Unit 4 chap 1

IPV4 ADDRESS:
1. Internet Protocol Version 4
2. It is 32 - bit numerical address
Sad
3. Every device has IP address for a communication purpose.
4. High level protocol
5. Connectionless protocol for a packet -switching n/w. Abbreviation:
IPv4 ADDRESSES:
1. An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address 1.Although the IP address, even in hexadecimal format, is
2.uniquely and universally defines the connection of a device very long, many of the digits are zer9s.
(for example, a computer or a router) to the Internet. 2.In this case, we can abbreviate the address.
Address Space: 3. The leading zeros of a section (four digits between two
1.A protocol such as IPv4 that defines addresses has an address colons) can be omitted.
space. 4. Only the leading zeros can be dropped, not the trailing
2. An address space is the total number of addresses used by the zeros
protocol.
3. If a protocol uses N bits to define an address, the address space
is 2N because each bit can have two different values (0 or 1) and N
bits can have 2N values.
4. The address space of IPv4 is 232 or 4,294,967,296.
Notations:
There are two prevalent notations to show an IPv4 address:
1.binary notation
2.dotted decimal notation.
Binary Notation: (Abbreviated IPv6 addresses)
1.In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits.
Chap 2
2.An IPv4 address referred to as a 32-bit address or a 4-byte
INTERNETWORKINg:
address.
The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary 1.In the Internet model, the main network protocol is the
notation: Internet Protocol (IP).
01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010 2. The physical and data link layers of a network operate
Dotted-Decimal Notation: locally. These two layers are jointly responsible for data
1.Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address. delivery on the network from one node to the next,
2.usually written in decimal form with a decimal point (dot)
separating the bytes.
The following is the dotted decimal notation of the above
address:
117.149.29.2

(Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address)

IPv6 ADDRESSES::
such as lack of accommodation for real-time audio and video This internetwork is made of five networks:
transmission, and encryption and authentication of data for some 1.four LANs 2. one WAN.
applications, have been the motivation for IPv6. IPv4 :
Structure 1.The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the delivery
1.An IPv6 address consists of 16 bytes (octets); it is 128 bits long. mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
2.IPv6 address in binary and hexadecimal colon notation. ( diagrm datagram note la iruki)
3. In this notation, 128 bits is divided into eight sections, each 2 Datagram
bytes in length. ( note la irukki)
4. Two bytes in hexadecimal notation requires four hexadecimal
digits.
 Query messages
Comparison Between IPv4 Options and IPv6 Extension
The query messages are those messages that help the host to
Headers:
get the specific information of another host.
1. The no-operation and end-of-option options in IPv4 are For example, suppose there are a client and a server, and the
replaced by Padl and PadN options in IPv6. client wants to know whether the server is live or not, then it
2. The record route option is not implemented in IPv6 sends the ICMP message to the server Query.
because it was not used.
3. The timestamp option is not implemented because it was
not used.
4. The source route option is called the source route
extension header in IPv6.
5. The fragmentation fields in the base header section of
IPv4 have moved to the fragmentation extension header in
IPv6.
6. The authentication extension header is new in IPv6.
7. The encrypted security payload extension header is new
in IPv6.
Chap 3
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):
1.Internet Control Message Protocol is known as ICMP. (Encapsulation of ICMP query messages)
2.The protocol is at the network layer. ➢ ICMP Message Format : The message format has two
3. It is utilized for error handling at the network layer. things;
4. Since there are various kinds of network layer faults. one is a category that tells us which type of message it is. If
5.ICMP can be utilized to report and troubleshoot these the message is of error type, the error message contains the
errors. type and the code. The type defines the type of message
6. Since IP does not have an inbuilt mechanism for sending while the code defines the subtype of the message.
error and control messages. The ICMP message contains the following fields
7. It depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to
provide error control.
8.In this article, we are going to discuss ICMP in detail along
with their uses, messages, etc.
Types Of Message:
Messages : The ICMP messages are usually divided into Type:
two categories. 1.It is an 8-bit field.
2.It defines the ICMP message type.
3.The values range from 0 to 127 are defined for ICMPv6, and
the values from 128 to 255 are the informational messages.
Code: It is an 8-bit field that defines the subtype of the ICMP
message
Checksum: It is a 16-bit field to detect whether the error
exists in the message or not.
IGMP
The IP protocol can be involved in two types of
Error-reporting messages: The error-reporting message communication:
means that the router encounters a problem when it 1.unicasting and 2.multicasting.
processes an IP packet then it reports a message. 1. Unicasting is the communication between one sender and
“ICMP always reports error messages to the original one receiver. It is a one-to-one communication.
source”. 2. some processes sometimes need to send the same
message to a large number of receivers simultaneously.
This is called multicasting, which is a one-to-many
communication. Multicasting has many applications.
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is one of the
necessary, but not sufficient (as we will see), protocols that is
involved in multicasting. IGMP is a companion to the IP
protocol.

