝐴 (uniform flow) u

𝑄 = න 𝑢 d𝐴 (non-uniform flow)

An integral is just a sum!

 SPECIAL CASES

𝑄 = න 𝑢 d𝐴

w
2-dimensional: d𝐴 = 𝑤 d𝑦 u(y)
dy

𝑄 = 𝑤 න 𝑢 d𝑦

Axisymmetric: d𝐴 = 2π𝑟 d𝑟 u(r)

r dr

𝑄 = න 𝑢 2π𝑟 d𝑟
 EXAMPLE

The distribution of velocity in a rectangular channel of

width 𝑤 = 800 mm and depth ℎ = 200 mm is given by
𝑦 1/7
𝑢 = 𝑈0
ℎ
where 𝑈0 = 8 m s −1 . What is:
(a) the quantity of flow;
(b) the average velocity?
 AVERAGE VELOCITY

For non-uniform velocity you will need to find the volume flow rate
in order to calculate the average velocity

𝑄 = 𝑈av 𝐴

𝑄 flow rate
𝑈av = =
𝐴 area
 EXAMPLE

Fully-developed laminar flow in a pipe of

radius 𝑅 has velocity profile:
𝑢 = 𝑈0 (1 − 𝑟 2 /𝑅2 )
Find the average velocity in terms of 𝑈0 .
 MOMENTUM

1. Newton’s 2nd Law (“Momentum Principle”)

force = rate of change of momentum
applied to all fluid passing through a control volume.

2. Newton’s 3rd Law (“Action / Reaction”)

The force of a fluid on a boundary is equal and opposite to the
reaction of that boundary on the fluid.

3. Force and momentum are vector quantities.

 MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE FOR STEADY FLOW
force = rate of change of momentum

For steady flow and fixed control volume: u out

mass entering × change in velocity
force (on fluid) =
time

= mass flux × change in velocity F

u in

F = ρ𝑄(uout − uin )

= (ρ𝑄u)out − (ρ𝑄u)in

𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐱 = mass flux × (velocity) = 𝜌𝑄u

(𝜌𝑢𝐴)u if uniform

෍ 𝜌𝑢𝐴 u if non-uniform
MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE FOR STEADY FLOW

force = (rate that momentum leaves C. V. ) − ( rate that momentum enters C. V. )

= momentum flux out – (momentum flux)in

𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐱 = ෍ 𝜌𝑢𝐴 u discrete

න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝐴 continuous (1-d)

 EXAMPLE (REPRISE)
The figure shows a converging two-dimensional duct in which flow enters in two layers.
A fluid of specific gravity 0.8 flows as the top layer at a velocity of 2 m s–1 and water
flows along the bottom layer at a velocity of 4 m s–1. The two layers are each of thickness
0.5 m. The two flows mix thoroughly in the duct and the mixture exits to atmosphere
with the velocity uniform across the section of depth 0.5 m.

0.5 m 2 m/s

0.5 m

0.5 m 4 m/s

p1=15 kN/m2

(a) Determine the velocity of flow of the mixture at the exit.

(b) Determine the density of the mixture at the exit.

(c) If the pressure 𝑝1 at the upstream section is 15 kPa, what is the force per unit width
exerted on the duct?
 FORCES ON FLUIDS

• Body forces (proportional to volume)

– weight
– centrifugal and Coriolis forces

• Surface forces (from adjacent fluid; proportional to area)

– pressure forces
– viscous forces

• Reaction forces (from solid boundaries)

 SURFACE FORCES
Surface forces are usually expressed in terms of stress:
force
stress = force = stress × area
area

Pressure, 𝒑
force = pressure × area
net force (𝑥 direction) = (𝑝𝐿 − 𝑝𝑅 )𝐴 pL A pRA
A

Shear stress, 𝝉
A n A
force = shear stress × area
net force (𝑥 direction) = (𝜏𝑇 − 𝜏𝐵)𝐴
s A
 VISCOUS STRESS

y
u(y)

d𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
d𝑦

Note: at high Reynolds numbers, what we call stress, 𝜏, is usually

dominated by the net transfer of momentum by turbulent
fluctuations, not viscous stress.
 BOUNDARY LAYERS

free stream

boundary layer

What is a boundary layer?