GROUP MANAGEMENT
1.IGMP is not a multicasting routing protocol;
2.it is a protocol that manages group membership.
3. In any network, there are one or more multicast routers that
distribute multicast packets to hosts or other routers.
4. The IGMP protocol gives the multicast routers information “In IGMP, a membership report is sent twice, one after the
about the membership status of hosts (routers) connected to other”.
the network. Unit 2 chp 1
“IGMP is a group management protocol. It helps a multicast
router create and update a list of loyal members related to Transmission Media:
each router interface”.
Transmission media are actually located below the physical
IGMP Messages IOMP has gone through two versions. We
layer and are directly controlled by the physical layer.
discuss IOMPv2, the current version. IOMPv2 has three types
of messages: the query, the membership report, and the leave
report. There are two types of query messages: general and
special

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything

that can carry information from a source to a destination.

Message Format
Figure 21.17 shows the format of an IOMP (version 2)
message.

Type: This 8-bit field defines the type of message, as shown in (Classes of transmission media)
Table 21.1. The value of the type is shown in both hexadecimal
GUIDED MEDIA: it provide a conduit from one device to
and binary notation.
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-
optic cable.

Types Of Guided Media: 1. Twisted-Pair Cable 2. Coaxial

Cable 3. Fiber-Optic Cable

Twisted Pair:
1.The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in
Maximum Response Time. This 8-bit field defines the amount pairs.
of time in which a query must be answered. The value is in 2.Each pair would consist of a wire used for the +ve data
tenths of a second; signal and a wire used for the -ve data signal.
IGMP Operation 3. Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair would occur
IGMP operates locally. A multicast router connected to a on the other wire.
network has a list of multicast addresses of the groups with at 4.Twisted Pair cables are most effectively used in systems
least one loyal member in that network. that use a balanced line method of transmission
 Categories of coaxial cables

UTP
1.UTP or Unshielded Twisted Pair cable is used on Ethernet
Optical Fibre
10BaseT and can also be used with Token Ring.
1.Optical Fibre consists of thin glass fibres that can carry
2.It uses the RJ line of connectors (RJ45, RJ11, etc..)
information at frequencies in the visible light spectrum and
beyond.
2.The typical optical fibre consists of a very narrow strand of
glass called the Core.
3.Around the Core is a concentric layer of glass called the
Cladding

STP
1.STP or Shielded Twisted Pair is used with the traditional Token
Ring cabling or ICS - IBM Cabling System. Fiber-optic cable connectors:
2.It requires a custom connector. IBM STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
has a characteristic impedance of 150 ohms.

Coaxial cable
1.Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors.
2.The inner conductor is held inside an insulator with the other
conductor woven around it providing a shield.
3. An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer
conductor.
4.The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside
electrical signals.
5.The distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner
conductor plus the type of material used for insulating the inner
conductor determine the cable properties or impedance.
6.Typical impedances for coaxial cables are 75 ohms for Cable TV,
50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnet and Thicknet. UNGUIDED MEDIA:
7.The excellent control of the impedance characteristics of the 1.WIRELESS Unguided media transport electromagnetic
cable allow higher data rates to be transferred than Twisted Pair waves without using a physical conductor
cable. 2. This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.
1.Radio Waves 2. Microwaves 3. Infrared
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication
in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.”

U 2 Chap 2

Switching

1.A network is a set of connected devices.

2.Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the problem
of how to connect them to make one-to-one communication
RADIO WAVE: Radio waves are used for multicast possible.
communications, such as radio and television, and paging 3. One solution is to make a point-to-point connection
systems. They can penetrate through walls. Highly between each pair of devices (a mesh topology) or between a
regulated. Use omni directional antennas central device and every other device (a star topology).

“Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such

as radio and television, and paging systems” 1.The end systems (communicating devices) are labeled A, B,
C, D, and so on
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as
2. the switches are labeled I, II, III, IV, and V. Each switch is
cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
connected to multiple links.
Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls. Use
directional antennas - point to point line of sight
communications.