• A layer of slow-moving fluid close to a solid boundary

• Occurs because viscosity imposes a no-slip condition

• For high Re/small viscosity it is usually extremely thin

 FLOW SEPARATION
adv
p ... ... slows
speeds u down ers
e
gra press
die
nt ure

bac
kflo
w

flow
separation

• Requires:
(i) a layer of slow-moving fluid (boundary layer)
(ii) free-stream deceleration (adverse pressure gradient)

• There is near-surface flow reversal

• To satisfy continuity, flow breaks away from the surface

 FLOW SEPARATION
• Occurs on sufficiently convex surfaces
L
H H

• Almost inevitable at sharp corners

H L

• A viscous effect … but causes large pressure drag

H L
high low
pressure pressure
LAMINAR vs TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYERS
Laminar Turbulent

u(y) u(y)
y y

Adjacent layers don’t mix Adjacent layers mix (a lot)

Momentum transfer by viscous stress: Net momentum transfer by mixing:

d𝑢 d𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 𝜏≫𝜇
d𝑦 d𝑦
Blasius velocity profile Logarithmic mean-velocity profile

Important:
• Turbulent boundary layers are less likely to separate
• Controlling separation can greatly reduce drag
 FORCES ON OBJECTS

lift F
U0 drag

drag = component of force parallel to the approach flow.

lift = component of force perpendicular to the approach flow.

DRAG AND LIFT COEFFICIENTS

drag
drag coefficient 𝑐𝐷 =
1 2
𝜌𝑈 𝐴
2 0

lift
lift coefficient 𝑐𝐿 =
1 2
𝜌𝑈 𝐴
2 0
 PRESSURE OR VISCOUS DRAG
drag
Drag coefficient 𝑐𝐷 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑈0 𝐴

Bluff bodies
• force is predominantly pressure drag U0
A
• 𝐴 is projected area (normal to flow)
• 𝑐𝐷 is 𝑂(1)

Streamlined bodies
• force is predominantly viscous drag U0
• 𝐴 is plan area (parallel to flow) A
• 𝑐𝐷 ≪ 1
 MOMENTUM FLUX

momentum flux = ෍ mass flux × velocity

= ෍(𝜌𝑢𝐴)𝑢 (discrete)

or

න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝐴 (continuous)
 MOMENTUM FLUX
momentum flux = න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝐴

Velocity profile Area elements Momentum flux

Uniform area 𝐴 𝜌𝑈 2 𝐴

w
u(y)
dy
2-dimensional d𝐴 = 𝑤 d𝑦 𝑤 න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝑦

u(r)

Axisymmetric
r dr
d𝐴 = 2π𝑟 dr න 𝜌𝑢2 2π𝑟 d𝑟
 EXAMPLE
A two-dimensional beam of height 𝑏 = 100 mm spans a square air-conditioning duct of height
ℎ = 400 mm. The approach flow is uniform (𝑈𝐴 = 0.6 m s−1 ), whilst the downstream velocity
profile is 2-dimensional and given by:

3 1 2π𝑦 ℎ
𝑈𝐵 − cos , if 𝑦 ≤
4 4 ℎ 2
𝑢=
ℎ
𝑈𝐵 , if 𝑦 >
2
The pressure is uniform over the height of the duct at both sections. Neglecting drag on the walls
of the duct find:
(a) the value of 𝑈𝐵 ;
(b) the difference between pressures at upstream and downstream sections, assuming that
Bernoulli’s equation holds outside the wake region;
(c) the force on the beam.
(d) Define a suitable drag coefficient for the beam and calculate its value.

Take the density of air as 𝜌 = 1.2 kg m−3 .