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS::
A circuit-switched network is made of a set ofswitches
connected by physical links, in which each link is divided into
n channels.

“Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as

cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs”

Infrared signals can be used for shortrange communication

in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
We need to emphasize several points here: 1.A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on
1. Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer the destination address.
2. The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram
2. such as channels (bandwidth in FDM and time slots network remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.
in TDM), switch buffers, switch processing time, and
switch input/output ports,

3. Data transferred between the two stations are not

packetized (physical layer transfer of the signal).

4. There is no addressing involved during data transfer.

“In circuit switching, the resources need to be

reserved during the setup phase; the resources
remain dedicated for the entire duration of data
transfer until the teardown phase”

“Switching at the physical layer in the traditional

telephone network uses the circuit-switching (Delay in a datagram network)
approach” “Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach to
packet switching at the network layer.”
DATAGRAM NETWORK
1.In data communications, we need to send messages
VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
from one end system to another.
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network
2.In packet switching, there is no resource allocation and a datagram network.
for a packet.

3. Datagram switching is normally done at the network

layer.

“In a packet-switched network, there is no resource

reservation; resources are allocated on demand.”

A logical connection is established when

1. a sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver
2. the receiver send back an acknowledge packet "call accepted
packet" to the sender if the receiver agrees on conversational
parameters.
3. Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error
control, so virtual circuits are reliable.
4. upper-protocol layers if a transmission problem occurs.

A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output over a
line.
• The difference between virtual circuit and datagram approaches:
1.With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing
decision for each packet.
2.It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.
VC guarantees that ,
1.the packets arrive in the order they sent
(Routing table in a datagram network) 2.there are no duplicates or omissions.
3. there are no errors (with high probability)
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial (HFC) Network:
involved: 1. The second generation of cable networks is called a hybrid
fiber-coaxial (HFC) network.
1.global 2. local (virtual-circuit identifier) 2.The network uses a combination of fiber-optic and coaxial
Global Addressing: cable.
1.It can be unique in the scope of the network or 3.The transmission medium from the cable TV office to a
internationally if the network is part of an international box, called the fiber node, is optical fiber; from the fiber
network. node through the neighborhood and into the house is still
2.virtual-circuit networks is used only to create a virtual- coaxial cable.
circuit identifier.
3. it is used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit
identifier (Vel)
4. A vel, unlike a global address, is a small number that has
only switch scope;
5. it is used by a frame between two switches.

( Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network)

UNIT 5
ELECTRONIC MAIL:
(Virtual-circuit identifier)
1.One of the most popular Internet services is electronic
mail (e-mail).
U 2 chp 3
2. At the beginning of the Internet era, the messages sent by
CABLE TV NETWORKS:
electronic mail were short and consisted of text only;
The cable TV network started as a video service provider, but
3. they let people exchange quick memos.
it has moved to the business of Internet access.
4. Today, electronic mail is much more complex. It allows a
Traditional Cable Networks
message to include text, audio, and video.
1.Cable TV started to distribute broadcast video signals to
5. It also allows one message to be sent to one or more
locations with poor or no reception in the late 1940s.
recipients.
2. It was called community antenna TV (CATV)
Architecture
architecture of an e-mail system including the three main
components: user agent, message transfer agent, and
message access agent.
To explain the architecture of e-mail, we give four
scenarios.
1.In the first scenario, the sender and the receiver of the e-
mail are users (or application programs) on the same
system;
2.When the sender and the receiver of an e-mail are on the
same system, we need only two user agents.
(Traditional cable TV network)
“Communication in the traditional cable TV network is
unidirectional”
 When the sender and the receiver of an e-mail are on When both sender and receiver are connected to the mail
the same system, we need only two user agents. server via a LAN or a WAN, we need two VAs, two pairs of MTAs
Second Scenario (client and server), and a pair of MAAs (client and server). This
In the second scenario, the sender and the receiver of is the most common situation today.
the e-mail are users (or application programs) on two
different systems. The message needs to be sent over the User Agent The first component of an electronic mail system is
Internet the user agent

When the sender and the receiver of an e-mail are on

different systems, we need two VAs and a pair of MTAs
Wh
(client and server)
Third Scenario
In the third scenario, Bob, as in the second scenario, is
directly connected to his system.

When the sender is connected to the mail server via a

LAN or a WAN, we need two VAs and two paIrs of MTAs
(clIent and server).
Fourth Scenario
In the fourth and most common scenario, Bob is also
connected to his mail server by a WAN or a LAN.