0.6 m/s
400 mm

100 mm
 EXAMPLE
A cylinder spans a wind tunnel of rectangular cross section and height ℎ = 0.3 m, as shown in the
figure. The spanwise width 𝑤 = 0.6 m and the cylinder diameter is 90 mm. The upstream velocity is
𝑈𝐴 and is uniform. The velocity profile measured a short distance downstream of the cylinder is
symmetric about the centreline and is given by

2 3
𝑦 𝑦
10 1 + 6 −4 , if 𝑦 ≤ 0.1
𝑢= 0.1 0.1
𝑈𝐵 , if 𝑦 ≥ 0.1

where 𝑢 is the velocity in m s–1 and 𝑦 is the distance from the centreline in m.

cylinder y
uA
h
uB

(a) Assuming that the downstream velocity profile has no discontinuities, what is the value of 𝑈𝐵 ?
(b) Calculate the upstream velocity, 𝑈𝐴 .
(c) Assuming that Bernoulli’s theorem is applicable outside the wake of the cylinder calculate the
pressure difference between upstream and downstream sections.
(d) Neglecting drag on the walls of the tunnel, calculate the total drag force on the cylinder.
(e) Define a suitable drag coefficient and calculate its value.
 EXAMPLE
Water enters a horizontal pipe of diameter 20 mm with uniform velocity 0.1 m s–1 at point A.
At point B some distance downstream the velocity profile becomes fully-developed and
varies with radius 𝑟 according to:
𝑟2
𝑢 = 𝑈0 1− 2
𝑅
where 𝑅 is the radius of the pipe. The pressure drop between A and B is 32 Pa.

(a) Find the value of 𝑈0 .

(b) Calculate the total drag on the wall of the pipe between A and B.

(c) Beyond point B the pipe undergoes a smooth contraction to a new diameter 𝐷𝐶 .
Estimate the value of 𝐷𝐶 at which the flow would cease to be laminar.

[The critical Reynolds number for transition in a circular pipe, based on average velocity and
diameter is 2300. Take the density and kinematic viscosity of water as 𝜌 = 1000 kg m–3 and
𝜈 = 1.1 × 10–6 m2 s–1 respectively.]
 EXAMPLE SHEET
A hydraulic jump occurs in an open channel of width 1.0 m. Upstream of the jump the
depth is 0.1 m and the velocity is 𝑈𝐴 (uniform). The velocity profile just downstream of
the jump is of the form
𝑈𝐵 π𝑦
𝑢= 1 + cos
2 𝐷
where 𝑢 is the velocity at a distance 𝑦 from the bed of the channel, 𝑈𝐵 is the velocity
near the bed and 𝐷 (= 0.8 m) is the depth downstream of the jump.

0.8 m
uA
0.1 m

uB
(a) Determine 𝑈𝐵 , leaving your answer as a function of 𝑈𝐴 .

(b) Calculate the difference between the hydrostatic pressure forces on the fluid cross-
sections upstream and downstream of the jump.

(c) Neglecting viscous stresses on the channel bed or the free surface, use the
momentum principle to find the upstream velocity 𝑈𝐴 .
 FORCES ON IMMERSED BODIES

force on BODY force on FLUID

F
F

Measure the change of momentum of the fluid

... deduce the force on the body
 FORCES ON IMMERSED BODIES
(i) constrained (change in free-stream velocity) (ii) unconstrained (no change in free-stream velocity)

body body
inflow wake inflow wake

streamline

Momentum principle: force on fluid = momentum flux − momentum flux

out in

−𝐹 + න 𝑝 d𝐴 − න 𝑝 d𝐴 = න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝐴 − න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝐴
in out out in

𝐹 = net pressure force + න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝐴 − න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝐴

in out

න 𝜌𝑢 𝑈in − 𝑢 d𝐴
out
 FORCES ON IMMERSED BODIES
(i) constrained (change in free-stream velocity) (ii) unconstrained (no change in free-stream velocity)

body body
inflow wake inflow wake

streamline

Force deduced from downstream measurements only:

𝐹 = න 𝜌𝑢 𝑈in − 𝑢 + (𝑃in − 𝑝) d𝐴
out

For unconstrained case or streamlined bodies:

𝐹 = න 𝜌𝑢 𝑈∞ − 𝑢 d𝐴
out
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION: DERIVATION
Mechanical-energy equation (rate form):
rate of change in (KE + PE) = rate of working by non-con. forces

1
2
u1 u2
Steady flow; thin stream tube:
(energy flux)2 − (energy flux)1 = rate at which work is done on fluid
1 1
𝜌𝑄(𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 2 )2 − 𝜌𝑄(𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 2 )1 = (𝑝𝐴𝑈)1 − (𝑝𝐴𝑈)2 + 𝑊ሶ
2 2

Divide by mass flow rate, 𝜌𝑄 = (𝜌𝑈𝐴)1 = (𝜌𝑈𝐴)2

1 2 1 2 𝑝 𝑝 𝑊ሶ
(𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 )2 − (𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 )1 = ( )1 − ( )2 +
2 2 𝜌 𝜌 𝜌𝑄
𝑝 1
Δ( + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 2 ) = work done per unit mass
𝜌 2

Incompressible: density 𝜌 constant along a streamline

1
Δ(𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌𝑈 2 ) = work done per unit volume
2
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

1 2
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌𝑈 = constant
2

Assumptions:
• applies along a streamline
• steady
• incompressible
• inviscid (no losses)
 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Energy equation (rate form):
rate of change in (IE + KE + PE) = rate of working + supplying heat

1
2
u1 u2
Steady flow; thin stream tube:
(energy flux)2 − (energy flux)1 = rate of working + supplying heat
1 1
𝜌𝑄(𝑒 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 2 )2 − 𝜌𝑄(𝑒 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 2 )1 = (𝑝𝐴𝑈)1 − (𝑝𝐴𝑈)2 + 𝑊ሶ + 𝑄ሶ 𝐻
2 2

Divide by mass flow rate, 𝜌𝑄 = (𝜌𝑈𝐴)1 = (𝜌𝑈𝐴)2

1 2 1 2 𝑝 𝑝 𝑊ሶ + 𝑄ሶ 𝐻
(𝑒 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 )2 − (𝑒 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 )1 = ( )1 − ( )2 +
2 2 𝜌 𝜌 𝜌𝑄
𝑝 1
Δ(𝑒 + + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑈 2 ) = (work done + heat supplied) per unit mass
𝜌 2

𝑝
𝑒+ (or 𝑒 + 𝑝𝑣) is called specific enthalpy
𝜌

In compressible flow, density 𝜌 is not constant along a streamline

 TOTAL ENERGY: “HEAD”

1 2
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌𝑈 energy per unit volume
2

𝑝 𝑈2
+𝑧+ energy per unit weight (total head)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

dynamic head
pressure head
 ENERGY CONVERSION: POWER

Flow rate 𝑄, change of head 𝐻

energy transformed
power =
time
𝑚𝑔𝐻 𝑚
= = 𝜌𝑄 (mass flow rate)
𝑡 𝑡

= 𝜌𝑄𝑔𝐻

power = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
STATIC AND STAGNATION PRESSURE

stagnation point
p0=p + 12-U 2 U = 0, p = p0
(highest pressure)

1 2
Stagnation pressure 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑈 (= Pitot pressure, 𝑝0)
2

Static pressure 𝑝

1 2
Dynamic pressure 𝜌𝑈
2
 MANOMETRY PRINCIPLES
In a stationary fluid:
(1) Same fluid, same height  same pressure
(2) Same fluid, different height  Δ𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔 Δ𝑧
(3) Different fluids: pressure is continuous at an interface
A B
U-Tube Manometer y

left arm right arm


𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ + 𝑦) = 𝑝𝐶 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ h
C
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = (𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌)𝑔ℎ
m
Δ𝑝 = (𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌)𝑔ℎ Δ𝑝∗ = (𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌)𝑔ℎ

Inclined Manometer arge)

L (l
h (small)
ℎ = 𝐿 sin 𝜃 
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
Basic idea: measure the difference between Pitot and static pressures
1 2
𝑝0 − 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑈
2
Pitot static dynamic
pressure pressure pressure

2
U /2g
free surface
Free-surface flows
U

stagnation point

Internal flows piezometer Pitot tube

total pressure tube
2
U
static pressure tube
2g
Piezometer Pitot-static
and Pitot tube tube
static holes
U
stagnation point
 MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME FLOW RATE
Basic idea:
• Provide a constricted section to change speed; measure resulting change in pressure
• Use a combination of Bernoulli’s eqn and continuity.

Venturi flowmeter Orifice flowmeter

1
2

1 1
Bernoulli: 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑈12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑈22
2 2
Continuity: 𝑈1 𝐴1 = 𝑈2 𝐴2 = 𝑄
1/2
2𝐴12 Δ𝑝
𝑄=
(𝐴1 /𝐴2 )2 − 1 𝜌

𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑄ideal (𝑐𝑑 = discharge coefficient)

FREE DISCHARGE UNDER GRAVITY
1

1 2 1 2
Bernoulli: 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑈1 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑈2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2
2 2
1 2
𝜌𝑈 = 𝜌𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
2 2

Torricelli’s Formula: 𝑈exit = 2𝑔ℎ

Ideal quantity of flow: 𝑄ideal = 𝑈exit 𝐴exit

Actual quantity of flow: 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑄ideal

 TANK FILLING OR EMPTYING
(RESERVOIR ROUTING)

volume h(t)
flow in V flow out

rate of change of volume = (volume flow rate)in – (volume flow rate)out

d𝑉
= 𝑄in − 𝑄out
d𝑡
d𝑉 = 𝐴𝑤𝑠 dℎ dh
Aws

dℎ
𝐴𝑤𝑠 = 𝑄in − 𝑄out
d𝑡

e.g. Emptying under gravity:

𝑄out = 𝑐𝑑 𝑈exit 𝐴exit 𝑈exit = 2𝑔ℎ
 EXAMPLE
A conical hopper of semi-vertex angle 30° contains water
to a depth of 0.8 m. If a small hole of diameter 20 mm is
suddenly opened at its point, estimate (assuming a
discharge coefficient 𝑐𝑑 = 0.8):

(a) the initial discharge (quantity of flow);

(b) the time taken to reduce the depth of water to 0.4 m.

o 0.8 m
30
 EXAMPLE SHEET

A trough has rectangular cross section (0.6 m wide × 0.8 m deep) and length 2 m.
It is being continuously filled with water via a hose at a rate of 1.5 L s–1, whilst
water leaks from a hole at the bottom with area 8 × 10−4 m2. The latter can be
treated as an orifice with discharge coefficient 𝑐𝑑 = 0.6.

(a) Write a numerical expression for the quantity of flow 𝑄 (in m3 s–1) leaking
from the bottom of the trough as a function of water depth ℎ (in m).

(b) Show that the inflow and outflow rates are such that the trough can not fill
to the brim.

(c) Find the maximum depth to which the trough can fill.

(d) Find the time taken to fill the trough to half the depth in part (c).
 METHODS FOR NON-IDEAL FLOW
Discharge coefficients
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑄ideal

Loss coefficients
𝑉2
Δ𝐻 = −𝐾
2𝑔
1 2
Δ𝑝 = −𝐾( 𝜌𝑉 )
2
𝐿
e.g pipe friction (𝜆 = friction factor): 𝐾=𝜆
𝐷

Momentum and energy coefficients

Momentum coefficient (𝛽): න 𝜌𝑢2 d𝐴 = 𝛽(𝜌𝑈av
2 𝐴)

Kinetic energy coefficient (𝛼): න 𝜌𝑢3 d𝐴 = 𝛼(𝜌𝑈av

3 𝐴)